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High School Equivalency Students in Workforce
Education: A Two-Year Study
Kevin M. Williams
Educational Testing Service
National Council for Workforce Education2019 ConferenceSan Antonio, TXOctober 8, 2019
Outline
• Importance of high school education in the workforce
• Distinguishing high school equivalency (HSE) earners from traditional high school graduates
• HSE earners’ workforce education experiences
• HSE earners’ workforce experiences
• Employers’ skill expectations of high school-educated employees
2
Importance of High School Education in the Workforce
No formal educational credential
13%
High school diploma or equivalent
42%
Some college, no degree< 1%
Postsecondary nondegree award, 6%
Associate's Degree6%
Bachelor's Degree21%
Master's degree4%
Doctoral or professional degree, 8%
3
All U.S. Jobs
Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 20163
Importance of High School Education in the Workforce
4
No formal educational credential
13%
High school diploma or equivalent
27%
Some college, no degree, 0%
Postsecondary nondegree award, 13%
Associate's Degree, 7%
Bachelor's Degree
10%
Master's degree
20%
Doctoral or professional degree, 10%
30 Fastest Growing U.S. Jobs
Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2016
4
Importance of High School Education in the Workforce
5
U.S. Population
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2017
Less than High School Diploma
11%
High School Diploma or Equivalency
29%
Some College, No Degree
19%Associate's
Degree10%
Bachelor's Degree
20%
Graduate or Professional
Degree11%
5
High School Diploma vs. High School Equivalency (HSE)
6
High School Diploma
• ~18 years old
• Fewer family responsibilities
• Less work experience
High School Equivalency
• e.g., GED, HiSET, TASC, etc.
• Older individuals
• More family responsibilities
• More work experience
High School Equivalency Earners in Workforce Education
7
HSE Earners
Workforce Education
7
• Opinions/evidence for HSE’s value is mixed• Hartwig & Sitlington,
2008• Heckman et al., 2010• Jepsen et al., 2016• Patterson, 2013• Tuck, 2012• Tyler et al., 2003
Research Questions:
8
Who are HSE earners?
What postsecondary and workforce decisions to HSE earners make?
What challenges and improvements do HSE earners experience over time?
What are employers’ skill expectations for HSD/HSE employees?
1
2
3
4
Defining HSE Students Using the HiSET
High
School
Equivalency
Test
• 28 states and territories
• 53,255 HiSET completers in 2018
• Students may receive a basic passing score or “College and Career Ready” designation
• Scores align with high school GPA, ACT scores (Klieger et al., in preparation)
9
Reading Writing
Mathematics Science
Social Studies
9
Who are HSE Earners?
16-1824%
19-2945%
30-3919%
40-498%
50+4% Age (Years)
Who are HSE Earners?
11
Male56%
Female44%
Gender
Mean (SD) Age
= 26.5 (10.0)
Source: Educational Testing Service (2019). N = 53,225.11
American Indian
4%
Asian2%
African American
16%
White51%
Other13%
No response
14%
Race
Who are HSE Earners?
12
11
Hispanic23%
Non-Hispanic
63%
No response14%
Hispanic Ethnicity
Source: Educational Testing Service (2019). N = 53,225.
What are HSE Students’ Educational and Workplace Ambitions?
• Various reasons for taking HiSET
13
15%
15%
15%
17%
18%
% OF 2018 HISET TEST-TAKERS
Personal Satisfaction
Community College Enrollment
University Enrollment
Getting a Job
Technical School Enrollment
N = 30,292.
13
Our Study Sample
36,834 HiSET Passers
2,577 Replied
1,063 (41.2%) Seeking Postsecondary Education
1,514 (58.8%) Not Seeking Postsecondary Education
14
14
Sample Demographics
Postsecondary Enrollment? Total
Yes (N = 1,063) No (N = 1,514) N = 2,577
Gender
Male 27.4% 38.4% 33.8%
Female 72.6% 61.6% 66.2%
Age (Years)
18 5.1% 5.1% 5.2%
19-24 43.2% 41.1% 42.4%
25-29 19.2% 19.0% 19.3%
30-39 22.4% 22.5% 22.7%
40-49 8.0% 7.4% 7.7%
50+ 2.1% 4.8% 3.7%
15
Sample Demographics
Postsecondary Enrollment? Total
Yes (N = 1,063) No (N = 1,514) N = 2,577
Race/Ethnicity
African-American 19.4% 10.9% 14.4%
Asian 2.6% 1.5% 2.0%
Latin-American 14.8% 15.4% 15.1%
Native American 2.0% 1.7% 1.8%
White 48.7% 60.2% 55.4%
Multiracial 11.2% 9.6% 10.2%
Other 1.4% 0.7% 1.0%
16
HSE Students’ Academic Knowledge
61%
80%
84%
57%
48%
43%
36%
39%
20%
16%
43%
52%
57%
64%
WRITING - MC
WRITING - ESSAY
WRITING
MATH
SCIENCE
READING
SOCIAL STUDIES
Basic Pass CCR
17
17
HSE Earners’ Vocational Interests
• Interests predict job performance, training performance, fewer turnover intentions and less actual turnover
• e.g., Van Iddekinge et al., 2011
• May be stereotypes that the HSE population has a restricted set of vocational interests (e.g., “blue collar” jobs)
• Do workforce education and job opportunities match HSE earners’ interests?
