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UNIVERSITY OF OULU P .O. B 00 F I -90014 UNIVERSITY OF OULU FINLAND
A C T A U N I V E R S I T A T I S O U L U E N S I S
S E R I E S E D I T O R S
SCIENTIAE RERUM NATURALIUM
HUMANIORA
TECHNICA
MEDICA
SCIENTIAE RERUM SOCIALIUM
SCRIPTA ACADEMICA
OECONOMICA
EDITOR IN CHIEF
PUBLICATIONS EDITOR
Professor Esa Hohtola
University Lecturer Santeri Palviainen
Postdoctoral research fellow Sanna Taskila
Professor Olli Vuolteenaho
University Lecturer Hannu Heikkinen
Director Sinikka Eskelinen
Professor Jari Juga
Professor Olli Vuolteenaho
Publications Editor Kirsti Nurkkala
ISBN 978-952-62-0218-1 (Paperback)ISBN 978-952-62-0219-8 (PDF)ISSN 0355-3213 (Print)ISSN 1796-2226 (Online)
U N I V E R S I TAT I S O U L U E N S I SACTAC
TECHNICA
U N I V E R S I TAT I S O U L U E N S I SACTAC
TECHNICA
OULU 2013
C 463
Arto Reiman
HOLISTIC WORK SYSTEM DESIGN AND MANAGEMENT– A PARTICIPATORY DEVELOPMENT APPROACHTO DELIVERY TRUCK DRIVERS’ WORK OUTSIDE THE CAB
UNIVERSITY OF OULU GRADUATE SCHOOL;UNIVERSITY OF OULU,FACULTY OF TECHNOLOGY,DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT
C 463
ACTA
Arto R
eiman
C463etukansi.fm Page 1 Thursday, September 26, 2013 12:49 PM
A C T A U N I V E R S I T A T I S O U L U E N S I SC Te c h n i c a 4 6 3
ARTO REIMAN
HOLISTIC WORK SYSTEM DESIGN AND MANAGEMENT — A participatory development approach to delivery truck drivers’ work outside the cab
Academic dissertation to be presented, with the assentof the Doctoral Training Committee of Technology andNatural Sciences of the University of Oulu, for publicdefence in Wetteri-sali (IT115), Linnanmaa, on 18October 2013, at 12 noon
UNIVERSITY OF OULU, OULU 2013
Copyright © 2013Acta Univ. Oul. C 463, 2013
Supervised byProfessor Seppo VäyrynenDocent Mikael Forsman
Reviewed byDocent Kari HäkkinenDocent Ritva Ketola
ISBN 978-952-62-0218-1 (Paperback)ISBN 978-952-62-0219-8 (PDF)
ISSN 0355-3213 (Printed)ISSN 1796-2226 (Online)
Cover DesignRaimo Ahonen
JUVENES PRINTTAMPERE 2013
OpponentsProfessor Eila JärvenpääDocent Kari Häkkinen
Reiman, Arto, Holistic work system design and management— A participatory development approach to delivery truck drivers’ work outsidethe cabUniversity of Oulu Graduate School; University of Oulu, Faculty of Technology, Department ofIndustrial Engineering and ManagementActa Univ. Oul. C 463, 2013University of Oulu, P.O. Box 8000, FI-90014 University of Oulu, Finland
Abstract
The road freight transport industry as a labour-intensive sector is dependent on the work abilityand well-being at work of employees. The majority of the occupational accidents are related towork phases outside the cab. These work phases, which are performed in various different workenvironments, contain several kinds of ergonomic discomforts. This poses complex challenges forthe employers from a safety and productivity point of view.
The framework of this thesis is based on the foundations of ergonomics and design science.The main objective was to provide knowledge that can be implemented into the design andmanagement of work systems for local and short haul delivery operations. Material was obtainedfrom two sources. A meta-synthesis was performed to frame holistic management in a humanperspective. Furthermore, additional in-depth design knowledge was obtained throughparticipatory ergonomics video analyses on drivers’ work outside the cab.
Video analyses resulted in 262 identifications of demanding work situations where ergonomicdiscomforts and risks of accidents occurred. Sudden over-exertions and strains, falls and slips aswell as losing control of work equipment were the most common deviations related to drivers’work outside the cab and mainly related to physical activities of movement and carrying by hand.The majority of the work situations identified were performed in cargo spaces or elsewhere withinthe truck structure or at premises and yards that are administered by the customers or otherstakeholders. In these environments, drivers tend to perform their work manually or usingdifferent types of work equipment.
This thesis provides new in-depth knowledge on drivers’ work outside the cab. The resultsshow that different stakeholders can contribute to drivers’ work systems. The knowledge providedby drivers and other stakeholders can be applied to holistic design and management processes atcompany level. Moreover, the knowledge can also be applied to broader value chain design andmanagement processes.
Keywords: design science, freight transport by road, holistic management, local andshort haul operation, participatory ergonomics, safety at work, video analysis, worksystem
Reiman, Arto, Kokonaisvaltainen työjärjestelmien suunnittelu ja johtaminen
— Osallistuva lähestymistapa jakelukuljettajien ohjaamon ulkopuolisen työn
kehittämiseen
Oulun yliopiston tutkijakoulu; Oulun yliopisto, Teknillinen tiedekunta, Tuotantotalouden osastoActa Univ. Oul. C 463, 2013Oulun yliopisto, PL 8000, 90014 Oulun yliopisto
Tiivistelmä
Tieliikenteen tavarankuljetus työvoimavaltaisena toimialana on riippuvainen henkilöstön työky-vystä ja -hyvinvoinnista. Suurin osa tapaturmista liittyy työtehtäviin ohjaamon ulkopuolella.Näitä töitä tehdään hyvin vaihtelevissa työympäristöissä ja niihin työtehtäviin liittyy monenlai-sia ergonomisia haittakuormitustekijöitä. Tämä asettaa haasteita niin työsuojelun kuin tuottavuu-den näkökulmasta.
Väitöskirjan viitekehys pohjautuu ergonomiaan sekä suunnittelutieteeseen. Tavoitteena ontuottaa tietoa, jota voidaan hyödyntää työjärjestelmien suunnittelussa ja johtamisessa erityisestimaaliikenteen jakelukuljetuksissa. Materiaali koostui kahdesta osiosta. Metasynteesillä muodos-tettiin näkemys kokonaisvaltaisesta johtamisesta ihmisnäkökulmasta. Lisäksi kuljettajat ja sidos-ryhmien edustajat analysoivat osallistuvan ergonomian keinoin videoaineistoa jakelukuljettajientyöstä ohjaamon ulkopuolella.
Videoanalyyseissa tunnistettiin yhteensä 262 työtilannetta, jossa esiintyy erilaisia ergonomi-sia haittakuormitustekijöitä sekä mahdollisia tapaturmariskejä. Äkilliset fyysiset kuormitukset,putoamiset, liukastumiset ja kaatumiset sekä työvälineiden hallinnan menettäminen olivat ylei-simpiä tunnistettuja poikkeamia kuljettajan työssä. Pääasiassa nämä liittyivät kuljettajan liikku-miseen sekä erilaisten taakkojen kantamiseen. Valtaosassa (85 %) havainnoista kuljettaja työs-kenteli ajoneuvon kuormatilassa tai päällirakenteissa tai asiakkaiden tai muiden sidosryhmienhallinnoimissa työympäristöissä. Näissä työympäristöissä kuljettaja työskenteli sekä manuaali-sesti käsin että hyödyntäen erilaisia apuvälineitä.
Väitöskirja tarjoaa uudenlaista syvällistä tietoa kuljettajan työstä ohjaamon ulkopuolella. Erisidosryhmät voivat osaltaan vaikuttaa kuljettajan työjärjestelmiin. Kuljettajien ja sidosryhmientuottamaa tietoa voidaan soveltaa työjärjestelmien kokonaisvaltaisessa suunnittelussa ja johtami-sessa niin yritystasolla kuin myös suunniteltaessa ja johdettaessa laajempia arvoketjuja.
Asiasanat: jakelukuljetus, kokonaisvaltainen johtaminen, osallistuva ergonomia,suunnittelutiede, tieliikenteen tavarankuljetus, työjärjestelmä, työturvallisuus,videoanalyysi
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Acknowledgements
This thesis was carried out in the Department of Industrial Engineering and
Management at the University of Oulu.
My warmest gratitude goes to my main supervisor, Professor Seppo
Väyrynen who provided me with the facilities and support to write this thesis.
I also wish to thank my other supervisor Adjunct Professor Mikael Forsman
for his patient support and guidance throughout this process.
I would like to acknowledge the pre-examiners, Adjunct Professor Kari
Häkkinen and Adjunct Professor Ritva Ketola for their careful review. Their
valuable recommendations and risk identifications guided me in finalizing this
work.
I acknowledge the co-authors of the original publications, Professor Emeritus
John Abeysekera; Mika Nyberg, MSc; and Ari Putkonen, PhD for their valuable
comments and efforts during the article-writing processes. Special thanks goes to
Janne Pekkala, MSc on his efforts in data collection, analysis and article writing.
While writing my PhD thesis I was privileged to work in co-operation with
several people. I thank my colleagues at the Finnish Institute of Occupational
Health for providing with me a work environment which made it possible for me
to finalize my PhD thesis project. I especially want to express my gratitude to
Professor Nina Nevala for her support and encouragement. Thanks also to Kirsi
Jussila, MSc; Pirjo Juvonen-Posti, LicMed; Professor Jaro Karppinen; Paula
Kärmeniemi, MSc; Jouni Lehtelä, MSc; Drew Morris, BSc; Juha Oksa, PhD;
Tiina Rajala, MSc; Professor Hannu Rintamäki, Sirkka Rissanen, PhD; and Erja
Sormunen, PhD for both their major and minor comments, ideas, thoughts,
questions and support during the writing process.
I thank my former colleagues at the University of Oulu, Tommi Autio, BSc;
Henri Jounila, MSc; Lasse Ketola, MSc; Jukka Latva-Ranta, BSc; Juha Lindfors,
PhD; Pauliina Marjala, PhD; Maarit Niemelä, MSc; and Janne Sinisammal, PhD.
They made it possible for me to grow as a researcher and provided important
support, especially during the early stages of my thesis. In particular I thank Kari
Kisko, PhD for teaching me some very important lessons about science and
working life.
This thesis would not have been written without support and guidance from
my family. I want to express my gratitude to my mother Seija, my late father Ari
and my sisters Mervi and Liisa-Maija for their support and encouragement. I am
truly sad that my father did not have a chance to see me at this phase.
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Finally I want to express my deepest gratitude to my young sons Sakari and
Ilmari. During the last few years they have truly endeavored to keep my thoughts
strictly away from scientific writing. I must admit that at times they almost
succeeded. And without the patient support of my wife Sanna I would never have
completed this thesis. Thank you. Personal financial support was gratefully received from the Auramo
Foundation, the Tauno Tönning Foundation and the Industrial Engineering and
Management Doctoral Programme in Finland.
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List of abbreviations
ESAW European Statistics on Accidents at Work
GAT model General approach and theory model
HSEQ Health, Safety, Environment and Quality
IEA International Ergonomics Association
L/SH Local and short haul
MMH Manual materials handling
OHS Occupational Health and Safety
PE Participatory Ergonomics
RQ Research question
VIDAR Video- och Datorbaserad Arbetsanalys, i.e. Video and computer-
based work analysis
WMSD Work-related musculoskeletal disorder
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Key definitions
The following definitions are provided to clarify the meaning of the main terms
used in this thesis.
Accident: An undesired event giving rise to death, ill health, injury, damage or
other loss (OHSAS 18002 2000).
Deviation: The last event deviating from normality and leading to the
accident (ESAW 2001).
Hazard: Source or situation with a potential for harm in terms of human
injury or ill health, damage to property, damage to workplace environment or a
combination of these (OHSAS 18002 2000).
Hazard identification: Process of recognising that a hazard exists and
defining its characteristics (OHSAS 18002 2000). Hazardous situation: Any situation in which a person is exposed to a hazard
or to hazards (EN 292-1 1991).
Incident: Event that gave rise to an accident or had the potential to lead to an
accident. An incident where no ill health, injury, damage or other loss occurs is
also referred to as a “near-miss”. The term incident includes “near-misses”
(OHSAS 18002 2000). Job: Organization and sequence in time and space of an individual’s work
tasks or the combination of all human performance by one worker within a work
system (EN ISO 6385 2004).
Risk: A combination of the probability and the degree of the possible injury
or damage to health in a hazardous situation (EN 292-1 1991). Risk identification: Process of finding, recognising and describing risks (ISO
Guide 73 2009).
Stakeholder: Person or organisation that can affect, be affected by, or perceive
themselves to be affected by a decision or activity (ISO Guide 73 2009).
Supply chain: linked set of resources and processes that begins with the
sourcing of raw materials and extends through the delivery of products or services
to the end user across the modes of transport (ISO 28000 2007). System: A system is a group of interacting, interrelated or interdependent
elements forming or regarded as forming a collective unity (Roland & Moriarty
1983).
