introduction to digital radiography - welcome|radiation imaging...
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INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL RADIOGRAPHY
Ho Kyung Kim, Ph.D.hokyung@pusan.ac.kr
School of Mechanical EngineeringPusan National University
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr}
Outline
• Brief overview of DR-detector configurations and principles
• Comments on the design considerations
• Imaging performances of DR detectors
• Applications of FPDs
• Prospects in the near future
2
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr}
Take-home messages
• Two fundamental radiation-detection principles: Recombination & ionization
• Two different schemes of x-ray detection in digital radiography detectors: Direct vs. indirect-conversion schemes
• Role of "gain-offset correction" in digital radiography
• Concept of Fourier-based image-quality metrics: MTF, NPS, & DQE
• Energy-discriminating, depth-discriminating radiographs; how can we get them?
• Differences between energy-integrating and photon-counting imaging
3
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr}
Roentgen vs. Me
4
WC Roentgen, Dec. 22, 1895 HK Kim, Sept. 19, 2009
113 years gap
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr}
Why’ve been so slow in progress?
• The size does matter.– Limited size of available imagers (e.g. CCD,
CMOS photodiode arrays)– Availability of big size wafer– Marginable production yield in the wafer-
based process
5
17”
14” 17”
17”
• Radiation hardness of silicon or other materials for electronic imagers
• Computed radiography (CR) based on photostimulable phosphors, introduced in the early 1980s by the Fuji Photo Film Co., has been used until now (and still after).
CCD, LBNL
Taken picture from MJ Flynn’s Lecture Slides
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr}
Tricks
• Utilization of the conventional, small-size photo-imagers (e.g. CCD, CMOS) but,
– With various mechanical motions;• May provide a better image quality
due to the scatter rejections• But, can we finish scanning within a
single heart beat?
6
MJ Yaffe and JA Rowlands, PMB (1997)
– By coupled with optics;
• But, very special caution should be devoted when designing optics systems
• e.g. = 1.5% ( = 0.8, M = 0.5, & F = 1.2)
22
222
2
44)1(4M
FM
MFMM
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr} 7
Scanning radiography: panoramic radiography
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr} 8
Imaging Dynamic Co., Ltd., Canada
Lens-coupled DR system
CCD
X-ray
LightLens
Mirror
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr} 9
Poor light collection efficiency may results in a small number of electrons being produced for each absorbed x-ray photon, hence showing excess noise in images (secondary quantum sink)
Taken picture from MJ Flynn’s Lecture Slides
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr}
– By butting small-size imagers (mosaic method);
• But, should the butting-gap be as small as a pixel pitch
• Needed additional image processing techniques for interpolation between gaps and different signal responses between the detector modules
10
– By stitching small-size imaging chips (or reticles) in wafer-process level.
• Ideally, there are no physical gaps between reticles
• But, also needed an additional image processing technique for different characteristics between reticles due to the nonuniform fabrication process over large area
Image courtesy of Dr. T. Achterkirchen, Rad-icon Imag. Corp. Image courtesy of Vatech & E-Woo
A pixel
< 50 m
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr}
Breakthrough
• Large-area flat-panel detectors (FPDs)– Motivated by large-area AMLCDs and initialized in the mid-1980s– Realization of 2D pixel arrays (TFT alone or a combination of TFT plus photodiode in a pixel) on
large-area glass substrate based on amorphous silicon process• Lower fabrication cost compared to the crystalline counterpart• Better radiation hardness• But, worse electrical properties & a high density of charge traps, which may result in image
lag & ghosting
11
Image Courtesy ofSamsung Electronics Co. & Vatech, Co., Ltd.
