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JoanJohnson-FreeseNavalWarCollegejohnsonj@usnwc.edu

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WomenintheNon-TraditionalWorkforce:BeyondConfidence,Competency&Connections1

Theincreasingpushforadiversifiedworkforcewithinbothprivateandpublic

institutionsisrecognizedasafunctionofbothneedandbenefit.Ina2013interviewon

NationalPublicRadio,thenChairmanoftheJointChiefsofStaff,GeneralMartinDempsey

statedthatheforesees“amilitarythathastoadapttoachangingworld,[and]notjusta

sociallychangingworldbutliterallyademographicallychangingworld.”Hewentontoconsider

howthosechangeswouldaffectmilitaryrecruitment,saying,“we’regoingtoneedtoattractas

muchdiversityandasmuchtalentaswecanpossiblyattract.”2Justbeforeleavinghisposition

asChairman,hereiteratedinaspeechatFortHoodthat,“diversityisourgreateststrength.”3

Diversity,itmustbeemphasized,isnotsomethingdoneforequitypurposes;itisdoneto

strengthenanorganization.

Attracting,hiring,retainingandadvancingwomeninnon-traditionalfieldssuchasthe

military,herefocusingonofficers,willrequireconcertedactiononthepartoftheorganization,

especiallyinhelpingwomentobuildinternalsupportsystems.Butwomenmustalsodotheir

parttoprepareforthechallengestheywillinherentlyface.Competence,longconsideredby

womenasthekeytobreakingintonon-traditionalfields,isnotenough.Confidence,beingable

toacceptcriticism,tenacity,learningtobuildinternalnetworks,andmentoringcomeintoplay

inhiring,retentionandadvancementaswell.


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Consequently,womeninterestedinnon-traditionalcareerfieldsmustunderstandthe

natureoftheissuestheywillencountersotheymaybetterbepreparedtodealwithand

effectivelyaddressthoseissues.Therefore,thepurposeofthisarticleistoraiseawareness

amongmenandwomenregardingtheobstacleswomenfaceinbreakingintonon-traditional

fields,bysynthesizingwhatstudieshaveshownregardingtheapplicabilityoffactorsmen

traditionallyrelyonforhiring,retentionandadvancement–confidence,competencyand

connections--towomen.Issuesregardinghiring,retentionandadvancementforwomenin

non-traditionalfieldssuchasbutnotlimitedtothemilitary,appearstronglyrelatedtoSocial

DominanceOrientation(SDO)theory,includingthe“blindfish”phenomenonofindividualsnot

recognizingsexismortheirinvolvementinperpetuatingsexism.Whilethispaperisnotan

empiricalstudy,relevantempiricalstudiesarecitedinsupportofassertionspresented.

Additionally,suggestionsareofferedregardingfurtheringthediversityGeneral

Dempseyclearlyindicatesasaninstitutionalgoalofthemilitary.Inthatregard,itappears

womenhavingabackgroundthatdirectlypreparesthemforcompetitiveenvironmentsmay

haveanadvantageinretentionandadvancement.Further,aninstitutionallysupported

approachtomentoringcouldhelpcreateinternalsupportsystemswhich,whenlacking,have

beenshownasstronglyrelatedtolowretentionissues.

Consideringthebroadergroupofwomeninnon-traditionalfields(thosewherewomen

makeuplessthan25%oftheworkforce)4ratherthanonlywomenmilitaryofficerswastaken

duetothecommonalityofgender-relatedcareerobstacleswhencareerfieldsarenumerically

dominatedbyonegender,andtherearefarmoreempiricalstudiesthatspannon-traditional

fields.Theorganizationalculturesoforganizationsemployingwomeninnon-traditionalroles


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arethefocus,ratherthanspecificprocessissuesrelatedtothemilitarypersonnelsystems.

Further,womenmilitaryofficersin,forexample,thenursingprofessionwouldlikelynot

encounterthesamegender-competitiveretentionandpromotionissuesastheirfemalepilot

counterparts.ThefirstwomenpromotedtoflagrankinboththeArmyandtheNavy

commandedtheNurseCorps.