18
RIASEC Interests Model
e.g., Holland (1997).
19
• Practical, “hands-on”Realistic
• Scholarly, scientificInvestigative
• Creative, unconventionalArtistic
• Teaching, caregivingSocial
• Influential, entrepreneurialEnterprising
• Structured, routineConventional
RIASEC:HSE vs. Community Norms
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Realistic Investigative Artistic Social Enterprising Conservative
MIN
I-IP
HIG
H P
OIN
T C
OD
E (%
)
HSE Community
20
****
** **
**
*
Note. HSE N = 1,516; Community N = 574 (Rounds et al., 2016; Sample 2). ** = p < .01, * = p < .05.
HSE Students’ Personality
• Personality predicts academic and workplace success (e.g., Barrick & Mount, 1991)
• Surveys show employers value certain personality traits (e.g., initiative, work ethic; NACE, 2018)
• Some researchers argue that high school dropouts score lower on desirable certain personality traits and related behaviors (e.g., conscientiousness, study skills; Heckman et al., 2010)
• Employers may have stereotypes about HSE earners’ personalities
21
HEXACO Personality Model
e.g., Ashton & Lee, 2007; 2009
22
• Sincere, loyal, modestHonesty-Humility
• Oversensitive, sentimental, anxiousEmotionality
• Outgoing, sociable, activeExtraversion
• Patient, tolerant, lenientAgreeableness
• Organized, diligent, preciseConscientiousness
• Intellectual, creative, innovativeOpenness to Experience
HEXACO:HSE vs. College Students
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
Honesty-Humility Emotionality Extraversion Agreeableness Conscientiousness Openness toExperience
HEX
AC
O-6
0 M
EAN
SC
OR
E
HSE College
23
****
* **--
Note. HSE N = 1,516; College N = 1,126 (hexaco.org). ** = medium difference, * = small difference, -- = no difference (Cohen, 1988).
Empowering HSE Earners
HSE earners reported that they developed various academic and personal skills simply by preparing for and writing the HSE test:
24
Yes, academic skills and/or
personal skills76%
No14%
Unsure10%
Top skills include:
• Everyday Math – 68%
• Goal Setting/Aspirations – 68%
• Planning When Writing – 64%
• Reading Speed/Fluency – 61%
• Adaptability – 59%
• Problem Solving – 59%
HSE Earners’ Experiences:Postsecondary Workforce Education
Which Postsecondary Paths are HSE Passers Choosing?
Of those passers seeking post-secondary education:
26
CTE (Non-Associate's)
14%
Community College
74%
4-year College
12%
N = 1,063.
26
What Programs are HSE Students Choosing?
6%
6%
6%
13%
30%
UNDECIDED
PSYCHOLOGY
COMPUTER AND INFORMATION SCIENCES
BUSINESS, MANAGEMENT, AND MARKETING
HEALTH AND RELATED PROFESSIONS
27
27N ≈ 787.
Year 2 Postsecondary Persistence Rates
Enrolled in Postsecondary
Institution31%
Enrolled and Employed
43%
Employed18%
Not Enrolled or Employed
8%
28N ≈ 787.
Why are HSE Students Dropping Out of Postsecondary Institutions?
29
10%
10%
17%
18%
20%
33%
53%
58%
CHANGED CAREER PLANS
POOR ACCESS TO PROGRAMS
LACK OF CHILDCARE
FINANCIAL AID ISSUES
NEEDED A BREAK FROM SCHOOL
COULDN'T AFFORD SCHOOL
WORK CONFLICTS
FAMILY OR PERSONAL PROBLEMS
29
HSE Earners’ Experiences:Workplace
What about HSE Students who Don’t Enroll in Postsecondary Institutions?
34%
30% 29%
9%7%
< 1%
Wanted to work Familyresponsibilities
Too expensive No interest Didn't see value Not admitted
HSE Students’ Reasons for Not Enrolling in
Postsecondary Institutions
31N = 1,514.