Scintillator to convertx-ray into light
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr} 12
Taken pictures from Dr. J Yorkston’s Slides
Image Courtesy of Anrad
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr}
Amorphous materials
• Availability in large area• Lower fabrication cost compared to crystalline devices • Better radiation hardness than crystalline devices• Worse electrical properties than crystalline devices• Charge trapping thru dangling bonds• Hydrogenated amorphous silicon, a-Si:H
13
SiHydrogenated
Uncoupled
Void
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr}
Recombination
14
Activator site
Valence band
Forbidden gap
Conduction band
EnergyEnergy
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr}
Ionization
• Radiation signal (or energy) Q I V digital signal
15
EnergyActivator site
Valence band
Forbidden gap
Conduction band
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr}
Detection principles
• Indirect-conversion FPDs– Converting x-ray into light, and then
electrical signals– Information sharing over several pixels
16
HK Kim, IA Cunningham, Z Yin, G Cho, IJPEM (2008)
Scintillator
Passivation
ITOp+
ViaIntrinsic
n+
Data lineBias line
GateSourceDrain
|E|
V – V
Glass substrate
Photoconductor
Top electrode
|E|
V – V
Pixel electrode
Storage capacitor
Glass substrate
• Direct-conversion FPDs– Converting x-ray into electrical signals
directly– No information sharing
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr}
Operation principles
17
HK Kim, IA Cunningham, Z Yin, G Cho, IJPEM (2008)
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr}
Comparisons
Indirect-conversion FPDs Direct-conversion FPDs
X-ray converterScintillators
e.g. CsI:Tl, Gd2O2S:TbPhotoconductive semiconductorse.g. a-Se, HgI2, PbI2, PbO, CdZnTe
Readout pixel array TFT + photodiode TFT + pixel electrode (storage cap.)
Bias voltage -5 ~ -10 V higher (e.g. 10 V/m @ a-Se)
Fab. complication 12 ~ 14 masks 5 ~ 7 masks
Quantum efficiency higher lower (a-Se)
Image blurring Additional light scattering Within intrinsic x-ray interactions
Image sampling Lower aliasing Higher aliasing (white spectrum)
Amelioration
Higher intrinsic conversion eff.Less light scattering
Better optical couplingLess charge trapping
High Z materialsLower W-value
Lower dark currentLarger F
18
HK Kim, IA Cunningham, Z Yin, G Cho, IJPEM (2008)
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr}
FPDs at home
19
매일경제, 2007.12.13.
연합뉴스, 2007.11.22.
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr}
Some practical considerations in the design of FPDs
• Pixel fill factor– Fractional area sensitive to signal in a pixel– Related directly to the detector signal and
noise aliasing– Mitigated with various approaches
• 3D configuration of pixel elements• Back to the silicon process???
• With elaborated, sophisticated pixel deigns, such as 3D configuration with poly-crystalline or crystalline silicon process, new imaging detector or technology would be expected.
– Active pixel sensor– Energy-specific imaging
20
Room for more elements
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr}
• Readout speed– Charge transfer time
• pix = 10 2.4 M 1 pF = 24 s– ADC time
• 1536 data lines = 128 / (5 MHz 0.5) = 51.2 s– Frame time = 1280 75 s = 96 ms (10 Hz)
21
From Dr. RA Street’s Text
panel
panelgate
gate
pdongateread
L
LCRdNCR
dCdRN
CRN
0000
200
1010
10
10
in msec
(in cm)
• A rule of thumb;
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr}
• Electronic noise
22
Noise sources Formalism
Estimated Noise (e–)in an FPD with a pixel
pitch of 100 m(40 x 40 cm2, 100 ms)
TFT thermal noise
490
TFT transient noise
PD shot + 1/f TFToff
PD shot + 1/f TFTon
TFT shot + 1/f TFToff
Data line thermal noise 2310
Preamplifier noise 560
ADC noise 120
Total noise 2430
pdkTCq
21
n
Ltrans f
fQq
11
n
LoffTFTleakpd f
fIq
11
n
LonTFTleakpd f
fIq
11
n
LoffTFTleakTFT f
fIq
11
01 fkTRCq datadata
01
316)(1 f
gkTCC
q mampdata
1221
bitssignalQ
q
LE Antonuk’s Group, Med. Phys. (2000)
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr}
• Imperfection in signal responses over the detector area due to;
– Variations in areal x-ray exposure;– Variations in sensitivity of x-ray converters;– Variations in sensitivity of readout pixel
arrays;– Variations of in gain & offset of peripheral
circuits;– Variations in signal transfer by
capacitive/resistive coupling thru metal lines;
– etc.