Clearly,thereare“goodnews”storiesofwomenwhohave“madeit”throughthehiring,

retentionandadvancementgauntlet.MichelleHoward,forexample,wasnamedtheNavy’s

firstwomanfour-staradmiralin2014.Infact,shewasthefirstAfrican-Americanwomanto

achieveboththree-andfour-starrankintheU.S.ArmedForcesaswellasbeingthefirst

womanandAfrican-AmericanwomantoachievetherankofadmiralintheNavy,throughan

exemplaryoperationalrecordasasurfacewarfareofficer.Whileherpromotionwasa

significanteventfortheNavy,themilitary,andforwomen,Howardherselfsaidin2012,

"Therewereindividualswhodidn'twantmethereorwantedtounderminewhatIwastryingto

do."5ANavyTimesarticlechronicledtheprejudice,resistanceandresentmentshe

encountered“fromherInductionDayin1978,”andcontinuedasaflagofficer.Thiskindof

resistancecanhinderwomen’sabilitytodotheirjobsasitconnectstotheNavyandthenation,

andthereforerequiresitberecognizedandaddressed.

TheresentmentsufferedbyAdmiralHowardcametolightin2013afteraNavyreport

citedoneofherpeers,Rear.Adm.ChuckGaouette,fortellingothersthatHoward“maynot

havehadtocrossasmanyhurdlesinthesamefashiontogetwhereshewasat,”andherrace

andgendermayhavespedupherselectionforviceadmiral,accordingtoaNavyinvestigation.6

Gaouette,whowasfiredfromcommandoftheJohnC.StennisCarrierStrikeGroupmid-


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deploymentin2012,admittedhiscommentswere“petty”andsaidhe’dapologizetoHoward.7

Gaouette’scomments,however,demonstratesthatchallengestoinclusivediversityremainsa

problemforwomeninnon-traditionalfields,suchasmanyofthoseinthemilitary.

INCLUSIVEDIVERSITY

Organizations,includingthemilitary,aremakingeffortstosupportdiversification.The

DefenseAdvisoryCommitteeonWomenintheServices(DACOWITS)wasestablishedin1951to

advisethePentagononlawsandpoliciesasrelatedtowomeninthemilitary.Althoughitwas

significantlyreducedinsize,activityandconsequentlyeffectin2000,8therehavebeenrecent

effortstorevitalizeit,includingthenamingofretiredLt.GeneralFrancisWilson,USMCasthe

newChairin2014.9TheDefenseEqualOpportunityManagementInstitute(DEOMI)was

establishedin1971,initiallytodealwithissuesrelatedtoracerelations,andnowexpandedto

generallyinstitutionalizeequalopportunityinthemilitary.10DEOMIconductscoursesonequal

opportunity,diversityandpositivehumanrelations,andhasgraduatedover43,000students

fromallservices,frombasesallovertheworld.Theyreturntotheirunitsasadvisorsand

trainers.11Inmanyinstances,however,DEOMIfocusesonprocesses,ratherthanorganizational

cultureissues.Anewprocesstoreporthostileworkenvironmentissueswillnotbeused

though,ifminoritiesdonottrustorganizationalleadershiptosupportthem.

TheformerWomenOfficersProfessionalAssociation(WOPA)isnowtheSeaServices

LeadershipAssociation(SSLA)andholdsannualconferencesthatbringwomentogethertoward

promotingcamaraderieandmentorshipatboththenationalandregionallevels,12hopefullyto

spill-overintosupportforthosemoreisolatedatlocallevels.TheNavysupportsSSLAby

announcingeventsinallNavymessagesaswellasallowingtravelfundingbyindividual


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commands.Theseorganizationsandeffortsexemplifypositivestepsforward,butnotenough.

Thebenefitsofdiversity,includinginnovation,expandedproblem-solvingtechniques

andcapabilities,andstrategicperspectivesaredocumented.13Researchhasalsoshown,

however,thatvisiblesignsofdiversity,suchasrace,genderandage,caninitiallyhavenegative

effectsonteamworkbecauseitcuesanincreasedlikelihoodfordifferencesofopinionwithin

theteam.Withtime,however,eventhatcueingcanenhancetheteam'sabilitytohandle

conflict,becausemembersexpectitandthereforehandleitbetterwhenitsurfaces.14Sowhat

initially“feelsgood”forthegroupmaynotbewhatisbestforthegroupinthelongterm,and

what“feelsbad”canactuallyincreasegroupeffectiveness.Consequently,current

organizationalresearchfocuseson“how”ratherthan“if”diversityshouldbeanorganizational

goal.Akeypointrepeatedlyraisedregardingeffectivediversificationoftheworkforceisthat

diversityisuselesswithoutinclusivity.15HarvardUniversitysimplydefinesaninclusiveculture

asone“thataccepts,valuesandviewsasstrengththedifferenceweallbringtothetable.”16In

otherwords,inclusivediversityismorethanstatistics,andmorethantoleration.17Inclusive

diversitymeansthatanindividualcanvoiceanopinionwithoutfearingdamagetotheircareer

andthattheirinputisvaluedratherthandismissed.Thattruthhasbeenthesubjectofa

numberofearlierworks.18

“Bodycounting”aloneasanindicatorofdiversityfailstoconsiderthecontextofsocial

relations,subjectivities,experiencesandprocessesbywhichinclusivityoccurs.Focusingon

numbersfailstoconsiderthatanestablished,sometimeshostilecultureremainsinplaceafter

womenarehired;largelyinvisible,subjectiveandunchallengedduetoitsembeddednature.