HSE Earners Who Did Not Enroll in Postsecondary Institutions
Employed58%
Unemployed/ Looking For
Employment20%
Unemployed/ Not Looking for
Employment13%
Student4%
Other5%
32N = 1,514.
HSE Earners’ Employment Industries
4%
4%
4%
6%
6%
6%
8%
13%
14%
17%
BUILDING AND GROUNDS CLEANING/MAINTENANCE
MANAGEMENT
CONSTRUCTION AND EXTRACTION
PRODUCTION
PERSONAL CARE AND SERVICE
TRANSPORTATION AND MATERIAL MOVING
HEALTHCARE SUPPORT
FOOD PREPARATION AND SERVING RELATED
OFFICE AND ADMINISTRATIVE SUPPORT
SALES AND RELATED
33
N = 1,398.
HSE Earners’ Job Outlook
Other Job28%
Bright Outlook Job72%
34
N = 1,375.
Financial Benefits of Obtaining HSE
• 26.4% of participants reporting an overall increase in household income after obtaining their HSE
Before Obtaining HSE
After Obtaining HSE
35
$1.35
$1.67
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
Ho
url
y In
com
e In
crea
se (
$)
Before Earning HSE to Year 1 Year 1 to Year 2
26.9%
21.3%19.9%
Participation in Public Assistance
Before ObtainingHSE
Post-HSE Year 1
Post-HSE Year 2
National Average: 21.3%
$3.02
Improvements in Job Characteristics after Obtaining HSE
41%
46%
50%
51%
53%
60%
64%
Location
Benefits
Hours
Use of my Experience/Education
Work Environment
Pay
Overall
36
N ≈ 1,349.
Employers’ Expectations of High School Graduates and HSE Earners
Identifying Employer Expectations
• Researchers often use surveys (e.g., NACE, 2018)
• Criticisms:
• Small sample size
• Low response rates
• Self-selection bias
• Non-representative
• Subjective
• Response: Webscraping online job advertisements
• Larger sample
• More representative
• Reflects actual recruitment practice
38
Webscraping Study
• Collected over 400,000 online job ads (e.g., Careerbuilder.com)
• Identified jobs that require a high school diploma or equivalency
• Research Questions:
1. What skills do employers expect of individuals with a high school education?
2. How do these skills compare to those expected of college graduates?
39
Employer Expectations: Results
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
TIME MANAGEMENT
SOCIAL INTELLIGENCE
SERVICE ORIENTATION
SELF-DIRECTION
PROFESSIONALISM
PROBLEM SOLVING
ORAL COMMUNICATION
ETHICS
CRITICAL THINKING
CREATIVITY
COMMUNICATION SKILLS
COLLABORATION
ADAPTABILITY
% of Postings
High School
Postsecondary
40
Note. # of Job Postings: HS = 68,505; Postsecondary = 141,941. Postsecondary results source: Rios et al. (in press).
Employer Expectations: Results
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
TIME MANAGEMENT
SOCIAL INTELLIGENCE
SERVICE ORIENTATION
SELF-DIRECTION
PROFESSIONALISM
PROBLEM SOLVING
ORAL COMMUNICATION
ETHICS
CRITICAL THINKING
CREATIVITY
COMMUNICATION SKILLS
COLLABORATION
ADAPTABILITY
% of Postings
High School
Postsecondary
41
HS ≈ Postsecondary
5%
4%
5%
18%
5%
14%
2%
3%
5%
7%
Note. # of Job Postings: HS = 68,505; Postsecondary = 141,941. Postsecondary results source: Rios et al. (in press).
Employer Expectations: Results
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
TIME MANAGEMENT
SOCIAL INTELLIGENCE
SERVICE ORIENTATION
SELF-DIRECTION
PROFESSIONALISM
PROBLEM SOLVING
ORAL COMMUNICATION
ETHICS
CRITICAL THINKING
CREATIVITY
COMMUNICATION SKILLS
COLLABORATION
ADAPTABILITY
% of Postings
High School
Postsecondary
42
HS > Postsecondary
1%
4%
32%
35%
Note. # of Job Postings: HS = 68,505; Postsecondary = 141,941. Postsecondary results source: Rios et al. (in press).
Employer Expectations: Results
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
TIME MANAGEMENT
SOCIAL INTELLIGENCE
SERVICE ORIENTATION
SELF-DIRECTION
PROFESSIONALISM
PROBLEM SOLVING
ORAL COMMUNICATION
ETHICS
CRITICAL THINKING
CREATIVITY
COMMUNICATION SKILLS
COLLABORATION
ADAPTABILITY
% of Postings
High School
Postsecondary
43
HS < Postsecondary
Note. # of Job Postings: HS = 68,505; Postsecondary = 141,941. Postsecondary results source: Rios et al. (in press).