• For the reliable use of FPDs, the methods for the flood-fielding correction and abnormal pixel/line interpolation should be prepared.
23
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr}
Commercial products
GE Trixell Canon Hologic SwissRay DelftDetector name
Revolution Pixium 4600 CXDI 40G DirectRay dOd ThoraScan
Converter CsI:Tl CsI:Tl Gd2O2S:Tb a-Se CsI:Tl CsI:Tl
Thickness (m)
Undisclosed ~550 ~200 ~500 600 ~500
Readoutpixel array
a-Si:H PD/TFT
a-Si:H PD/TFT
a-Si:HMIS/TFT
a-Se TFTmirror + lens
+ 4 CCDsCCD (slot scanning)
Imaging area (cm)
41 x 41 43 x 43 43 x 43 35.6 x 42.7 35 x 43 44 x 44
Pixel format 2022 x 2022 3001 x 3001 2688 x 2688 2560 x 3072 2048 x 2560 2720 x 2720
Pitch (m) 200 143 160 139 169 162
Number of detectors
1 4 (2 x 2) 1 1 4 (2 x 2) 8 (8 x 1)
Geometric fill factor (%)
82 68 52 87 100 87
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Report 05078, Center for Evidence-based Purchasing (2005)
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr}
• Decision makers– Human observers– Quasi-ideal observers– Ideal observers (from Bayesian decision theory)
• Requires measurements of the signal (lesion), CTF, NPS
Which imaging system is the best for accurate diagnosis?
25
Adapted from ICRU 1996
Distribution of actuallyabnormal cases
Decision axis
Distribution of actuallynormal cases
Decision threshold
True positive fraction
False positive fraction
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr}
Relationship between diagnostic performanceand physical image quality
• Image quality parameters– Large-scale system-transfer function– Spatial-resolution properties– Noise properties
26
Adapted from ICRU 1986
Dia
gno
stic
acc
urac
y
Physical image quality
• In Fourier domain (why do we need?)
– Modulation-transfer function (MTF)– Noise-power spectrum (NPS)
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr}
Signal (or contrast) correlation in space
• We cannot avoid the following intrinsic signal spreading factors;– Oblique incident of x rays– Energy-dependent range of the generated electrons– K-fluorescence reabsorption
27
converterconverter
x ray
cluster of optical quanta
• Modulation-transfer function (MTF) is typically used to describe signal spreading; )(lsf)(MTF xu F
Taken Sketches from IA Cunningham's Lecture Slides (SPIE 2008)
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr} 28
Report 05078, Center for Evidence-based Purchasing (2005)
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr}
Noise correlation in space
• These two images have the same pixel variance, but different correlation structure.• Simple image pixel variance ignores second-moment statistics (correlation btwn pixels).• Noise-power spectrum is more appropriate;
29
Taken images from RF Wagner, AAPM (2004)
)(K)(NPS xu F
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr} 30
Report 05078, Center for Evidence-based Purchasing (2005)
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr}
Image quality vs. patient dose
31
Picture used by Rose; taken from AE Burgess, JOSA (1999)
3 103 1.2 104
~105 ~8 105
2.8 1073.6 106
Image qualityPatient dose
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr}
Detective quantum efficiency (DQE)
• Fraction of incident quanta contributing to the image quality• Independent of dose (for quantum-noise limited case)• A measure of how well a detector is able to extract information from a beam of radiation
32
)(NPS)(MTF
)(SNR)(SNR)(DQE
22
2
2
kk
kkk
Gqin
out
Freq.