Thepresenceofwomen,evenintheupperlayersofinstitutions,thoughencouraging,cannot


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notbetakenasaclearindicatorthatorganizationalculturesandstructuresaresignificantly

changing,aschangestoorganizationalcultureareamongthehardestchangestomake.

TheNavalWarCollegeseniorleadershipcourseincludesacasestudyonformerIBM

CEOLouGerstnerthatspecificallyfocusesontheimportanceofandchallengestochanging

organizationculture.19Culturechangedoesnotoccurwithoutmanagementmakingitaclear

andobservablepriority.Itisnotsomethingthatwillchangeafteranorganizationallymandated

meetingfeaturingaPowerPointpresentationdefiningsexismandsayingitisbad,anominal

methodforanorganizationtodemonstrateresponsivenesstoanissue.20Whileprocesscanbe

animportantpartofculturechangeitisnotenough,especiallyinahierarchicalorganization.

ArmyColonelDianeRyanwroteher2008doctoraldissertationonmeasuringgender

attitudesandegalitarianismamongU.S.Armypersonnel.21TheeffectofSocialDominance

Orientation,referringtothegeneraltendencyofpeopletoformandmaintaingroup

hierarchiesintheinterestofupholdingthestatusquo,wasakeyconsideration.Further,the

effectofSDOwasconsideredinthatempiricalstudy,drawingfromthe2004workofDambrun,

DuarteandGuimond,22suggestingthatthereasonmenimposesocialdominanceisbecause

theybelongtoahigherstatusgroup.Ryanexplains.23

[SocialDominanceOrientation]isdefinedasageneralindividual-difference

variableexpressinganti-egalitarianism,aviewofhumanexistenceaszero-sum

andrelentlesscompetitionbetweengroups,thedesireforgeneralized

hierarchicalrelationshipsbetweensocialgroupsandin-groupdominanceover

out-groups.24SDOisthoughttogenerateandsustainlegitimizingmythsthat


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providethejustificationformaintainingin-groupdominance(e.g.womenare

notasintelligentasmen).25

SDOprovidestherationalenecessarytolegitimizeotherwiseunacceptablepersonal

behavior,specificallysexism.

Whiletherearemanydifferentdefinitionsofsexism,hereitreferstoprejudice

ordiscrimination(oftensmall,calledmicroaggressions26)basedonsex,andbehavior,

conditionsandattitudesthatfosterstereotypesofsocialrolesand,assuch,prejudice

anddiscrimination.Onanaccumulated,and(eventacitly)toleratedbasis,these

attitudesandbehaviorcanconstitutetheinvisible,unspokeninstitutionalsexism

referencedprior,supplementingrule-andstructurally-basedinstitutionalsexism.Rule-

andstructurally-basedinstitutionalsexismincludespoliciesto“protect”womenfrom

jobsandactivitiesdeemedappropriateonlyformen,andarebrokendownthrough

step-by-stepprocessesofintegrationwherewomen“prove”thattheycan“do”

particularjobs,suchaswomenasfirefightersandwomenincombatroles.27

AsBrigadierGeneral(ret)WilmaVaughtstatedinherKeynoteaddressatthe

2016InternationalSocietyforMilitaryEthics(ISME)conferenceinAnnapolis,Maryland,

changesforwomeninthemilitaryhaveoccurredthroughlegislation,whichshe

chronicledinheraddress,andlawsuits.Inotherwords,changehasnotcomeeasily.

Lawsuits,however,canbedifficultandintimidatingforminoritiestopursuesincethey

aremostoftenresponsibleforpayingtheirownlegalfees,againstabatteryof

governmentlawyersthatareonconstantstand-by,paidforbytaxpayers.28The

governmentcanoftenprevailsimplybyoutlastingtheindividual’savailablefunds.