Work environment: Physical, chemical, biological, organisational, social and
cultural factors surrounding a person in his or her work space (EN 614-1 2006).
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Work equipment: Tools, including hardware and software, machines, vehicles,
devices, furniture, installations and other components used in the work system
(EN ISO 6385 2004).
Work task: Activity or set of activities required by the worker to achieve an
intended outcome (EN ISO 6385 2004).
Work System: System comprising one or more workers and work equipment
acting together to perform the system function, in the work space, in the work
environment, under the conditions imposed by the work tasks (EN ISO 6385
2004).
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List of original publications
This thesis is based on the following publications:
I Reiman A & Väyrynen S (2011) Review of Regional Workplace
Development Cases: A Holistic Approach and Proposals for Evaluation and
Management. International Journal of Sociotechnology and Knowledge
Development 3(1): 55–70.
II Reiman A, Pekkala J, Väyrynen S, Putkonen A, Abeysekera J & Forsman M
(2013) Delivery Truck Drivers' and Stakeholders Video-assisted Analyses of
Work Outside the Truck Cabs. International Journal of Sustainable
Transportation. In press.
III Reiman A, Pekkala J, Väyrynen S, Putkonen A & Forsman M (2013)
Participatory Video-assisted Evaluation of Truck Drivers’ Work outside the
Cab – Local Deliveries in two Transportation Companies. Journal of
Occupational Safety and Ergonomics. In press.
IV Reiman A & Putkonen A (2012) Ergonomics development needs in truck
body design – From video analyses to solution proposals. International
Journal of Human Factors and Ergonomics 1(1): 58–73.
The author of this thesis has been the primary author in all publications. With
regard to publication I, the author's contribution was in formulating the research
problems and research questions and concluding and summarising the results. The
theoretical framework and the collection of empirical materials was conducted in
cooperation with the co-author. In publications II, III and IV the author has been
responsible for formulating the research problems and research questions, for the
theoretical frameworks and concluding and summarising the results. The
collection of empirical materials and analyses of materials in publications was
conducted in cooperation with the co-authors.
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Contents
Abstract
Tiivistelmä
Acknowledgements 7 List of abbreviations 9 Key definitions 11 List of original publications 13 Contents 15 1 Introduction 17
1.1 Background and research environment ................................................... 17 1.2 Scope and research problem .................................................................... 19 1.3 Research approach .................................................................................. 22
2 Theoretical foundation 25 2.1 Strategic management in different organisations .................................... 25 2.2 Holistic view on management ................................................................. 27 2.3 Work system and safety at work ............................................................. 29 2.4 Concepts of ergonomics .......................................................................... 30 2.5 Human centred design ............................................................................. 32 2.6 Effectiveness of ergonomics ................................................................... 33 2.7 Ergonomics and safety at L/SH truck drivers work ................................ 35
3 Methods and material 39 3.1 Meta-Synthesis (article I) ........................................................................ 39 3.2 Ergonomic observations (articles II, III, IV) ........................................... 40 3.3 Material ................................................................................................... 41
4 Findings 43 4.1 Holistic management processes (RQ1) ................................................... 43 4.2 Deviations related to physical activities at L/SH drivers’ work
(RQ2) ...................................................................................................... 44 4.3 Work equipment used in L/SH truck drivers’ work (RQ3) ..................... 46 4.4 Work environments out of the cab in L/SH drivers’ work (RQ4) ........... 47 4.5 Organisational contributions to L/SH drivers’ work system
design and management processes (RQ5) ............................................... 48 5 Discussion 51
5.1 Holistic design and management issues .................................................. 51 5.2 Work system management in L/SH operations ....................................... 55 5.3 Work system design in L/SH operations ................................................. 58
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5.4 Theoretical contributions......................................................................... 60 5.5 Reliability and validity ............................................................................ 61 5.6 Recommendations for further research ................................................... 62
6 Conclusions 65 References 67 Original publications 87
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1 Introduction
1.1 Background and research environment
Companies are continuously facing complex and shifting challenges at both
operational and strategic levels when trying to maintain and improve their
competitiveness (Ireland & Hitt, 2005, Kellogg et al. 2006, Schreyögg & Sydow
2010). Kaplan and Norton (2004: 5) emphasise long-term value creation in which
sustainability is included. Sustainability and sustainable development as a process
towards the dynamic state of sustainability include social, environmental and
economic perspectives which form the basis for durable economic success
(Docherty et al. 2008, Zink et al. 2008). Dyllick and Hockerts (2002) emphasise
that in a company level context, sustainability issues can be discussed under the
concept of corporate sustainability which requires that different stakeholders’
needs are met without compromising the company’s ability to meet the needs of
future stakeholders as well. Different intra- and inter-organisational stakeholders
form the company's value network (Feng et al. 2010).
Economic, environmental and social challenges also affect Finnish working
life (Kasvio & Kandolin 2010). The fact that Finland is distanced from the
primary market areas increases the need for competitive solutions and innovations.
The ability to maintain financial activities is an essential factor affecting the
welfare of Finland (Federation of Finnish Technology Industries 2011). The
northern climate in Finland also affects humans. Coldness and darkness combined
with long distances can cause mental and physical strain at work (Risikko et al. 2008). Darkness and coldness may also increase the hazards of cold working
environments (Anttonen et al. 2009). Natural factors and long distances also
increase costs in both investments and transportation and thereby weaken the
competitiveness of Finland (Paavola et al. 2012).
Improvements in working conditions (e.g. Eklund 2000, Fernández-Muñiz et al. 2009, Niemelä et al. 2002), work environment (e.g. Chandrasekar 2011,
Leblebici 2012, Vischner 2007) and occupational health and safety (OHS) in
general (e.g. Harms-Ringdahl 2001: 11, Jackson et al. 2011: 476) can increase
productivity and effectiveness and thus bring economic benefits to a company.
These potential benefits can be gained directly and indirectly through fewer days
lost, reduced work stress and anxiety, enhanced morale, better reputation, reduced
insurance premiums and compensation payments, reduced production losses,
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improved customer satisfaction, brand value and goodwill (European Foundation
for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions 2011, Foot & Hook 2005:
366, Harms-Ringdahl 2001: 228, Jackson et al. 2011: 476).
The benefits of OHS actions are multifaceted and include indirect and hidden
savings. Thus companies often have difficulties in understanding the true value of
OHS work. (Roughton & Mercurio 2002: 8). Companies need strong enforcement
guidelines to comply with OHS issues (ILO 2005). Thus laws and regulations are
also needed. According to the Finnish law (Occupational Safety and Health Act
738/2002), the employer must know the hazards and problems that are present in
the work environment. Furthermore the law (738/2002) provides that the
structures of a workstation and the work equipment used at work shall be chosen,
designed and placed in an ergonomically appropriate way by taking the nature of
the work and the employee’s capacities into consideration. Freight transport by road presents a challenging environment for OHS. A
majority of the employees in the industry in Finland are employed by small and
medium-sized companies. Thus, as a labour-intensive sector it is strongly
dependent on the health and well-being of employees. Nonetheless the mortality
and morbidity rates are high among professional drivers (Apostolopoulos et al. 2010). Local and short-haul (L/SH) operations are one form of transportation, and
they comprise the largest segment of the trucking industry (Hanowski 2000).
Multiple daily stops, frequent manual materials handling (MMH), and variable
customer environments are characteristic of commercial L/SH operations (Olson
et al. 2009). Cantor (2008) states that workplace safety deficiencies are not fully
understood as sources of risk by logistics and transportation firms. Different
stakeholders may tend to minimise their costs and act in the light of their own
objectives, considering drivers to be flexible components (Anumba et al. 2000,
Cantor 2008, Custodio & Oliveira 2006, de Langen & Chouly 2009, Perttula 2011,
Trimpop 2003).
Ergonomics is one framework for improving compatibility, effectiveness,
safety, ease of performance, human well-being and quality of life (Karwowski
2005). Ergonomics as a scientific discipline is concerned with the understanding
of interactions among humans and other elements of a system (IEA 2012). The
definition of a system is broad in this context. A system may be as simple as
single individual using a hand tool or as complex as multinational organisation
(Hendrick 2002: 1). Furthermore, a system can be understood as a work system,
where the human is a worker performing a specific operational task or function
within a specific environment, or a product or service system where a human is a
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product user or person who receives the service (Carayon & Smith 2000, Dul et al. 2012, EN ISO 6385 2004, Roland & Moriarty 1983, Smith & Carayon 1995,
Smith & Carayon 2000). Ergonomics is also a profession that applies theoretical principles, data and
methods to design in order to optimise human wellbeing and overall system
performance (IEA 2012). Generating and optimising distinct solutions at certain
workplaces is often referred to as microergonomics whereas development and
optimisation of structures, processes and policies in wider sociotechnical systems
is referred to as macroergonomics (Hendrick 2002, Zink 2000). Kleiner (2006)
emphasises that micro and macroergonomics need be implemented jointly, as
macroergonomics enables larger system level acceptance to microergonomics
interventions. Hendrick (2002) concludes that effective macroergonomic design
drives much of the microergonomic design and insures optimal ergonomic
compatibility of different components with the overall system structure. Employee participation is a highly topical subject in current views on holistic
health and safety management processes, and emphasised by recent publications
by the European Agency for Safety and Health at Work (2012a, 2012b).
Stakeholders participating in design processes may vary greatly and may include
system actors (i.e. employees, product users), system experts (i.e. professionals,
such as engineers, psychologists, ergonomists), system decision makers (i.e. managers) and system influencers (i.e. media, governments, standardisation
organisations, regulators) (Dul et al. 2012).
1.2 Scope and research problem
The main objective of this thesis is to provide ergonomics knowledge that can be
implemented into the design and management of holistic work systems in the
L/SH transport sector. Knowledge is acquired by applying inductive knowledge
on holistic work environment management processes to the knowledge gained
through a participatory ergonomics development approach on work outside the
cab in L/SH operations (Fig 1).
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Fig. 1. Illustration of the research scope within the contextual framework of this thesis.
The research problem of this thesis is as follows: Ergonomics can be implemented
in holistic design and management processes. Broad work systems such as L/SH
drivers’ work environments outside the cab are complex to design and manage.
What kinds of physically and psychosocially demanding work situations and
hazard risk situations exist in L/SH drivers’ work outside the cab and how can
different stakeholders contribute to the work system design and management in
that context?
This thesis contains five research questions (Table 1) that are answered within
journal articles I-IV. The first research question is discussed in article I as it
provides guidelines for implementing sociotechnical aspects into holistic work
environment management processes within industrial environments. Articles II-IV
discuss work system management and design issues in the L/SH transport sector.
Article II discusses human interactions with work tasks (RQ2). Article III
discusses human interactions with work equipment (RQ3) and article IV discusses
human interactions with work environments (RQ4). Human interactions with
organisations are pooled from the contributions contained in articles I-IV (RQ5)
(Table 1).
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Table 1. Research questions and points of view of the articles from a work system
perspective.
RQ Research question Article Point of view
RQ1 What kind of management issues must be taken into
account in holistic work environment management
processes?
I Holistic management processes
RQ2 What kinds of deviations occur in physical work
activities that the L/SH drivers perform outside the
cab?
II Human interactions with work
tasks
RQ3 What work equipment do the drivers use in the
physically and psychosocially demanding work
situations and hazard risks identified in two types of
L/SH operations?
III Human interactions with work
equipment
RQ4 Which work environments outside the cab are the
physically and psychosocially demanding work
situations and hazard risks identified related to in L/SH
operations?
IV Human interactions with work
environments
RQ5 How can transportation companies improve
deficiencies in L/SH drivers’ work systems and what
kinds of contribution can different stakeholders make?
I, II, III,
IV
Human interactions with
organisations
Research questions 2–4 contain microergonomics development aspects as the
material consists of concrete identifications of occasional work situations in
certain circumstances. Nonetheless they also contain firm macroergonomics
features as they were conducted within a participatory approach, where
employees and other intra- and inter-organisational stakeholders participated into
the development processes. Furthermore the company’s strategic policies and
external political, cultural and economic factors, such as laws, regulations and
competition for market shares must be taken into account in these development
processes of complex work system entities. Research questions 1 and 5 are
discussed by exploring organisational factors and can be referred to as
macroergonomics. This positioning is depicted in Figure 2. The positioning of
human interaction with both micro and macroergonomics aspects is central to the
research approach of this thesis.
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Fig. 2. Positioning this thesis into micro- and macroergonomics contexts.