NPS
Freq.
1
MTF
ideal
sharpblurryuncorrelated
correlated
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr} 33
1 or 100%D
QE
Spatial frequency (mm-1)
( Deceasing detail size)
(H
ow w
ell a
det
ecto
r is a
ble
to e
xtra
ct
info
rmat
ion
from
a b
eam
of ra
diat
ion)
Converter efficiency;Swank noise; additive noise;fill factor; direct x-ray absorption …
Secondary quantum sinks;noise aliasing; reasorption noise …
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr} 34
Report 05078, Center for Evidence-based Purchasing (2005)
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr}
Detector or system?
• Samei et al. have recently introduced the “effective” DQE to extend the concept of DQE for characterizing the performance of DR imaging systems;
35
E Samei et al., Radiology (2008)
qETFMSFM
NB
)(NNPS
)1()(MTF)(eDQE22
kkk
• The results imply that there is a large margin for improving the image quality of detectors while reducing patient dose.
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr}
• Secondary quantum loss– There are several layers between the bottom of
the overlying scintillator and the top of photodiode array for passivation and protection.
– These layers would not be perfectly transparent to the optical secondary quanta, which may result in serious secondary quantum sinks and would degrade the Swank noise factor.
Theoretical DQE
36
Cascaded systems analysisStage Physical process0 Incident quanta1 Interaction of x-ray quanta2 Conversion to secondary quanta3 Spread of secondary quanta4 Coupling of secondary quanta5 Integration by pixel aperture6 Sampling of pixel matrix7 Readout with additive noise
0 1 62B
2C
2A
3 4 5 7
A B C
Modified from J Siewerdsen’s Slides
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr}
• Consider two FPDs both based on CsI:Tl x-ray converters (indirect-conversion detectors)
37
Private communications with Dr. IA Cunningham
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr} 38
S. Yun et al., NIMA in press (2011)
2220
2
20
2
22
1111
)(sinc)()(DQE
ggg aqqI
aT
readgen
ρρρ
2220
2
20
2
2
1111
)(sinc)(DQE
ggg aqqI
a
readgen
ρρ
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr}
Optimization
39
NutaskDQE duuuWdindexityDetectabil '
02 )'(DQE)'(
Spatial frequency (mm-1)or “Object details”
Func
tion
Imaging taskObject information in terms of frequency
W12(u)
W22(u)
Detector performanceSNR efficiency as function of frequency
DQE(u)
22 ')'( uatask
taskkeuW
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr}
Applications of FPDs
• Pre-clinical imaging– Small animals
• Diagnostic imaging– Chest imaging– Breast imaging
• Image-guided interventions– Interventional radiology– IG radiation therapy– IG surgery
40
Control group
Ovariectomized group fed with regular food
Ovariectomized group fed with Ca-free food
Image courtesy of Dr. SY Lee’s Group, KHU
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr}
Applications of FPDs
• Pre-clinical imaging– Small animals
• Diagnostic imaging– Chest imaging– Breast imaging
• Image-guided interventions– Interventional radiology– IG radiation therapy– IG surgery
41
Image Courtesy of GE HealthCare
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr}
• Pre-clinical imaging– Small animals
• Diagnostic imaging– Chest imaging– Breast imaging
• Image-guided interventions– Interventional radiology– IG radiation therapy– IG surgery
Applications of FPDs
42
JM Park et al., Radiographics (2007)
Image Courtesy of Anrad
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr} 43
Pictures taken from M. Mahesh, Radiographics (2004)
"While cancer detection did not differ in woman screened with screen-film mammography or digital mammography, the recall rate and false-positive risk were lower with digital mammography than screen-film mammography …,"- M. Sala et al., Radiology, 2011
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr}
Applications of FPDs
• Pre-clinical imaging– Small animals
• Diagnostic imaging– Chest imaging– Breast imaging
• Image-guided interventions– Interventional radiology– IG radiation therapy– IG surgery
44
M Overdick, Philips, IWORID (2002)
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr}
Radiography is an overlaid shadow of 3D structures
45
H. Yun et al., NIMA in press (2011)
Duct network
Glandular tissue
Mass
Calcified duct
Microcalcifications
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr}
Energy discrimination: Duel-energy imaging
46
Low-KVp ILowIHighHigh-KVp
?ln ln lnx =WeightBone
High
BoneLow
Soft-tissue image
SoftLow
SoftHigh
Bone image
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr} 47
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr}
Depth discrimination: Cone-beam CT
48
서울삼성병원/국립암센터
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr}
Depth discrimination: Digital tomosynthesis
49
서울삼성병원
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr}
What is coming?