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Dambrun,DuarteandGuimond’sresearchfurthersuggestedthatmaintainingthestatus

quoallowedmentomaintaintheirgroupstatusaswellasapositivesocialidentity.29Ryanwent

ontoconsider,therefore,whethercertainorganizations,suchasthemilitary,“mayfoster

hierarchyenhancingorattenuatingideologies.”30Ryan’sresultssupportedpreviousworkthat

suggestedmeninmale-dominatedcareerenvironmentsmayfeelcompelledto‘hunkerdown’

intheinterestofpreservingtheirprivilegeinthelastbastionofmalesuperiority,andthatmen

generallyagreedgendershouldbeanassettotheircareers.31

Issuesingatheringanddrawingconclusionsfromattitudinalstatisticswithinagender-

dominatedorganizationshouldbenotedaswell.Inanorganizationof400individuals,for

example,only25mightbewomen.Ifasurveyquestionisaskedregardingwhetherthe

organizationcondonessexism,andall25womenanswered“yes,”howthestatisticsare

interpretedmakesabigdifference.Ifwhatpercentageofwomenseesexismasaproblemis

considered,theansweris100%.If,however,whatpercentageoftheoverallpopulation

considerssexismisaproblem,theansweris6.25%andthatfiguremightnotbeconsidered

statisticallysignificant.Consequently,inCommandClimateSurveystakeninmilitarycommands

orEqualEmploymentOpportunitysurveys,forexample,itcanbestatisticallyconcludedthere

isnoorganizationalproblemwithsexism,evenwhenallornearallthewomenfeelthereisa

problem.Inadditiontothisstatisticalinterpretationissue,womencanbereluctanttoeven

participateininstitutionalsurveyswheredemographicinformationthatcouldidentifythemis

required,forfearofbeingidentifiedandcategorizedas“aproblem”iftheyexpressnegative

views,evidencingthatissuesareoftenonesoftrust,notprocess.Thesestatisticscan


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perpetuatemisperceptionsofsexismasaninstitutionalissue.Inherdissertation,DianeRyan

considersdifferencesinperceptionsregardingwhetherornotsexismexistsaswell.

Regardingegalitarianismasanindicatorofinclusivity,RyancitesGordonAllport’s1979

bookOntheNatureofPrejudice,whichfailedtoconsidersexismasaformofprejudice,andthe

laterworkofLaurieRudmanthatlikensAllportto“theproverbialfish–blindtothewaterhe

swimsin.”32Inotherwords,Allportfailedtorecognizeallofthekeyfeaturesofhisown

environment.Thisnon-recognitionperpetuatessexism,ifonlythroughbenignneglect.Ryan

suggestssexismisaformofprejudicethatmaybeconsideredmoreacceptablethanothers,

attributabletoSocialDominanceOrientation.IndianPrimeMinisterNarendraModi’sJune2015

commenttoBangladeshiPrimeMinisterSheikhHasinacomplimentingheronherstrongstance

againstterrorism,“despitebeingawoman,”33andBritishNobellaureateTimHunt’scomments

aboutwomenscientistsbeingadistractingpresenceinlaboratoriesandtheirtendencytocry34

areexamplesoflikelyunintended“blindfish”sexistremarks.Hencetheimportanceofraising

awareness,especiallyamongmen,ofthechallengesfacedbywomeninnon-traditionalcareers.

BREAKINGTHEGLASS(ORBRASS)CEILING

Womenhaveenterednon-traditionalcareerfields,includingfirefighters,surgeons,

businessexecutives,militaryofficers35andSupremeCourtjustices.In2013thePentagon

openedcertaincombatpositionsinaviationandsurfacewarfareoccupationstofemaleservice

members.TheninDecember2015,DefenseSecretaryAshCarterannouncedthatallU.S.

militarypositionswouldbeopentowomen,thoughovertheobjectionsofChairmanofthe

JointChiefsofStaff,MarineGeneralJosephDunford.36TheAirForceThunderbirdsprecision

flyingteamhasincludingfemaleF-16pilotssince2005.Theseareallgoodnewsstories.