1.3 Research approach
This thesis provides knowledge that can be used in designing solutions to
ergonomics problems in work systems and its elements. Thus the theoretical
framework of this thesis is based on the foundations of ergonomics and design
science. Ergonomics in general is a design-oriented and human-centred discipline
that focuses on work system design and management (Karwowski 2005). Design
science contains many similar aspects to ergonomics as it is technology-oriented
discipline which seeks to improve human condition (Hevner & Chatterjee 2010: 5,
March & Smith 1995, Van Aken 2004, Van Aken & Romme 2009). Design
science can be referred to action research in many respects as emphasised by
Järvinen (2007). Van Aken (2004) defines that the ultimate mission for design science is to
develop valid and reliable design knowledge that can be used by different
professionals in designing solutions to different problems. Often, as emphasised
by Järvinen (2007) the design knowledge is heuristic in nature, i.e. the design
knowledge is itself general and it must be translated to the specific problem at
23
hand. Both design science knowledge and ergonomics knowledge are
multidisciplinary fields which are applied by such professionals as engineers,
architects, medical doctors and physiotherapists (Järvinen 2004, Karwowski 2005,
Van Aken 2004). A recent study by Rajala (2011) emphasises that design science
approach is applicable in developing OHS issues in small and medium sized
companies.
The concept of a work system is used as a combining framework in this thesis
to pool together the micro and macroergonomics aspects in L/SH drivers’ work
outside the cab into one holistic entity. Design knowledge is attained in this thesis
both through microergonomics and macroergonomics aspects.
Articles II, III and IV provide material attained through ergonomics
observations by different stakeholders. The observations contain descriptive in-
depth data on the discomforts and risks that are provided by the stakeholders. The
purpose for observational data is, as described by Patton (1987: 124) to describe
the setting that has been observed, i.e. the activities that took place, the people
that participated in the activities and the meanings of the setting. Thus the
observation data in this thesis is subjective. Article I provides material that is
based on authors’ meta-synthesis on existing case material and is thus subjective
in nature.
One might argue, as referred to Saunders et al. (2009: 110-111), that the work
the drivers’ perform is based on objective job descriptions and operating
procedures that they are supposed to adhere and that they are a part of a formal
hierarchy and thus they can be discussed as an objective entity. Nonetheless this
thesis aims in providing in-depth design science knowledge. That requires
understanding of the subjective meanings of different actions while performing
the work. The microergonomics and macroergonomics findings in this thesis are
utilised in providing knowledge to work system design and management purposes.
Thus this thesis is inductive in nature. The design science knowledge data is
qualitative and interpretative in nature although the observational approach in
articles II, III and IV also includes quantitative aspects as the data collected
through observations was analysed numerically.
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2 Theoretical foundation
2.1 Strategic management in different organisations
All organisations have a purpose for their existence. Strategy defines how and by
which means an organisation fulfils this purpose, generates profits and improves
competitiveness (Jackson et al. 2011: 60, Thompson & Martin 2010). Kaplan and
Norton (2004) as well as Porter (1996) emphasise that the strategy describes how
the organisation will create value for different stakeholders. According to Porter
(1996) the essence of strategy is in the choices an organisation makes; to perform
activities differently or to perform different activities than their rivals. Minzberg
(1994: 25) discusses emerging strategies that may evolve with time as
organisations are learning what works in practice.
Inside the organisation, different sectors, units and departments may have
their own strategies (Kaplan & Norton 2001). Kaplan and Norton (2001)
emphasise that these strategies must be linked together and integrated. As pointed
out by Oeij and Wiezer (2002: 6) some diversity exists in organisational thinking.
One stresses cost-effective production whereas some other may stress the quality
of working life. Studies by Pot and Koningsveld (2009) as well as Ramstad (2009)
have shown that it is possible to improve both working life and company
performance simultaneously. Both of the aforementioned studies emphasise the
commitment of top level management and employee participation as significant
factors in improvement work. Jackson et al. (2011: 478) and Zink (2005) point out that effective OHS
actions can support organisations' strategies and thus improve performance. For
example, Ahonen et al. (2011) and Parvinen et al. (2010) have in their recent case
studies in Finland shown that incorporating work ability management into holistic
management processes has resulted in clear cost savings and improved overall
performance.
A well-defined strategy enhances competitiveness and thereby helps to create
competitive advantages and thereby helps the company to gain, maintain and
deepen its customer base (Kaplan & Norton 2001). Traditionally, strategy work is
considered necessary only in bigger companies, while smaller companies are
more or less controlled in an old fashioned style from top to bottom (Kaplan &
Norton 2001). Strategy work can be adapted for use by smaller companies
through providing more practical tools and means for executing the strategy.
26
Strategic management also includes human aspects. Christopher (2005: 5)
emphasises relationship management in strategy work. Coakes and Coakes (2009)
emphasise the human perspective and point out that employees' knowledge and
needs must be taken into account in comprehensive strategic management
processes. When all the employees and management have the same shared
strategic vision, togetherness is strengthened in the whole working community
(Cooper 1998). Sparks et al. (2001) emphasise that leadership which provides
social support and feedback advances the well-being of employees. Additionally,
other stakeholders need to be accommodated in the strategy work as Jackson et al. (2011: 4) emphasise.
Schendel and Hofer (1979) point out that in strategy work it is important to
piece together the whole work process and to understand how different chances
affect it. Dzissah et al. (2000) point out that complex issues, such as quality,
ergonomics, safety, marketing, purchasing must be implemented in strategic
management processes. Leino and Mattila (2000) emphasise that the origins of
quality, safety and ergonomics problems are often derived from the same faults.
In concurrence, Eklund (1997) states that in many cases these faults can be traced
to the design of work, workplace and environment.
Within integrated management systems it is possible to reduce different faults
and waste and improve the company’s performance and save resources. A
pertinent issue is that the work must be done continuously and within regular
evaluation intervals (Leino & Mattila 2000). Concepts of Lean Management
(Liker 2004, Womack & Jones 2003) and Lean Ergonomics (Silverstein et al. 2006), Integrated Management Systems (IMS) (Sinay 2000, Wilkinson & Dale
2001, 2007), Total Quality Management (TQM) (Hackman & Wageman 1995)
and Health, Safety, Environment and Quality (HSEQ) management (Väyrynen et al. 2008, 2012) all emphasise continuously improving and implemented
management processes.
Hendrick (2008) states that in order for ergonomics to be effectively applied,
it would be wise to integrate it with the hot management program or fad at the
time. Dul and Neumann (2009) argue that currently ergonomics is too often
considered separate from the main strategic goals and forced by legislation. Thus
it is easily delegated to OHS departments which are not directly connected to
strategic decision making processes.
27
2.2 Holistic view on management
Companies must be managed comprehensively. Even though there are certain
differences between private and public organisations (Lane 2000) they are often
treated as one in holistic management approaches as emphasised by Eskildsen et al. (2004). According to Anthony (1965) there are strategic, tactical and
operational levels that need to be managed. Savory and Butterfield (1999: 8)
discuss that holistic management includes social, environmental and economic
aspects that all need to be taken into account jointly when making management
decisions. Furthermore, they (1999: 16) emphasise the understanding of entities
and discuss that they cannot be predicted by studying any aspect in isolation.
Holistic management is in many respects analogical to the concept of
sustainability. Clayton and Radcliffe (1996: 13) discuss the term of sustainability
in a systems theory framework. According to systems theory, the world can be
considered a very large and complex system that contains various subsystems;
such as ecological, biological, weather, human social and economic systems that
interact continuously. Systems thinking is one approach to understanding complex
entities (Aramo-Immonen & Vanharanta 2009, Imada 2002).This complexity of
systems and systems thinking is emphasised in Sinclair’s (2007) visions on future
systems. Additionally ergonomics can also be associated with the concept of
sustainability from a human factor perspective as Zink (2011) and Haslam and
Waterson (2013) emphasise. Zink (2011) points out that from an ergonomics point
of view society, shareholders, employees and customers all have their own effects
on work and its development.
Complex work systems can be considered sociotechnical work systems, as
Carayon (2009), Kleiner and Hendrick (2008) and Hendrick (2002) emphasise. A
sociotechnical work system consists of technical and social subsystems that are
interrelated (Trist 1981). Technical subsystems are technologies and work
processes used in the work whereas social subsystem focuses on worker’s
perceptions of the work environment (Carayon & Lim 2006). These can be
referred to the five elements of a work system; individual, tasks, tools and
techniques, physical environment and organisational conditions presented by
Smith and Carayon-Sainfort (1989). Furthermore, the subsystems can be referred
to as a model of work system subsystems (consisting of personnel, technological,
internal environment, external environment and task and organisational design
subsystems) according to Hendrick and Kleiner (2001) and Kleiner (2008).
28
Systems are also engaged in transactions with other systems, and managing this
complexity is a challenge (Eason 2005, Kleiner & Hendrick 2008).
It can be considered that all these subsystems produce physical, psychosocial
and cognitive loads on the human (Carayon 2009). A human reacts to the loads
with physiological and psychological reactions and often with detrimental effect.
Thus the strains can lead to poor outcomes such as low motivation, increased
stress and poorer health (Smith & Carayon 2000). Furthermore the loads can
reduce individual performance and lead to a greater propensity for human errors
and violations (Kraemer et al. 2009). The loads are wide-ranging. For instance,
noise, air quality and housekeeping can be identified as environment related job
stressors and overload, underload, repetitiveness, meaningfulness, low task
content, lack of control and high demand as task related stressors. (Smith &
Carayon 2000, Smith &Carayon-Sainfort 1989). Furthermore physical
characteristics of work equipment, poor work station design and lack of adequate
skills are examples of technology related stressors and organisational support,
career development, work schedules and overtime are examples of organisational
factors that may reduce motivation and cause stress (Smith & Carayon 2000,
Smith & Carayon-Sainfort 1989).
Smith and Carayon-Sainfort (1989), Smith and Carayon (2000) and Carayon
(2009) emphasise that work systems need to be balanced. According to Smith and
Carayon (2000) the whole system balance can be improved by enhancing the
positive aspects of other elements if negative aspects cannot be improved or
totally eliminated. In that sense ergonomics principles in balanced work system
design and management are in many ways akin to principles of lean philosophy.
The negative aspects of the work system can be attributed to different
inefficiencies and waste that lean philosophy seeks to eliminate (Moody 2012,
Silverstein et al. 2006).
In a balanced work system all elements are taken into account and developed
continuously. A balanced work system produces two kinds of outputs; desired and
undesired. Productivity, quality, safety, commitment to the work and wellbeing at
work are considered as desired outputs whereas undesired outputs are negative
by-products of the work system; such as physiological and psychological
discomfort and stresses, incidents, accidents, injuries and material and
environmental losses. (Carayon et al. 2006, Carayon 2009, Karwowski 2005,
Väyrynen 2010). Desired outputs can be promoted by applying ergonomics
knowledge to work system design (Reiman & Väyrynen 2011).
29
A central element in the work system is the individual who performs the work
task. Employees are a valuable resource in solving problems concerning job
design. (Noro & Imada 1991). Human behaviour and technology are interrelated
and changes in how technologies and tools affect employees' attitudes and
feelings about work. Additionally they affect social relationships inside the work
community. (Hatch & Cunliffe 2006). It is very complicated to strategically
balance the work system in a way that satisfies the employee and also enhances
effectiveness and quality and produces satisfactory outputs (Carayon & Smith
2000).
2.3 Work system and safety at work
Imada (2008) points out that too often companies focus only on survivability
rather than sustainability. Thus a holistic view on development may be neglected.
An ergonomically balanced work system considers human beings as the main
factor and an integral part of the work system. A well-balanced work system does
not cause any detriment to employees' health, well-being or safety (EN ISO 6385
2004). EN ISO 6385 (2004) points out that the optimisation of the work system
may be evaluated based on measures of three categories (1) health and wellbeing,
(2) safety, and (3) performance (the quantity and quality of production).
According to this holistic thinking, occupational risks represent a threat to both
factors of wellbeing and productivity at work (EN ISO 6385 2004).
All activities of a company involve some risks (ISO 31000 2009). According
to Harms-Ringdahl (2001: 6) companies may face commercial risks, occupational
injuries and health risks, fires and explosions, damage to machinery and work
equipment, transportation injuries and related damage, product liability and
related damage, and harm to the environment and sabotage. Risks can also affect
the company's performance indirectly through other stakeholders’ actions in the
company's value network (Väyrynen et al. 2012). Risks that do not result in
accidents immediately will sooner or later cause injuries or near misses if they are
not remedied (Kjellen 2000: 282).
Similarly as risks also accidents can be defined broadly. Hughes and Ferrett
(2003) have defined accidents as any unplanned event that results in injury or ill-
health of people or damage or loss to property, plant, materials or the environment
or a loss to business opportunity. Brauer (2006: 22) emphasises that there are two
fundamental types of accident causes; unsafe acts and unsafe conditions.