• To compete the conventional screen/film systems and/or CR systems– Should be mechanically robust & lighter: jet-printing (or digital lithography) onto flexible
substrates– Reduced cost: increased panel yield, use of cheaper scintillator (but the additional options e.g.,
tomosynthesis), digital lithography
• Towards low-dose imaging (or dynamic imaging)– Should be overcome electronic noise
• Direct conversion with new photoconductor• Amplifier per pixel• Avalanche gain
– Could be avoided Swank noise• Photon counting mode
50
a-Si:H active matrix gamma ray detectoron polyimide substrate
Image courtesy of TN Jackson, Penn. State Univ.
Y. El-Mohri, et al., Med. Phys. (2009)Collaborated with Xerox, PARC & dPix
SAPHIRE, W Zhao & JA Rowlands' Group
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr}
Photon-counting imaging
51
NIMA 607 (2009) 221-222
SNR: 1.59 vs. 0.25CNR: 8.93% vs. 0.9%
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr}
Integrating vs. counting
52
dN/dE
E
E
dN/dE
E
NSignal
Noise Swank
~N (Poisson)
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr}
• Gold standard for imaging neurovasculature and extremities
Post-injection image
Subtracted image
Motion artifacts in subtracted image
Pre-injection image
Digital subtraction angiography (DSA)
Y. Bentoutou et al., Pattern Recognition (2002)
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr}
Energy-resolved angiography (ERA)
54
J. Tanguay, H.K. Kim, I.A. Cunningham, in preparation
Photon Energy
# o
f Ph
oto
ns
water
Post-injection
Iodine
Photon Energy
# o
f Ph
oto
ns
Photon Energy
# o
f Ph
oto
ns
31 ;log2
1
jnN
Aj
j
j
Maximum-likelihood solution:
Average value of the linear mass-attenuationcoefficient for material and energy bin j
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr}
Signal-different-to-noise ratio
55
J. Tanguay, H.K. Kim, I.A. Cunningham, in preparation
Truth
20
2
0
I
II AASDNR
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr}
Monte Carlo results
56
J. Tanguay, H.K. Kim, I.A. Cunningham, in preparation
Non-subtracted
DSA ERA
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr}
Infinite dynamic range
57
J. Jakůbec, J. Instrum. (2008)
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr} 58
J. Jakůbec, J. Instrum. (2008)
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr}
Roentgen, revisited
59
Radiation Imaging Lab {bml.pnu.edu}School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National UniversityHo Kyung Kim {hokyung@pusan.ac.kr}
Conclusions
• The x-ray has been revolved from analog to digital since the past 100 years, and maybe the next revolution would be happen through another 100-year time pass. However, small evolutions to improve the performance of DR detectors will be continued during the 100-year time pass.
• Additional work will be required to extend the cascaded linear-systems approach to deal with new technological developments and new detector designs.
• Although flat-panel detectors were introduced about three decades ago, the real war to replace film-screen or CR systems begins now and companies are up against stiff competition.
• For more information, please find:– HK Kim, IA Cunningham, Z Yin, and G Cho, “On the development of digital
radiography detectors : A review,” International Journal of Precision Engineering and Manufacturing, Vol. 9, No. 4, pp. 86-100 (2008). www.ijpem.org
60
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