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TheNavyincludedafemalememberonitsBlueAngelsteamforthefirsttimein2015,

MarineCapt.KatieHiggins,pilotingtheteam’sC-130“FatAlbert”transportplane.Her

appointmentcametheyearaftertheBlueAngelsgotaninstitutionalblackeyewhenaformer

commanderwasfoundguiltyofallowing“obviousandrepeatedinstancesofsexual

harassment”and“condoningwidespreadlewdpractices.”37BlueAngelscommanderCapt.Tom

Frosch,however,saysHigginsappointmenthadnothingtodowiththe2014incident,andthat

he“doesn’tbelieve”thereareinstitutionalchallengestoacceptingafemaletotheirranks.To

skepticswhosuggestthatherinclusionwasrelatedtolastyear’sBlueAngelsdebaclerather

thanmerit,Capt.Higginssays:“Well,honestly,Iwouldtell’emtowatchthedemo.Theycan’t

tellthedifferencebetweenmineandtheothertwopilotsonherebecauseIflyitaswellasthey

do.”38Withover1000hoursflyingtime,includingover400combathours,39Capt.Higgins

shouldn’thavetodefendherflyingskills.Studieshaveshown,however,thatifskepticscould

identifyCapt.Higginsonthedemotapes,theymighthaveapredispositiontofavoringmales.

Whilewomenhavetheirfoot-in-thedoorinnon-traditionalfields,biasstillexists.40A

double-blind2012studyevidencedthatamongapplicantsrandomlyassignedamaleorfemale

nameforanacademiclaboratorymanager’sposition,theresumesofthosewithmalenames

wereconsideredmorehighlyqualifiedandhirablebyfacultyreviewers.41Similarly,a2014

studyfoundbothmenandwomenweremorelikelytohireamanforajobthatrequired

math.42Thefindingsofthatstudywerechallenged,andthosechallengeswerechallenged,43

perhapsevidencingthesensitivityofsubject.In2015,apeer-reviewersuggestedarejected

studyonpost-doctoraljobopportunitiesbyevolutionarybiologistFionaInglebyatthe

UniversityofSussexcouldbeimprovedbyaddingamaleco-author.Doingso,thereviewer


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stated,would“serveasapossiblecheckagainstinterpretationsthatmaysometimesbedrifting

toofarawayfromempiricalevidenceintoideologicallybiasedassumptions.”44Patronizing

commentsarethemselvesasubtle(ornotsosubtle)expressionofbias.Andbiasisnotlimited

toscience,technology,engineeringandmath(STEM)fields,whichdemonstratesthe

commonalityofchallengesfacedinnon-traditionalfields.

WhileEllenPaorecentlylostherhigh-profilecaseagainstherformerventurecapital

firm,TheEconomistreported45thatalthoughSiliconValleylikestothinkofitselfasperhapsthe

ultimatemeritocracy-morethanhalfofitsfirmsarefoundedbyimmigrants-thespiritof

meritocracydiminisheswhenitcomestogender.AlthoughSiliconValleyboostsitsshareof

high-profilewomen,abouthalfofAmerica’spubliclytradedtechnologycompanieshaveall-

maleboards.Intheareaofsoftwareandcomputing,women’sshareofjobsactuallyfellfrom

34%in1990to27%in2011.46TheproportionoffemalepartnersinAmericanventurecapital

firmsalsodeclinedfrom10%in1999to6%in2014.A2010studyfoundthatonly9.4%of

corporateboarddirectorswerewomen.47A2014surveybyFortunemagazine48foundonly

4.2%ofthepartnersofthe92mostsuccessfulventurecapitalfirmsarefemale.

A2014articleinJointForcesQuarterly49(JFQ)pointedoutthevalueofdiverse

perspectivesinteaching,oftenstimulatedbydemographicdiversity,andthelackofgender

diversityprevalentinsenior-levelProfessionalMilitaryEducation(PME).Self-imposed

structuralrequirementsbiashirestowardthesamekindofolder,whitemalefacultymembers

alreadydominatingPMEfaculty.

PMEfacultypositionsarearguedtorequireacademic“generalists”ratherthan

“specialists,”withwomenpurportedlytendingtowardspecializations.


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Consequently,itisreasoned,fewqualifiedwomenappliedfororwereassigned

teachingpositions.Inrealityfewmaleapplicantsaregeneralistseither,butthey

expandtheirexpertiseonthejob.However,itcertainlyisthecasethatthe

numberoffemaleteachingfacultyapplicantshasbeenlowerthanmen.And

evenwhenqualifiedwomendoapply,therearestillmultiplehurdlesto

overcome.

The“bestathlete”approachtohiringisoftenusedinboththepublicandprivate

sectors.InPME,bestathletecandidatesareconsideredtobethosepossessinga

broadrangeofeducationalattributesandprofessionalexperienceinthemilitary

orthesecurityfield.Farfewerminoritycandidatesarestatisticallylikelyto

possessthiscombinationofattributes,therebypotentiallydisadvantagingor

eliminatingmanyotherwisehighlyqualifiedindividuals.50

Infieldslikeeducation,wherediversityofperspectivesisimportanttoteachingcriticalthinking,

theeffectivenessoftheorganizationbecomesunderminedwheninclusivediversityisnotan

organizationalpriority.