Nevertheless, as pointed out by Imada (2002) human errors and accidents also
30
have multiple causal factors and dimensions. An individual employee’s technical
skills and way of thinking have an effect on the possibility of the human error and
accident. Management must be aware of these possibilities. Haro and Kleiner
(2008) have discussed how holistic accident causation models can be utilised in
risk prevention and management processes. Luczak (1998) discusses the interaction of (T)echnology, (O)rganisation and
(P)ersonnel in a risk prevention framework. This so-called TOP system can be
considered as a simplified work system. Harms-Ringdahl (2001: 30) adds one
more aspect to this system, as he also includes surroundings (as well as society) in
the elements that may suffer from possible accidents. Luczak (1998) emphasises
that risks may arise from any part of the system. Thus holistic risk prevention is
needed.
2.4 Concepts of ergonomics
Ergonomics can be referred to a discipline of human factors (Bridger 2003: 18-
19). In general these disciplines have much in common and they are used
synonymously (Bridger 2003: 18–19, Dempsey et al. 2000, Hendrick 2000,
Karwowski 2005). Ergonomics can also be discussed in the domain of
specialisation; e.g. physical, organisational and cognitive ergonomics (IEA 2012).
In this thesis, ergonomics is mainly discussed under the concepts of micro
and macroergonomics and participatory ergonomics (PE). Microergonomics focus
on distinct components in a certain workplace (Hendrick 2007a). Nonetheless
microergonomics do not take into account the complexity of the organisational
environment (Smith & Carayon 2000). Hendrick (2002) emphasises that in purely
microergonomic approaches there is a high probability of creating work systems
in which the personnel subsystem is forced to adapt. According to Hendrick
(2007b) microergonomic elements of job must be designed to harmonise with the
overall work system structure and processes. Thus combinations of micro and
macroergonomics in work system design should be emphasised (Hendrick 2007b).
A macroergonomic study on distribution centres by García Acosta and Lange
Morales (2008) strengthens Hendrick’s (2007b) perceptions and presents a fine
case example on ergonomics studies in the context of this thesis. Furthermore
macroergonomics and ergonomics in general can be applied to safety
management as emphasised by Haro and Kleiner (2008) and Horberry (2012). Macroergonomics is a holistic sociotechnical framework concerned with
work system challenges from the human perspective (Hendrick 2002: 3).
31
Macroergonomics can pool management concepts, ergonomic technologies,
change management strategies and participatory techniques, and thus help
companies to fulfil their economic, social and environmental goals (Imada 2008).
Hendrick (2007a) points out that despite its conceptual top-down premise,
macroergonomics also contains middle-out and bottom-up -aspects as it involves
relevant stakeholders’ participation in all company levels.
Active participation and continuous interaction between stakeholders and
system design, long-run system adaptability, organisational learning, and sense-
making of on-going changes are key characteristics of macroergonomics
approaches (Carayon 2006). Hendrick (2007b) states that most of the traditional
research methods, such as laboratory and field experiments, field studies,
organisational questionnaire surveys, interview surveys, and focus groups have
been modified and adapted for macroergonomics application.
One of the primary approaches to macroergonomics studies is PE (Brown
2002, Nagamachi 1995, Wilson et al. 2005). In PE, necessary stakeholders are
invited to participate in problem solving (Kuorinka 1997). The participation may
be realised in many different levels by various stakeholders (Haines & Wilson
1998, Haines et al. 2002, Vink et al. 2008).
Van Eerd et al. (2010) emphasise that there is no “one best way” to
implement PE into practice. Furthemore there can be differences in how
participatory ergonomics processes are managed (Liker et al. 1989). Nonetheless
as pointed out by Brown (2002), the management’s commitment and support is
considered to be essential. In addition to that the role of middle management and
supervisors in PE is emphasised as they are the people who must deal with a
variety of pragmatic production issues besides development work (Dixon et al. 2009).
Haims and Carayon (1998) emphasise that successful PE interventions
include both internal participants and external experts, i.e. ergonomists.
Ergonomist’s role in PE processes is flexible and dynamic and may include tasks
that belong to facilitators, group consultants, technical advisors, problem solving
assistants, educators, advocates and supporters (Haims & Carayon 1998, Wilson
1991). Furthermore Haims and Carayon (1998) argue that the role of the internal
experts evolves over time.
32
2.5 Human centred design
Ergonomics is a profession that applies theory, principles, data and methods to
design in order to optimise human well-being and overall system performance
(IEA 2012, Karwowski 2005). Ergonomics can be applied to work system in both
design and redesign phases (EN ISO 6385 2004). In human centred design
ergonomics knowledge is applied to the design of a product, system, job or
environment (Karwowski 2012). A basic assumption in ergonomics design is that
human physical and mental functions and features must be thoroughly considered.
(Yoshimura 2010: 69). Ergonomics knowledge can also be utilised in an
organisation's innovation processes (Slappendel 1992). Van de Ven (1986)
emphasises that quite commonly technical innovations require institutional and
organisational arrangements in order to be implemented successfully. It is important to know when a problem exists and to understand its nature to
be able to successfully solve problems. A holistic approach enables seeing the
causes, spread and consequences for different situations and groups as an
interlinked whole (Mumford 2003: 4). In many ways, holistic approaches require
the relevant stakeholders’ participation in different stages of the design processes
(Vink et al. 2008).
Human needs and requirements must be taken into consideration in design
processes (Bergqvist & Abeysekera 1996). Darses and Wolff (2006) emphasise
the need for designers to have direct input from the actual end-users. Shephard
(1974: 4) points out that design is a compromise between function and appearance.
Sometimes ergonomists encounter aesthetic demands that may contradict
ergonomics premises. According to Kuorinka (1997), participation adds value to
product design and adds realism to complex systems design. Nonetheless a
participatory approach to design and development requires resources and is time-
consuming (Wilson et al. 2005).
Kuorinka (1997) highlights that there are several methods (e.g. simulations,
mock-ups, production games) that can be used in concretising the work for design
purposes. In addition Bengtsson and Johansson (2002) have studied computer
animated visualisation in that context. Video material provides suitable material
for work environment and product design purposes. Kuorinka (1997) points out
that in participatory design, the mental image of the object must be shared with
and enriched by different participants. Kuorinka (1997) concludes that
conventional tools, tables and drawings may be too complex for participatory
design purposes. Helander (1995: 1-3) emphasises systematic and
33
interdisciplinary approaches in human centred design. According to Putkonen
(2010) design processes are rarely discussed from a macroergonomics and
sociotechnology point of view, and concludes that macroergonomics can enrich
product development processes.
2.6 Effectiveness of ergonomics
Hendrick (2001) generalises in a rather challenging way that good ergonomics is
goods economics. Nonetheless ergonomics issues are often under-exploited and
the value of good ergonomics is unclear to many stakeholders (Dul et al. 2012,
Stanton & Baber 2003). Many stakeholders are not aware of the benefits of
ergonomics and thus do not exhibit strong demand for ergonomics. Ergonomics
solutions and applications may also be too limited in scope. (Dul et al. 2012).
Koningsveld (2009) emphasises that ergonomics has potential to increase
productivity, lower operational costs, improve competitiveness and affect a
company’s values and standards. This potential is also emphasised in European
standards EN 1005 (2010) and EN ISO 6385 (2004) which state that properly
designed work systems enhance safety, effectiveness and efficiency, improve
human working and living conditions and counteract adverse effects on human
health and performance. Furthermore as emphasised in standard EN 292-2 (1991),
taking into account ergonomics principles when designing machinery, contributes
to increased safety by reducing stress and physical efforts of operator and reduces
the probability of human errors. The concept of usability is closely linked to ergonomics. According to Dumas
and Redish (1999: 4) usability is an attribute of every product and good usability
benefits different stakeholders in different ways. For instance, end-user
companies benefit from good usability in work equipment by improved
employees’ work performance and safety, reduced training and support costs and
reduced needs for updates and maintenance releases (Dumas & Redish 1999: 14,
Jordan et al. 1996).
Different authors have debated on the effectiveness of ergonomics for
decades, but the topic is in general in many ways still unclear and has been under
critical scrutiny (e.g. Beevis & Slade 1970, Beevis 2003, Dempsey 2007,
Driessen et al. 2010, Driessen et al. 2011, Martimo et al. 2010, Westgaard &
Winkel 1997, 2011). Dempsey (2007) states that the effectiveness of ergonomics
is now quite widely studied and is rather topical in general. Dempsey (2007)
concludes that this is largely due to the contentious political nature of work-
34
related musculoskeletal disorders (WMSDs) and the consequent debate on cost-
effectiveness. Nonetheless as emphasised by European Agency for Safety and
Health at Work (2010a) there are difficulties in general in calculating costs of
WMSDs due to differences between country-specific insurance systems, lack of
standardised assessment criteria and validity of reported data. From a management point of view the main parameter in evaluating the
effectiveness of investments in ergonomics is profitability (Hägg 2003).
Nonetheless objective data on the benefits of ergonomics investments is not
always easily acquired (Koningsveld 2009). Dempsey (2007) highlights problems
related to measuring the effectiveness. In ergonomics studies the effectiveness is
traditionally measured by monitoring incident, accident and/or sickness absence
rates over a certain time period. This is rather questionable because in many cases
WMSDs do not have distinct starting points. It may also be hard to evaluate the
length of the absence and possibility for recurrence. Westgaard (2010) points out
that organisational changes and psychological strain resulting from that may have
its own impact on effectiveness. Additionally Dempsey (2007) concludes that the
exposure and morbidity history accumulated before the intervention may still
have an effect and the recurrence of an earlier episode after the intervention may
cloud the benefits.
Driessen et al. (2010) have reviewed randomised control trials in ergonomics.
According to their review there is relatively little evidence for the effectiveness of
ergonomics interventions. Nonetheless randomised control trials are often very
difficult to arrange in the workplaces (Silverstein & Clark 2004). Westgaard
(2010) emphasises that also other study designs need to be reviewed in order to
get more proof on the effectiveness. Silverstein and Clark (2004) state that multi-
component interventions (including macroergonomics features) are more likely to
succeed than single interventions. Dul et al. (2012) point out that due to its
multidisciplinary nature ergonomics often lacks explicit references and may be
incorporated into established disciplines such as engineering and psychology. The benefits of PE interventions are contributed in the form of improved
physical comfort, reduced musculoskeletal complaints and fewer injuries (Rivilis
et al. 2006, 2008, Sockoll et al. 2006, Straker et al. 2004). The interventions have
also contributed to reduced absenteeism and in the number of compensation
claims (Hignett et al. 2005, Imada 2002, Rivilis et al. 2008), increases in
productivity (Nagamachi 1995) and savings in rejection costs and rates (Yeow &
Nath Sen 2003). However studies indicating the ineffectiveness of PE
interventions also exist (e.g. Cole et al. 2007, Driessen et al. 2011) and Haims and
35
Carayon (1998) especially criticize the fact that PE studies often lack guidelines
on how to proceed further in order to achieve long-term outcomes.
Dempsey (2007) questions why ergonomics improvements in general are
often under additional scrutiny and demands are set high. Hendrick (2008)
encourages looking for simple, economic solutions first. Furthermore Dempsey
(2007) suggests that small continuous improvements should be acknowledged in
ergonomics interventions just as production engineers do in their field. The
positive aspects of using ergonomics in increasing comfort and productivity
should be highlighted (Vink et al. 2006).
2.7 Ergonomics and safety at L/SH truck drivers work
Land transport is the largest sub-sector of the transportation and storage industry,
accounting for nearly 90% of employees (European Agency for Safety and Health
at Work 2011a). Land transport is a labour-intensive and strongly male-dominated
sector (Belzer 2002, E-Fact 47 2010). The average age for the employees is in
general higher than the average age across all sectors (E-Fact 47 2010, European
Agency for Safety and Health at Work 2010b, European Foundation for the
Improvement of Living and Working Conditions 2008).
Road freight transport as a part of land transportation is performed by various
kinds of vehicles, such as lorries, light vans, taxis, buses, motorcycles, mopeds
and bicycles (European Agency for Safety and Health at Work 2010b). Nearly
70,000 employees work in the road transport industry in Finland (Miilunpalo &
Olkkonen 2013). The employees are mostly (90%) employed by small companies,
employing ten or less employees (European Agency for Safety and Health at
Work 2010b, Kärmeniemi et al. 2007).
In the industry the accident rates and absences due to sickness are among the
highest in Finland (Confederation of Finnish Industries 2011, European Agency
for Safety and Health at Work 2011a, FAII 2011, Miilunpalo & Olkkonen 2013).
Despite high adverse health outcomes, good examples of successful management
processes can also be found in Finnish companies that are performing L/SH
operations. As an example Ahonen et al. (2011) have reported on successful
holistic management processes and stakeholder cooperation at the Lassila &
Tikanoja Corporation.
Different psychosocial factors, such as working alone, economic pressures
and competition from other carriers nationally and internationally, low level of
control of own work, lack of communication, violence and low social support
36
affect drivers' work (Braver et al. 1992, European Foundation for the
improvement of Living and Working Conditions 2004, Miilunpalo & Olkkonen
2013, Trimpop 2003). Furthermore, fatigue and stress have been associated with
truck drivers’ work (Gander et al. 2005, Pylkkönen et al. 2013). Nonetheless a
study by Hanowski et al. (2003) indicates that particularly in L/SH operations the
off-duty behaviour of the drivers was likely to be the primary contributing factor
in the level of fatigue. A recent addition (Ministry of Social Affairs and Health
2013) to Finnish Occupational Safety and Health Act 738 (2002) requires that the
employer must be aware of the hazards that are caused by working hours.