10%
22%
9%
19%
27%
12%
23%
3%
10%
12%
1%
3%
0%
8%
Conclusions and Future Directions
Conclusions
• HSE earners:• Are older than traditional HS grads
• May need support with writing skills
• Have diverse vocational interests
• Score high on measures of Honesty-Humility, Conscientiousness
• Report various skill gains over time
• Postsecondary workforce education:• Gravitate towards community college; healthcare
programs
• High persistence rates
• Occupational, family obligations
45
45
Conclusions
• Workplace experiences:• Diverse employment industries
• Optimistic job outlooks
• Financial, job satisfaction gains
• Employer expectations of HS grads:• Fewer soft skill expectations overall
• Professionalism, customer service skills most highly valued
46
46
Future Directions
• Additional HSE assessments
• Alternative vocational interest models
• Training efficacy studies
• e.g., pre-post changes; experimental designs
• High school diploma vs. HSE:
• Direct comparisons (personality, interests, demographics, etc.)
• Employer expectations, biases
• “Professionalism” is…???
• How is professionalism assessed/taught?
• K-12/Adult education implications
• Additional noncognitive skills?
47
Ashton, M.C., & Lee, K. (2007). Empirical, theoretical, and practical advantages of the HEXACO model of personality structure. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 11, 150-166.
Ashton, M.C., & Lee, K. (2009). The HEXACO-60: A short measure of the major dimensions of personality. Journal of Personality Assessment, 91, 340-345.
Barrick, M.R., & Mount, M.K. (1991). The Big Five personality dimensions and job performance: A meta-analysis. Personnel Psychology, 44, 1-26.
Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2016). Employment projections. Retrieved from https://www.bls.gov/emp/tables.htm
Educational Testing Service. (2019). 2018 annual statistical report on the HiSET exam.Princeton, NJ: Author.
Hartwig, R., & Sitlingon, P.L. (2008). Employer perspectives on high school diploma options for adolescents with disabilities. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 19, 5-14.
Heckman, J.J., Humphries, J.E., & Mader, N.S. (2010). The GED (Working paper 16064).Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.
Hexaco.org. (2019; August 23). Descriptive statistics and internal consistency reliabilities of the HEXACO-60 scales in a college student sample. Retrieved from http://hexaco.org/downloads/descriptives_60.pdf
Holland, J.L. (1997). Making vocational choices: A theory of vocational personality and work environments (3rd ed.). Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
Jepsen, C., Mueser, P., & Troske, K. (2016). Labor market returns to the GED using regression discontinuity analysis. Journal of Political Economy, 124, 621-649.
48
References
Klieger, D.M., Williams, K.M., Bochenek, J.L., Ezzo, C., & Jackson, T. Validating HiSET as high school equivalency tests that improve educational, vocational, and quality-of-life outcomes.Manuscript in preparation.
National Association of Colleges and Employers. (2018). Job outlook 2019. Bethlehem, PA: Author.
Patterson, M.B. (2013). Post-GED-credential employment experiences of adults with special needs. Journal of Research and Practice for Adult Literacy, Secondary, and Basic Education, 2, 156-169.
Rios, J.A., Ling, G., Pugh, R., Becker, D., & Bacall, A. (in press). Identifying critical 21st century skills for workplace success: A content analysis of job advertisements. Educational Researcher.
Rounds, J., Ming, C.W.J., Cao, M., Song, C., & Lewis, P. (2016). Development of an O*NET Mini Interest Profiler (Mini-IP) for mobile devices: Psychometric characteristics. Raleigh, NC: National Center for O*NET Development.
Tuck, E. (2012). Repatriating the GED: Urban youth and the alternative to a high school diploma. The High School Journal, 95, 4-18.
Tyler, J.H., Murnane, R.J., & Willett, J.B. (2003). Who benefits from a GED? Evidence for females from High School and Beyond. Economics of Education Review, 22, 237-247.
U.S. Census Bureau. (2018). Current Population Survey, 2018 Annual Social and Economic Supplement.
Van Iddekinge, C.H., Roth, P.L., Putka, D.J., & Lanivich, S.E. (2011). Are you interested? A meta-analysis of relations between vocational interests and employee turnover. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96, 1167-1194.
49
References
Thank You!Kevin Williams
kmwilliams@ets.org
50
Copyright © 2018 by Educational Testing Service. All rights reserved. ETS, the ETS logo, MEASURING THE POWER OF LEARNING and HiSET are registered trademarks of Educational Testing Service (ETS). 39649
ETS Acknowledgements:
Jenni Bochenek Gernissia Cherfrere
Steven Holtzman Teresa Jackson
David Klieger Phil Leung
Guangming Ling Lydia Liu
Tao Wang Lin Yang
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