ISO Standard 28002 (2011) emphasises that each node of the supply chain
involves a set of risks and all these risks must be taken into account in an
organisations’ holistic management processes. The work of L/SH drivers outside
the cab is usually performed in different kinds of work environment (McClay
2008, Shibuya et al. 2010). The quality and safety of these work environments
varies widely (Shibuya et al. 2010). Due to the customer-supplier relationship, the
employer faces challenges in controlling these work environments (Cantor 2008,
Shibuya et al. 2010). Interestingly, Hale and Borys (2013) discuss the fact that
companies basically have two options in such situations; they either place their
trust in their employees’ ability to decide on detailed actions on a case by case
basis or provide them specific action rules for all situations they can envisage.
One specific feature that must be taken into account especially in Finland and
in other Nordic countries is how to solve the situation where drivers combine
outdoor work in cold winter conditions and indoor work within truck cabs and at
customer premises during the work shift. Such kinds of environmental conditions
and activity levels require continuous thermoregulatory adjustments, which may
cause stress (Risikko 2009). Furthermore vibration and cold may add risk for
WMSDs as Cohen et al. (1997) have highlighted. For example, Anttonen et al. (2009) Risikko et al. (2003) and Pekkarinen (1994) provide guidelines and
instructions on the topic. It is recognised that winter can last up to six months of a
year in Nordic countries (Gao and Abeysekera 2004). Njå and Fjelltun (2010) have noted that there are differences with regard to
how transportation companies’ managers in general approach HSEQ issues.
Shibuya et al. (2008) stress the fact that the work of L/SH drivers differs greatly
from work that is done in the factories. The majority of the ergonomics and safety
methods and procedures are designed for such environments and cannot be
applied for use in the L/SH industry directly (Shibuya et al. 2008). In addition,
the work of L/SH drivers also differs from long-haul drivers’ work. As
37
highlighted by Hanowski et al. (2003) long-haul drivers’ work mainly consists of
operating the vehicle behind the wheel. Long-haul operations may be on the road
for several days, whereas L/SH drivers usually start and end their work shift at
their home base (Hanowski et al. 2003).
Several studies have shown that L/SH drivers’ work contains varying safety
and ergonomics related development needs. Static work postures while driving,
whole-body vibration, severe trunk postures, and demanding manual materials
handling (MMH) tasks are all risk sources for WMSDs in the professional truck
drivers’ work (Kaila-Kangas et al. 2011, Kuiper et al. 1999, McGlothlin 1996,
Okunribido et al. 2006, Robb & Mansfield 2007, Shibuya et al. 2010, Waters et al. 2008). Car driving has been associated with lower-back disorders by several
studies (Kelsey & Hardy 1975, Porter & Gyi 2002, Troup 1978). However a
recent study by Kaila-Kangas et al. (2011) indicates that the increased risk of
lower-back disorders for drivers in general is more likely due to the strenuousness
of the work than to driving.
Most truck drivers’ accidents at work are related to physical activities outside
the cab (European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working
Conditions 2004, FAII 2011, 2012, Shibuya et al. 2010). Falls from heights, slips, overexertion, repetitive motion injuries and being caught between or under
objects are the most typical accidents occurring in this sector (FAII 2011,
Nenonen 2013, Nicholson & David 1985, Perttula & Salminen 2012, Shibuya et al. 2008, 2010, Yeoh et al. 2013). Several studies state that various tools and aids
have been developed to ease drivers’ work when out of the cab (Jung et al. 2005,
Keyserling et al. 1999, McClay 2008, Roebuck & Norton 2002). Nonetheless as
Fathallah et al. (2000) and Rislund (2006) have stated many drivers ignore these
due to insufficient opportunities for learning, and inexperience and poor design.
Cantor (2008) emphasises that safety and ergonomics must be incorporated
into a company’s strategy and social responsibility. According to Perttula (2010)
the risks in the sector are often considered as general business risks. Shibuya et al. (2010) state that previous studies on the safety of drivers’ work have been mainly
epidemiological in nature, and they lack important in-depth information (Shibuya
et al. 2010).
38
39
3 Methods and material
Two data collection and analysis methods were utilised in this thesis. A meta-
synthesis was conducted in article I. Ergonomics video observations were
conducted in articles II, III and IV. The methods were selected on the basis of the
author's and other participating researchers’ choices and experiences. The
methods selected have been reported in earlier studies. Nonetheless the
ergonomics video analysis method utilised in II, III and IV was utilised for the
first time in this thesis to assess work that involves several different work
environments. Earlier it has been used mainly on assessing daily work in singular
workplaces.
3.1 Meta-Synthesis (article I)
Meta-Synthesis (Jensen & Allen 1996, Walsh & Downe 2005) is utilised in this
thesis to explore existing qualitative material. Meta-synthesis is utilised in
synthesising qualitative research and thus it differs from meta-analysis which is a
statistical method (Barnett-Page & Thomas 2009). The approach was utilised to
summarise and synthesise the case-specific data from three different cases. The
material was gathered by exploring existing data from the cases. The data
included case-specific reports, articles, interviews, notes, observations and
questionnaires. The synthesis approach in this thesis is close to an approach by
Suri (1999). Suri (1999) utilised open coding schemes when forming the
qualitative synthesis. Thus this thesis approach can also be referred in many parts
to as an open coding approach in Grounded theory (Järvinen, 2004, Strauss &
Corbin 1998: 101).
In open coding written data is conceptualised into separate incidents, ideas,
events and acts, and is given a name that represents or stands for it (Strauss &
Corbin 1998: 105). Usually certain concepts can be grouped and categorised in
order to reduce the amount of different concepts (Strauss & Corbin 1998: 105).
The meta synthesis approach in this thesis was executed by perusing entire
documents. The coding was made on the basis of three of the five different
categories; 1) Actions and methods utilised in the development processes, 2)
Effects on sociotechnical system integration, 3) Effects on health, safety,
environment and quality, 4) Effects on participation between different
stakeholders and 5) Concrete outputs of the development processes. Categories 2,
40
3 and 4 were coded on the basis of what the participated companies needed and
what they learned in the context.
3.2 Ergonomic observations (articles II, III, IV)
Video analyses have been used in ergonomics assessments in various studies (see: Capodaglio et al. 1997, Forsman et al. 2003a, 2003b, 2006a, 2006b, Hakkarainen
et al. 2011, Hanse & Forsman 2001, Kadefors & Forsman 2000, Karhu, et al. 1977, May et al. 2000, Oikarinen 2011, Pehkonen et al. 2009, Takala et al. 2010,
Väyrynen 1986, Väyrynen & Saaranen 2006). Dempsey et al. (2005) state that
video cameras are very useful basic tools in ergonomics studies. Van der Beek
and Frings-Dresen (1998), Carey and Galwey (1998) and Mackenzie and Xiao
(2003) have highlighted that video observations provide illustrative material that
can be analysed more carefully later, frame by frame if necessary. Video material
can also be used for product design purposes (Ylirisku & Buur 2007).
Ergonomics observations were conducted within a Swedish video based
observation method VIDAR (Video- och datorbaserad arbetsanalys in Swedish)
(Kadefors & Forsman, 2000, Forsman et al. 2003a, 2006a, Forsman 2008). The
method is mainly used in assessing a general workload (Takala et al. 2010) and it
is based on previously recorded material video on an employee performing daily
(routine) work. The method is participatory in nature, as it allows employees and
other stakeholders to participate in analyses (Forsman et al. 2003b). Participation
can be conducted in different ways. Usually a single employee analyses the video
material from his/her own work. Additionally other stakeholders and employee
groups may analyse video material. (Forsman et al. 2003a, 2003b).
In the analysis sessions the video material, which can be hours long, is
condensed into a limited number of ergonomic problems at work (Kadefors &
Forsman 2000). Usually ergonomists act as secretaries who operate the computer
and do not participate in the actual observation. Ergonomists may later analyse
the same material to check whether the participants missed anything.
As the analysis is performed by individuals, the method is subjective by
nature (Forsman 2008). The basic assumption in the method is that the employees
are to be recognised as the experts in their own work, at least in the familiar work
tasks that are done routinely and that they provide valid assessments. Many of the
unreliability issues are related to a lack of expertise on the part of the user.
(Forsman 2008, Kadefors & Forsman 2000). There are no strict guidelines on
how many participants should participate in the analyses.
41
There are two kinds of identifications, i.e. demanding work situations where
the employee may identify: physical discomfort, and psychosocial discomfort
including hazard risks. A report of saved situations may be printed directly after
the analysis. The report includes a picture frame of a situation, special notices and
the frequency of how many times it occurs in a certain period. Afterwards similar
identifications may be merged and prioritized for further discussions by the
ergonomists (Forsman 2008). The current version of the method contains also two
checklists (Quick Exposure Check [QEC] and Arbetarsskyddstyrelsen
Författningssamling, i.e. the Swedish name for the Swedish ergonomics
regulations document [AFS]) extensions for professional use. (Forsman et al. 2006a, 2006b, Forsman 2008).
3.3 Material
The metal industry companies and principal companies in study I were selected
because of their willingness to participate. Furthermore the principal companies
selected their key supplying companies which agreed to participate in the study.
The companies in articles II, III and IV were selected because of their willingness
to volunteer and develop the work outside the cab. The individual participants in
studies II, III and IV were selected on a voluntary basis. The volunteer employees
were individually informed about the study, and they signed a written consent
form before the study began. A summary of the material in this thesis is in Table 2.
42
Table 2. Summary of the material in this thesis.
Article Companies (n) Participating
employees (n)
Other stakeholders
involved directly (n)
Other stakeholders
involved indirectly
I a) Small and medium
sized metal industry
companies (18)
b) Principal
companies: large
process industry
plants, (11) and their
supplier companies
(15)
c) Principal
companies: large
process industry
plants (15) and their
key supplier
companies
a,b and c) Number
of employees
participating varied
(from all
employees in the
company into
limited work
groups) between
companies
b and c) Industrial
safety group members
and representatives of
the management
(case-sensitive,
differences between
the companies)
Workers’ union,
industrial safety district,
employers’ federation,
insurance business
II Transportation
companies (3)
L/SH drivers (11) Drivers’ immediate
superiors (3)
Industrial safety group
members (3)
R&D personnel (2)
Workers’ union,
employers’ federation,
insurance business
III Transportation
companies (2)
L/SH drivers (8) None Workers’ union,
employers’ federation,
insurance business
IV a) Transportation
companies (5)
b) Truck body and
trailer manufacturing
companies (19)
a) L/SH drivers
(19)
a) Drivers’ immediate
superiors (3)
Industrial safety group
members (3)
R&D personnel (2)
b) R&D personnel
(differences between
the companies)
Workers’ union,
employers’' federation,
insurance business
43
4 Findings
The findings documented in this chapter are picked up from the results presented
in the articles I-IV. Thus some of the important findings in the articles are not
discussed in this thesis but in the articles. The findings picked up here are the key
results supporting the holistic work system design and management approach in
this study.
4.1 Holistic management processes (RQ1)
Research question 1 is answered within Article I. Article I provided material for
holistic work environment management processes. Work environment issues,
quality of working life, occupational risk prevention, productivity and ergonomics
must all be discussed under a certain concept. Article I provides a general approach and theory model for work environment management (GAT). GAT
consists of ten statements and theories that the organisations need to acknowledge
when designing and executing development actions. The statements and theories
propose that:
– Strategic goals, both long and short term are needed
– The organisation must have the ability to react to changes
– Complex work system must be understood
– Development work must be continuous
– The interactions between productivity and well-being must be understood
– HSEQ issues must be managed jointly
– Quality must be seen as everybody’s business
– All losses must be seen as affecting the company’s total performance
– All personnel groups must participate in development work
– Development work must also contain concrete microergonomic aims
Additionally there are also external factors such as laws and regulations, and
competition for market shares that must be taken into account when designing and
executing development processes. The results propose that by acknowledging
these proposals non-desired outputs, such as HSEQ losses and different loads to
the humans can be minimised on the work system and desired outputs such as
increases in productivity and quality and decreases in adverse health outcomes
can be attained.
44
As an answer to RQ1, it can be concluded that the relationships between
humans, tasks, technologies, and environmental aspects must be understood in
order to be able to make holistic strategic choices. All losses must be seen as
affecting the company's overall performance. Organisations’ must continuously
involve their personnel extensively when designing and executing development
actions.
4.2 Deviations related to physical activities at L/SH drivers’ work (RQ2)
Research question 2 is answered within Article II. Article II provided material on
drivers’ (n=11) and other stakeholders’ (n=8) identifications of physically and
psychosocially demanding work situations and hazard risks (n=202) in L/SH
drivers’ work outside the cab. Each identification was further analysed by the
researchers by identifying the physical activity that was performed during the
identified work situation and by identifying different deviations that existed in the
work situation. A single identification may include one or more physical activities
and one or more deviations. The categorisations for physical activities and
deviations were based on Eurostat’s European Statistics on Accidents at Work
(ESAW 2001) categorisations.
The connections between the physical activities and the deviations are
presented in Figure 3. The most frequent deviations were “sudden overexertion or
straining”, “Falling down, jumping, falling over, slipping” and “losing control of
a work equipment”. A combination of a physical activity of carrying by hand and
sudden overexertion or straining existed in all together 78 identifications. That is
39% of all identifications that were made. Furthermore sudden overexertion or
straining was also related to movement in 61 identifications (30%). Falling down,
jumping, falling over, and slipping was related to carrying by hand in 55
identifications (27%) and to movement in 48 identifications (24%). Losing
control of work equipment was related to physical activities of carrying by hand
(17%), operating some work equipment (16%) and movement (15%).
45
Fig. 3. Physical activities and deviations in identified physically and psychosocially
demanding work situations and hazard risks (n=202). Each identification can include
one or more physical activities and deviations. Modified from Article II with permission
of Taylor & Francis.
As an answer to RQ2 it can be concluded that L/SH drivers’ work is a
combination of several physical activities. These physical activities may be
infringed by various deviations. The most frequent deviations are “sudden
overexertion or straining”, “Falling down, jumping, falling over, slipping” and
“losing control of a work equipment”. The wide-range of different deviations
poses challenges to holistic management processes. Employers, as system
decision makers, are responsible for providing adequate risk management
processes for their employees. Furthermore other stakeholders’ contributions are
needed as the work is mainly performed in work environments that are
administered by other parties. Employees as system actors are responsible for
working safely in all circumstances.
46
4.3 Work equipment used in L/SH truck drivers’ work (RQ3)
Research question 3 is answered within Article III. Article III provided material
on the identification of physically and psychosocially demanding work situations
and hazard risks for the drivers from two different types of L/SH operations; daily
deliveries of different packages (4 drivers), later “General” and daily deliveries of
dairy products (4 drivers), later “Dairy”. Both L/SH operations are performed
daily at several locations and contain work tasks that include MMH and
movement outside the cab.
The observations resulted in altogether 117 identifications by the drivers and
researchers. Researchers further analysed the identifications by looking at the
different origins for the discomfort or hazard risk in the identification. Each
identification can include one or more different origins. One identification may
contain for example a hazardous physical work activity performed by the driver
(possible origin) within non-functional work equipment (possible origin) in a
hazardous work environment (possible origin). The identifications contained
altogether 116 origins that were related to some work equipment (Table 3). The
work equipment is in this context is understood broadly as in EN ISO 6385
(2004).
Table 3. Identifications (n=117) divided by work equipment related origins (n=116) that
could have caused the physically and psychosocially demanding work situation
and/or risk for hazard. Modified from Article III with permission of Central Institute for
Labour Protection – Research Institute (CIOB-PIB).
Work equipment General: work equipment
related origins (n)
Dairy: work equipment
related origins (n)
In total (n)
Truck and trailer bodies and structures
Cargo space 10 8 18
Tailgate loader 15 13 28
Remote control for
the tailgate loader
0 1 1
Manual transport equipment
Roll cage 1 22 23
Dolly 0 18 18
Rack with wheels 2 0 2
Pallet converter with
wheels
3 0 3
Lifting hook 0 7 7
Fork truck 1 0 1
47
Work equipment General: work equipment
related origins (n)
Dairy: work equipment
related origins (n)
In total (n)
Hand truck 0 6 6
Pallet truck 9 0 9
In total 41 75 116
Dairy deliveries contained 41 work equipment related origins whereas general
deliveries contained 75 origins. A majority (61%) of the work equipment related
origins in general deliveries were related to truck and trailer bodies and structures
whereas in dairy deliveries these were included only in 29% of origins. A majority
of the origins in dairy deliveries were related to different manual transporting
equipment (71%). As an answer to RQ3, it can be concluded that similar kinds of daily L/SH
operations contain various work equipment related origins to demanding work
situations and risks for hazards. The employers, as system decision makers, are
responsible for providing and ensuring that adequate work equipment is available
and the employees as system actors must utilise the work equipment available in a
safe way. In general in L/SH deliveries, the origins related to work equipment are
mainly related to trucks and trailer bodies and structures, whereas in dairy
deliveries the origins are relatively more related to different manual transporting
equipment.
4.4 Work environments out of the cab in L/SH drivers’ work (RQ4)
Research question 4 is answered within Article IV. Article IV provided material
on L/SH drivers' (n=19) and other stakeholders' (n=8) identifications of physically
and psychosocially demanding work situations and hazard risks (n=262) that
drivers face daily during their work shift while working out of the cab. From the
Figure 4, it can be seen that the identifications can be divided roughly into three
categories on the basis of the work environment where they were performed.
Nearly half (48%) of the identifications are related to trucks, truck bodies and
trailers. Over one third (37%) of the identifications can be linked to customers'
yards and premises.
48
Fig. 4. Identifications of physically and psychosocially demanding work situations and
hazard risks (n=262) divided into work environments where they were performed.
Modified from Article IV with permission of Inderscience Publishers.
As an answer to RQ4 can be condensed that L/SH drivers' work is performed
within several work environments besides the cab. The identifications are mainly
located in two kinds of work environments; trucks, truck bodies and trailers and
customers yards and premises. Employers, as system decision makers are
responsible for providing safe work equipment and environment to employees
regardless of the actual location where the work is performed. Thus cooperation is
needed between employers and different parties that own or administer these
work environments. Employees as system actors are responsible for working
safely in all circumstances.
4.5 Organisational contributions to L/SH drivers’ work system
design and management processes (RQ5)
The answer to research question 5 is taken from all four articles results. Different
intra- and inter-organisational stakeholders all may affect work system design and
management processes. The articles’ findings are discussed within potential intra-
and inter-organisational contributors in Table 4.
49
Table 4. Summary of the contributions and main intra- and inter-organisational
stakeholders who can contribute to work system design and management processes.
Article Main findings Potential intra- and inter-orgnisational contributors to the work system
design and management processes
I The relationships
between humans,
technologies, and
environmental
aspects must be
understood in
order to be able to
make holistic
strategic choices
• System decision makers by providing holistic management
processes that takes into account social, environmental and
economic aspects of the work
• System actors by following the instructions and regulations
provided by other stakeholders and by participating into work
system design processes
• System experts by providing reliable knowledge that can be used
in implementing and executing development actions
• System influencers by providing their contributions on strategic
nationwide questions
II L/SH drivers work
contains various
physical work
activities, which
include various
kinds of
deviations.
Different
stakeholders
contributions are
needed in work
system design and
management
processes.
• System decision makers by providing adequate and safe work
equipment to perform work
• System decision makers by providing training to employees
• Employers and customers as system decision makers by
providing achievable schedules
• Customers as system decision makers by providing safe work
environments on their premises and employers by ensuring that
the adequate OSH level in these work environments is achieved.
• System actors by choosing safe ways to perform work
• System experts such as occupational health care services by
providing detailed knowledge and practical measures for OSH
work
• System influencers by providing safety in common areas
III Similar kinds of
L/SH operations
can be performed
with different work
equipment. Safety
and ergonomics of
this work
equipment must
be at an adequate
level.
• Employees as system decision makers by providing proper work
equipment that the system actors can take with on their route
• Customers as system decision makers by providing work
equipment that can be used at their premises and yards
• System actors by utilising work equipment available in a safe way
• System experts such as work equipment manufacturing
companies by designing and providing safe and well-designed
and work equipment
50
Article Main findings Potential intra- and inter-orgnisational contributors to the work system
design and management processes
IV Discomfort and
risks occur in
various work
environments.
Several
stakeholders can
contribute to the
work environment
design and
management
processes.
• System actors by choosing safe ways to perform work
• System decision makers by providing adequate risk assessments
on the work environments
• Customers as system decision makers by providing risk
assessments on their work environments and by improving and
maintaining their safety continuously
• System influencers by providing safety in common areas
• System experts, such as truck, trailer, cargo space and tailgate
manufacturers by providing safe and well-designed work
equipment and work environment
51
5 Discussion
5.1 Holistic design and management issues
Current trends in working life emphasise holistic approaches to management in
order to fulfil sustainability goals. The concept of holistic management in this
thesis is quite similar to the definition given by Zink (2005). Zink (2005)
emphasises that the concept of holistic includes an evaluation of results and
potentials, strong emphasis on prevention, multidimensional goals, systematic use
of synergies and mid- and long-term orientation. Kira and van Eijnatten (2008)
emphasise that sustainable organisations are able to function in the changing
situations that they face. Companies, in many respects regardless of their size, are
keen partners of different value networks. Value networks and external
environment in general provide different expectations of the company.
In addition the company’s personnel’s expectations and well-being must be
taken into account. Stakeholder participation into OHS processes and practices is
a highly topical issue as emphasised in two recent publications by the European
Agency for Safety and Health at Work (2012a, 2012b). A good example of
successful long-lasting stakeholder interaction is provided by Väyrynen et al. (2012). They have studied how basic industry principal and supplier companies in
Northern Finland have successfully developed cooperation procedures within
HSEQ issues for years. Stakeholder cooperation is also emphasised in another
example from Sweden provided by Målqvist and Parmsund (2008). The broad
cooperation within different stakeholders in the brewery sector has led to a
national standard that limits deliveries stairs to five steps. Otherwise lifts, hoists,
ramps or other measures are required. This thesis provided general guidelines and criteria in the form of a GAT
model for holistic management purposes, in order to diagnose needs and design,
redesign and implement development actions. The development actions include a
variety of different possibilities from practical, often microergonomics
improvements to changes in complex sociotechnical systems and management
contexts. The participatory approach utilised in articles II, III and IV can support
companies in fulfilling GAT criteria (Table 5).
52
Table 5. GAT model elements (article I) compared to the theoretical foundation with
regard to the transportation industry and articles II-IV. Suggestions for different
actions towards fulfilling GAT criteria are also presented.
GAT model
criteria
(Article I)
GAT from a transportation
industry perspective according
to the theoretical foundation
Articles II-IV from a GAT
perspective from the
transportation company’s point
of view
Suggestions and views on
future work
Strategic goals Holistic workplace safety
studies are needed in the
industry. Safety and
ergonomics need to be
incorporated into a company’s
strategy and social
responsibility (Cantor 2008).
Ergonomics issues can
contribute to the company’s
performance. Identifications
provided visualised material
that was used in discussions
with different stakeholders.
Such material may be used in
setting and measuring short
and long term goals for
different stakeholders (Article
II).
Visualisations, when gathered
at an adequate level, can be
used to check the work done
and highlight possible
development needs. Video
analyses can be used
alongside accident statistics to
setting goals at company level
as suggested by Pekkala et al.
(2010).
Ability to
manage
changes
A majority of the companies
are small in terms of employee
numbers. Due to the
customer-supplier relationship
there are challenges for
employers in controlling the
work environments where
drivers work. Humans are
often considered to be the
flexible part (Cantor 2008,
Perttula 2010, Shibuya et al.
2010).
The identification of
discomforts provides
visualised evidence on
different deficiencies at work.
Transport companies as
independent actors need proof
to be able to require changes.
Article II provides an example
of how this material can be
analysed in greater depth to
obtain information that can be
used in justifying changes.
Visualisations and in-depth
analyses provide instant
information about the work.
This material enables a mutual
view to be developed and acts
as a basis for actions if an
adequate number of different
stakeholders participate.
Understanding
complex work
system entities
Work outside the cab is
comprised of many different
tasks and is performed in
many kinds of work
environment using different
items of work equipment or
manually (Olson et al. 2009).
Articles II-IV showed that all
work system elements need to
be developed.
This thesis provides a holistic
view on understanding work
systems and their complexity,
specifically from a human
perspective. From a
sustainability point of view,
environmental and economic
aspects must be taken into
account more profoundly.
53
GAT model
criteria
(Article I)
GAT from a transportation
industry perspective according
to the theoretical foundation
Articles II-IV from a GAT
perspective from the
transportation company’s point
of view
Suggestions and views on
future work
Continuous
development
work
Current management trends
all emphasise continuous and
structured processes (e.g.
Ahonen et al. 2011, Hackman
& Wageman 1995, Liker 2004,
Wilkinson & Dale 2001, 2007).
New participatory cooperation
processes that can be used in
continuous development
processes were introduced
(Article IV).
Video analyses can be used
as one tool in regular
evaluations of the work
environment.
Understanding
the
interactions
between
productivity
and well-being
Transport industry as a labour-
intensive sector is dependent
on healthy employees. The
accidents rates and absences
due to sickness are among the
highest in Finland (European
Agency for Safety and Health
at Work 2010b).
Video analyses showed which
kinds of work tasks were the
most demanding and thus
provided valuable information
on where to concentrate
development work in order to
improve productivity and well-
being (Articles II-IV).
The costs of absenteeism can
be calculated and presented to
the relevant stakeholders (see
Ahonen et al. 2011). The costs
and visualisations of
demanding work situations
support each other for
management and safety
training purposes.
Integrated and
synergic
management
system
The origins of quality, safety
and ergonomics problems are
often derived from the same
faults (Leino & Mattila 2000).
There are differences in how
transportation companies
understand and manage
HSEQ issues (Njå & Fjelltun
2010).
Video analyses can be
analysed in-depth within
different objectives. Article II
provides an example on in-
depth analyses from OHS
point of view.
In-depth video analyses can
also be designed to study
environmental and quality
issues.
Understanding
that everyone
is responsible
for quality
Each element of the supply
chain has its own set of risks
which must be recognised in
an organisations’ holistic
management processes (ISO
28002 2011).
Demanding work situations
are found within work
environments that are
controlled by different
stakeholders (Article IV) and
the driver may be required to
use equipment provided by
different stakeholders or carry
things out manually (Article
III). Thus different
stakeholders can contribute to
the quality (Article II).
Some key stakeholders, such
as customers or work
equipment designers can be
invited to participate in the
video analyses.
54
GAT model
criteria
(Article I)
GAT from a transportation
industry perspective according
to the theoretical foundation
Articles II-IV from a GAT
perspective from the
transportation company’s point
of view
Suggestions and views on
future work
Understanding
that all losses
affect the
company’s
overall
performance
Risks are considered simply
as general business risks and
workplace safety deficiencies
are not fully understood as
sources of risk. Humans are
mainly considered to be
flexible components in this
context (Cantor 2008, Perttula
2010).
Articles II-IV discuss and
provide in-depth information
on the different risks from a
human perspective.
In-depth examples of typical
losses and their respective
costs, supplemented with
visualisations (as e.g. Rajala
et al. (2012) have suggested)
can be provided in order to
present how losses can affect
company performance. This
material can be used for safety
training purposes.
Participatory
development
processes
L/SH operations are
performed within various work
environments and this poses
challenges for management
(Cantor 2008, Shibuya et al.
2010). Holistic approaches
require the participation of
relevant stakeholders. (Vink et
al. 2008).
Drivers, drivers’ immediate line
managers,
Industrial safety group
members and
R&D personnel participated.
Results show that different
stakeholders can contribute
effectively to development
processes (Articles II-IV).
To obtain more valid results,
the number of participants in
each group needs to be
higher. Additionally
participation is lacking from
some key stakeholders, such
as customers.
Concrete
micro-
ergonomics
aims
Different pieces of work
equipment have been
developed to ease drivers’
work (Jung et al. 2005,
McClay 2008, Roebuck &
Norton 2002). Nonetheless
there are differences with
regard to how employees have
been trained to use them, how
well they are designed and
whether they are available and
accepted for use (Fathallah et
al. 2000, Rislund 2006).
Identifications of demanding
work situations were further
analysed and divided on the
basis of work environment
(Article IV) and work
equipment (Article III) to show
how complex work systems
can be improved with
microergonomics development
actions.
Article IV provides some
examples of microergonomics
problems which were
processed in participatory
design sessions. More reliable
evidence is needed on the
effectiveness of such
sessions.
The approach used in this thesis to study L/SH drivers’ work concentrated mostly
on the social and technological aspects of sustainable work systems. Schiller et al. (2010) and Black (2010) emphasise that in general, current transportation systems
are non-sustainable. Economic and environmental aspects are discussed only
indirectly as by-products of the drivers’ work performance. Nevertheless, it is
55
worthwhile to acknowledge the issue raised by Dekker et al. (2013), that
questions whether there is a simultaneous negative impact elsewhere if
ergonomics goals in terms of design and efficiency are achieved. Dekker et al. (2013) challenge us to consider sustainability in the light of Hendrick’s (2001)
argument that “good ergonomics is good economics”. As an example, in the
context of the transportation industry they (Dekker et al. 2013) mention that
increasing ethanol content in fossil fuels reduces local or national carbon dioxide
emissions but then the change also has negative effects on food prices. Zink and Fischer (2013) encourage whole value creation chains to be
considered as a way to trigger new innovative approaches. In the context of a
sustainable value chain, environmental issues can be affected various ways. For
instance, Young et al. (2011) have quite recently discussed the environmental
issues brought to light by the concept of green driving. They highlight proper
planning, smooth acceleration, moderate engine speeds and obeying speed limits
as some practical measures that the drivers can observe. Many of these measures
also contain social aspects; for example, managers and end customers could relax
their delivery schedules in order to reduce motor idling and speeding. From a
human perspective, more options would be available to the individual truck driver
with respect to selecting appropriate and safe ways to perform his or her work.
5.2 Work system management in L/SH operations
As shown in articles II, III and IV professional L/SH drivers work in complex
work systems where people, technological and environmental variables and their
interactions are present. The land transport industry as a labour-intensive sector is
in need of human centred ergonomics approaches. According to studies by
Hanowski et al. (1999) and Pekkala (2008) L/SH drivers on local routes spend
only about one third of their work shift driving. Most of the work is consists of
different tasks out of the cab. The accidents and incidents within the industry are
strongly associated in particular to such work tasks. Additionally as emphasised
by Kaila-Kangas et al. (2011) there is evidence that the increased risk of lower-
back disorders in the industry is more likely due to the strenuousness of the work
out of the cab rather than being attributable to driving. Findings, emerging both
from literature and the empirical results of this study, question how current work
system design and management practices can overcome these complex challenges. The relationships between the driver, vehicle and environment in an accident
causation context have been understood for decades, as noted by McFarland
56
(1958). The wide variety of different tasks, work equipment and work
environments, shown in articles II, III and IV poses challenges in terms of
information collection regarding different types of discomfort, risks, deviations
and other problems at work. More precisely, article II shows the diversity of the
connections between the physical activities that the driver performs daily and the
possible deviations. Besides management, the varying nature of the work poses
challenges for OHS personnel, who need additional tools to raise awareness of the
sources accident risks and WMSDs in drivers’ work.
The identifications made by different stakeholders represent work situations
that are causing physical and/or psychosocial discomfort to the driver. It is
possible that these work situations, when performed regularly may lead to
WMSDs such as chronic back pain and thus lead to possible work disability. A
good example of such discomfort is sudden overexertion or straining that can
occur when performing daily, routine MMH tasks unsafely. Risks such as this are
emphasised in L/SH drivers’ work, which is a combination of static work (sitting
while driving) and physical work. However, drivers also identified several unsafe
acts where they put themselves at constant risk of acute accidents that can lead to
human, economic and environmental harm.
Employers as system decision makers are responsible for providing safe work
environments and work equipment to their employees regardless of the physical
location of the actual work environment. Additionally employers are responsible
for guidance, maintenance, supervision and job planning issues. This is
challenging in a context such as L/SH operations, where work environments and
working conditions vary greatly during the workday. Article IV shows that
improvement needs for work environments were especially identified in a)
customers’ yards and premises and b) trucks, truck bodies and trailers. Often
L/SH drivers work alone in these environments. In the event of an accident,
assistance is not always available easily or quickly. Both of these examples
represent work environments in which permanent management requires the
participation of other stakeholders. Employers, often as small actors in the field of
L/SH transportations, need concrete support from system influencers, such as
public authorities in order to disseminate new OHS practices. Transportations
companies must also be able to cooperate together to promote shared needs in
terms of OHS in drivers’ work environments. Cooperation is needed despite the
fact that the companies are competing in same markets.
Nordic conditions; cold, darkness, wind, wet weather and slippery conditions
also increase the risk of accidents and WMSDs, if they are not systematically
57
managed. Personal protective equipment is one way to protect drivers.
Nonetheless, as pointed out by Anttonen et al. (2009) some compromises may
have to be made. For example, heavy clothing in winter time interferes with
movement, perception and the driver’s ability to feel the surrounding and thus
may affect productivity. Optimising clothing is also problematic due to varying
environmental conditions (continuous changes from warm cabs to cold outdoor
environments) at wintertime. This poses challenges, not only to drivers and
employers, but also to clothing designers as well as customers who could provide
indoor loading platforms to prevent risks related to varying environmental
conditions. If indoor loading platforms cannot be provided, other measures
innovative solutions, such as heaters can be introduced. The dissemination of good working practices at employee (system actor)
level seems to be inadequate or drivers simply do not tend to use them due to old
habits. There are several practical guidelines and regulations provided by system
influencers, system experts and system decision makers that can be used in safety
management processes. Drivers can reduce the risks for slips and falls in cab or
cargo space access situations by following the simple three point support
instructions provided by the standard CEN/TR 614-3 (2010). Three point support
means that when climbing into or out of the cab/truck, the driver simultaneously
uses two hands and one foot or two feet and one hand in contact with the vehicle
when accessing or moving about on the vehicle.
A practical tool for safety management use in illustrating forces generated
exiting a cab or trailer of a large truck is provided by TIRES (2012). In addition to
that several national and international authorities provide guidelines and
regulations for manual materials handling and lifting situations (see NIOSH 2007,
Occupational Safety and Health Administration 2006, VnP 1409 1993) and the
Finnish Institute of Occupational Health hosts a database for sharing good
ergonomics practices in the road transport industry (FIOH 2012). Swuste (2008) criticises that management systems in smaller companies often
lack focus on risk and hazard identification. In order to succeed in holistic
management, Kaplan and Norton (2004) emphasise that smaller companies need
more practical tools. According to Bisantz and Drury (2005) both observational
and archival studies are needed when it is essential to understand the full
complexity of a natural environment and when there are limited possibilities for
controlled experiments. L/SH operations present a fine example of such a
situation. Furthermore as emphasised by Sinclair (1991) subjective observations
58
made by several different stakeholders can produce deeper, more complex and
more subtle data than simply external observers’ perceptions.
One practical approach for combining micro and macroergonomics and
archival and observational measures is discussed in article IV by Reiman and
Putkonen (2012). According to their study, accident information and accident
statistics can be analysed to find out the work tasks, tools and environments on
which development actions are to be focused. Furthermore sick leave statistics
also provide valuable information for that purpose. The needs can be concretised
for further design processes within video material on actual work situations. This
approach contains similar aspects to Olsen’s study (2005) in which VIDAR
findings were utilised in small scale project groups to find solutions to the
problems identified. As pointed out by Olsen (2005), VIDAR analyses allowed
participants to point out and concretise physical and psychosocial loads in their
work and thus create a basis for further discussions. Gunasekaran et al. (2001)
have listed several strategic, tactical, and operational level metrics that can be
measured to accompany video analyses in order to attain more evidence for
justifying the need for improvements.
Furthermore video material can also be used for training purposes. Video
material on L/SH drivers work has already been incorporated into periodic
training for professional drivers (Directive 2003/59/EC 2003) by Kärmeniemi et al. (2012). The use of illustrative and descriptive material has been recommended
for practical risk prevention and safety promotion practices by Rajala and
Väyrynen (2010).
5.3 Work system design in L/SH operations
The results of this study show that the work environments where the drivers work
out of the cab constitute a complex problem from a work system design and
management point of view. To a certain extent safety and ergonomics deficiencies
in drivers’ work systems constitute a complex social problem, and requires large
strategic level improvement measures that have not yet been taken. Weick (1984)
suggested that such complex and widespread problems could be divided into a
series of smaller problems that can be solved step by step with concrete and
complete solutions. That approach is supported also by Hendrick (2008) and
Liker et al. (1991) who recommend in their ergonomics studies to first solve
straightforward problems before any attempts are made on complex problems.
59
Davies et al. (2003) and Perttula and Salminen (2012) have listed several
practical measures, such as proper working methods, appropriate equipment for
MMH, non-slip shoes, proper flooring materials, suitable lighting, clear
workspaces and avoiding changes in floor levels that can be used to reduce work
environment related risks. However, these work environments such as enclosures
and buildings, public places and sites may be administered by different parties
and are thus challenging for the employer to design permanent solutions. Often
employers are only able to hope that the customers monitor OSH at their premises
and yards continuously. In many cases the employer must consider whether to put
their faith in their employees’ ability to perform the work in such environments or
to provide specific action rules for all situations. For instance, the European
Agency for Safety and Health at Work (2011b: 20), Reiman et al. (2010) and
Özcelik (2010a, 2010b) provides new ideas and interesting discussions on the use
of different kinds of mobile information and communications technology (ICT)
tools for communication and work system management purposes in the L/SH
transportation system. In this context manual work equipment can be seen as a concrete problem
that is easier to approach. Haeflinger (2012) concludes that even if the product, as
in this context, work equipment, is intrinsically safe its adaptation to a certain
work situations might not be guaranteed. Article III discussed L/SH drivers’ work
outside the cab in work equipment context. According to the results and literature
different kinds of work equipment exist. Nevertheless there seems to be
differences between the types of transportation and whether such equipment is
available and actually used.
Eichendorf (2012) highlights that despite considerable progress in the area of
health protection in product design; ergonomics has still remained rather
challenging area for designers. These challenges are in many respects emphasised
in L/SH operations. The work equipment is rather space and time consuming for
the driver to carry on local deliveries where a large number of customers is served
during a work shift. Furthermore the customers are often so small in size that they
are willing to plead that they do not have enough resources to provide adequate
work equipment. This is especially emphasised within smaller customers, such as
kiosks and restaurants.
It is also possible that other parties own the work equipment used and have
their own requirements for its use. In Finland the roll cages and dollies are often
not owned by the customers or the transportation company but by a third party
that pools and allocates equipment throughout the whole country. That poses
60
challenges to the end-users to share their knowledge on different problems related
to that particular technology. Quite often these devices have been developed to be
used in normal working environments. For example, it may not be known how the
special conditions in a northern climate affect the tyre function on snowy ground.
Cold weather may also affect the functionality of mechanical systems and
increase risks of accidents, as Anttonen et al. (2009) have emphasised. In addition
to cold temperatures, Häkkinen (1997) also points out that also other specific
conditions such as corrosive atmospheres, heat and seawater may affect materials
and devices, especially if they are not designed to withstand such conditions.
Video filming is an illustrative approach to portray how end-users perform
their work in real work environments. Further in-depth analyses by researchers
and other stakeholders can be used as a basis to decide where to focus
development work. Furthermore, video material enables suitable stakeholders to
be identified, whose participation is needed for future development. Article IV
shows how video material can be used in participatory design sessions in
confronting both micro and macro-level challenges.
5.4 Theoretical contributions
There has been some debate regarding the role of design science in scientific
research as Hevner and Khatterjee (2010: 3) and Järvinen (2006) have highlighted.
This is due to the fundamental characteristics of design science research. Design
science aims to provide valid and reliable knowledge that different practitioners
can use when solving design and construct related problems. According to March
and Smith (1995) design science is prescriptive in nature.
This thesis combines ergonomics knowledge and design science principles in
the context of L/SH drivers’ work systems. The knowledge provided by the
drivers’ work system is, as referred to Hevner & Khatterjee (2010: 4) rather
fundamental but still useful for only restricted subjects, i.e. drivers and other
stakeholders in the value network. The material provided by articles, II, III and IV
in general mainly parallels the outcomes of previous studies on the subject.
Nonetheless the articles provide valuable new and in-depth information on L/SH
drivers’ work. As pointed out by Shibuya et al. (2010) the majority of studies on
the road transport sector have been epidemiological in nature and that there is a
need for other approaches also.
The design knowledge provides in-depth data on L/SH drivers’ work outside
the cab. Different professionals that are willing to utilise that knowledge must, to
61
the appropriate extent, translate it to the specific problems that they are aiming to
solve. This thesis adds participatory knowledge on different work system
elements of drivers’ work to the ergonomics and safety framework. Additionally
this thesis provides new participatory cooperation approaches, guidelines for
holistic management processes and material for design science purposes.
5.5 Reliability and validity
The observation material in this thesis consisted of participatory observations
made widely across the Finland. The results mainly support and complete existing
knowledge on L/SH drivers’ work systems. Thus it is likely, but not proven in this
thesis, that the results hold at least at other Nordic countries and can be
generalised also wider.
Design science is about finding reasons for and constructing improvements
and innovations, and further evaluating them. The participatory approach applied
in this study shows itself to be useful for design science and furthermore
especially for practical engineering and risk management practices. Nonetheless
epidemiological evidence – health and safety outcomes – remains a question for
further studies.
Some notices must be made as regards to the validity and reliability of the
design knowledge provided by this thesis. Ergonomics observations in articles II,
III and IV were based on subjective assessments through videos. The validity of
the method is not clarified as noted by Takala et al. (2010) in their epidemiology-
centred review. In a study by Forsman et al. (2003a) three different ways of using
the VIDAR method were compared in three branches. The group analyses
produced less identifications than individual employees in personal analyses.
Nonetheless, the test subjects concluded that group analyses were the most time-
efficient. Similarly a study by Mathiassen et al. (2012) supports that finding, by
stating that it can be highly cost-efficient to have multiple repeated observations
rather than a collection of larger video data and having the data observed fewer
times. Additionally as emphasised by Patton (1987: 137) video cameras have a
limited field of vision which narrows down the possibilities to capture all
affecting elements of the work situation.
The amount of participants varied from the minimum of eight individual
drivers (article III) to the maximum of sixteen individual drivers (article IV).
Additionally group analyses were also done. From an epidemiological study
perspective, the subject group in this thesis is indisputably insufficient. Earlier
62
literature does not state how many subjects must participate in such combinations
of ergonomics and design science studies to fulfil reliability and validity criteria.
Nonetheless the amount of subjects (from eight to sixteen individuals) in this
thesis is quite equal (or even higher) to earlier studies on VIDAR by Kadefors and
Forsman (2000), Hanse & Forsman (2001), Forsman et al. (2003a; 2003b) and
Olsen (2005). Additionally the amount is also equal to the ergonomics studies on
delivery operations by McGlothlin (1996) and Okunribido et al. (2006).
The subject group in articles II, III and IV was male-dominated and the
average age was quite low referring to national average age for the drivers in the
transport and storage sector in Finland. However the youthful age and male-
intensity are typical characteristics for local and short haul deliveries. As noticed
by Perttula (2011) quite commonly younger drivers are placed in jobs that require
more materials handling and older more experienced drivers tend to drive the long
distance routes. Thus, the participants are representative of a rather prominent
sample in the actual situation. Additionally, the point in time of the analysis (in
parallel, immediately after or later) must be noted.
Subjectivity is a question that must be considered when reviewing the results.
For example, the subjective CR-10 ratings by the drivers in article III were
performed within few days of the video filming. Usually, as instructed by Borg
(1998) they are evaluated immediately after the test. There is also a possibility
that the natural behaviour of the participants is influenced by the video recordings.
That is noted also by Kadefors and Forsman (2000). Nonetheless they (Kadefors
& Forsman 2000) argue that a more significant risk is that the subjects may
change their standards and angle of analysis during the analysis phase.
The meta-synthesis (article I) was based on three different development cases
in Northern Finland. The cases were conducted by a researcher group in which
the author of this thesis also participated. Nonetheless the meta-synthesis was
made by two researchers, i.e. the authors which reduces the possibilities of single
researcher’s selective perceptions and biases. The contributions are based on
qualitative analyses afterwards and are thus interpretative in nature.
5.6 Recommendations for further research
The studies included in this thesis incorporate in-depth only road transport sector
and more precisely L/SH drivers work outside the cab. For to provide a totally
holistic view on drivers work also driving phases need to be studied. Concrete
63
ideas for further research in the field of GAT and transportation industry are
presented in Table 5.
Future research can be more precisely directed towards studying the validity
and repeatability issues of the video observation method used in this study. The
method differs from other video analysis methods, as noted by Takala et al. (2010), as it allows employees to participate in assessing general workload.
Pehkonen et al. (2009) provide an example where validity and inter-observer
repeatability of a video-based observation method in kitchen work has been tested. Furthermore the utilisation process of design science knowledge must be
studied more profoundly. Article IV discusses the use of video observation
material in product design purposes in more detail. Article IV reveals that cargo
space designers are not fully aware of the risks that are related to products they
design. In the future product designers’ attitudes towards human-centred design
need to be studied in greater detail. Furthermore the design process must be
studied more profoundly. Future studies can develop answers to questions, such
as: how relevant were the improvement ideas gained through participatory
analyses and in which form the information should be provided so that it can be
utilised in the design processes. Future studies can also include approaches that
clarify whether the improvement ideas through video analyses had any long-
lasting effect.
Finnish legislation (Occupational Health Care Act (1983/2001); Occupational
Safety and Health Act (738/2002)) requires that employers, taking the nature of
the work and activities into account, systematically and adequately analyse and
identify the hazards and risks related to work. This thesis provides an example of
how participatory video analyses can be utilised for that purpose. One aim for
future studies in that context can be used to study how this participatory
procedure and supporting ICT tools can fulfil that requirement and if it is feasible
for that purpose. The effectiveness of ergonomics studies has been a topical subject for a long
time. The perceptions of ergonomists and other stakeholders regarding the
benefits of ergonomics interventions may vary. The benefits of the video
observation approach are discussed only briefly in article II. In future a possibility
of before and after studies must be considered more carefully. For such purposes
the hidden costs and indirect benefits of the intervention are to be recognised and
taken into account. For the effectiveness studies, Verschuren and Hartog (2005)
provide general guidelines and criteria for evaluation in the design science
context.
64
65
6 Conclusions
The work of L/SH drivers is characterised by various kinds of physically and
psychosocially demanding work situations and hazard risks in different work
environments outside the cab. L/SH drivers’ work systems are complex entities
and contain various sources of physical, psychosocial and cognitive loads for the
person. The results show that the OHS risks in L/SH drivers’ work are often
related to customers’ premises and yards and the trucks, truck bodies and trailers.
Work in these environments is of a physical nature that may result in a number of
deviations, from which sudden overexertion and straining and different kinds of
falls and slips were the most common.
All loads and different losses affect the company's overall performance.
Systems and their interactions must be understood in order to be able to make
holistic strategic choices. Ergonomics provides a human perspective on a holistic
and sustainable work system design and management process. This thesis shows
how different stakeholders’ can contribute in order to succeed in holistic design
and management processes of L/SH drivers’ work systems.
1. Employers, as key system decision makers, are responsible for providing safe
work environments and work equipment for their employees regardless of
where the work is performed. Furthermore, employers are responsible for
designing and planning the work itself so that hazards and risks affecting the
OHS of employees as a result of workload factors are avoided completely or
at least reduced.
2. Employers and customers both as system decision makers must interact in
order to assure that the work environments are safe. The cooperative OHS
work must be continuous and holistic. As the premises and yards might be
administered by other parties, complex demands are placed on work
environment design and management. Cooperation practices must also
include these parties.
3. Work outside the cab can be performed with various items of work equipment.
It is possible that the customers may provide work equipment for use at their
premises. L/SH drivers also carry some work equipment with them on their
delivery routes. Thus, several stakeholders can contribute to work equipment
and its design and management. Currently, there is need for improvement in
how designers collect feedback from the end-users. Work equipment issues
must be continuously discussed by the employers, employees, customers,
66
work equipment manufacturers and suppliers in order to be able to provide
adequate work equipment for different work situations.
4. Employees as system actors are responsible for performing work using the
equipment available in a safe way, regardless of the location where the work
is performed and by accommodating the instructions and regulations that are
provided to them by other stakeholders. Currently, employers lack the tools to
monitor OSH in different work environments and they are, in many cases,
forced to rely on their employees and customers’ own skills in OSH issues.
5. Individual and small transportation companies are often not powerful enough
to provide nationwide requirements for work environment design and
management processes. System influencers such as regulators and other
authorities must be included in work system design and management
processes in order to make strategic, long-lasting and nationwide decisions on
improvements in drivers’ work outside the cab.
6. Drivers’ work outside the cab consists of various different physical work
activities. These work activities performed within complex work systems
may lead to several kinds of deviations if safety issues are ignored. Video
material of the work provides valuable and illustrative information that can
be used in work system design and management processes and for different
stakeholders to use.
7. Video material facilitates a mutual view of a rather complex issue, in which
an employee works in environments that are not directly managed by the
employer. Despite its constraints (in giving only a limited view of the
situation), video material can provide illustrative data for use in developing a
mutual view and for the justification of improvement needs.
67
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Original publications
I Reiman A & Väyrynen S (2011) Review of Regional Workplace Development Cases: A Holistic Approach and Proposals for Evaluation and Management. International Journal of Sociotechnology and Knowledge Development 3(1): 55–70.
II Reiman A, Pekkala J, Väyrynen S, Putkonen A, Abeysekera J & Forsman M (2013) Delivery Truck Drivers' and Stakeholders Video-assisted Analyses of Work Outside the Truck Cabs. International Journal of Sustainable Transportation. In press.
III Reiman A, Pekkala J, Väyrynen S, Putkonen A & Forsman M (2013) Participatory Video-assisted Evaluation of Truck Drivers’ Work outside the Cab – Local Deliveries in two Transportation Companies. Journal of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics. In press.
IV Reiman A & Putkonen A (2012) Ergonomics development needs in truck body design – From video analyses to solution proposals. International Journal of Human Factors and Ergonomics l(1): 58–73.
The named Journals are the original sources of publication for the above
mentioned four articles. Reprinted with the permission from IGI Global (I),
Taylor & Francis (II), Central Institute for Labour Protection – Research Institute
(CIOB-PIB) (III), and Inderscience Publishers (IV).
Original publications are not included in the electronic version of the dissertation.
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