ADVANCEMENTANDRETENTION

Attheveryleast,studiesthereforeshowthatequalconsiderationofqualifiedwomen

cannotbeassumed.Further,oncehired,advancementandretentioninnon-traditionalfields

arechallenges.Whilecompetencyremainsanentranceprerequisite,andwomenoftenassume

asthekeytosuccess,itsvalueinadvancementisnowquestioned.Networkingandmentoring,

triedandtrueadvancementapproachesformen,oftenfailwomenaswell.


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Womenmustthenaskthemselveswhatittakestobeacceptedintotraditionallymale-

dominatedcareerfieldsandtoriseintheleadershipranks,giventhesometimestacitresistance

tohiringandanatbest“blindfish”andattimesopenlyhostileworkenvironmentthat

continues.Assumedanswers,largelybasedonacceptedapproachesregardingwhatithas

takenmentosucceed,groupintothreegeneralcategories:confidence,competenceand

networking.Yettheroleofeachoftheseforwomeninnon-traditionalfieldshasrecentlycome

intoquestion,whichthenleaveswomenwonderingwhattheyaretodobothtogetinthedoor

andbeaccepted?AsonefemaleNavalofficer,apilot,lamented(afterbeingassuredof

anonymity)totheauthor,“Ifinditbesttojustshowyoucangetalongwiththeboys.”

BeConfident,ButNotTooConfident.Women,includingwomenintopleadership

positions,oftensufferfromatypeofimpostersyndrome,onestemmingfromlackof

confidence.JournalistsKattyKayandClaireShipmenwriteaboutitintheir2014bookThe

ConfidenceCode:TheScienceandArtofSelf-Assurance–WhatWomenShouldKnow,asdoes

FacebookCOOSherylSandberginher2013bestseller,LeanIn.Sandberg’slargelyself-

reflectingbooktalksabouthermanyfears–andovercomingthem-whenshetookonherjob

atFacebook.SheadmittedtoKayandShipman,“TherearestilldaysIwakeupfeelinglikea

fraud,notsureIshouldbewhereIam.”51Thisimpostersyndromeisbackedbynumerous

studies.A2011UKInstituteofLeadershipandManagementsurveyofmanagersfound,for

example,thathalfoffemalerespondentshadself-doubtabouttheirjobperformanceand

careerswhilelessthanathirdofmalerespondentsreportedsimilarfeelings.52Thisself-doubt

canleadtowomengivinguponataskbeforeevenstarting,fearingfailureordemonstrating

incompetence.


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Thereis,however,alinkbetweencompetenceandconfidencethatisimportantand

deservesconsiderationaswell.Womenhavelongassumedthatdemonstratingcompetence

willleadtoacceptance.TheInternationalSpaceUniversityhosteda2014panelinMontrealof

fourhighlytrained,highlycompetent,womenastronauts,fromtheUnitedStates,China,South

KoreaandCanada.Askedbyanaudiencememberwhattheirbiggestchallengewasinbeingor

becominganastronaut,CanadianastronautJuliePayetteansweredwithouthesitation.

“Gettingmalecolleaguestotakemeseriouslyandhavingtoprovemycompetenceoverand

overagain.”53Herastronautcolleaguesnoddedvigorouslyinagreement.Confidencecanbe

hardtosustainifyourcolleaguesdonottakeyouseriously.ResearchledbyHastingsLaw

SchoolProfessorJoanWilliamsin2014citeshavingtorepeatedlyprovethemselvesasoneof

fivereasonswomen,particularlywomenofcolor,leaveSTEMfields.54

Inthelate1990’s,CornellpsychologistsDavidDunningandJustinKrugerextensively

studiedthelinkbetweencompetenceandconfidence.55NowdubbedtheDunning-Kruger

effect,theyfoundsomepeople(largelyunskilled)substantiallyoverestimatetheirownabilities,

basedonerroneousreadingsofboththeirownabilitiesandthoseofothers.Basically,theless

competentsomeoneis,themoretheytendtooverestimatetheirownabilities.In2003,

DunningandWashingtonStateUniversitypsychologistJoyceEhrlinger56wentastepfurtherin

thisresearchconsideringtherelationshipbetweenfemalecompetenceandconfidence.Ona

quizofscientificskillsdesignedtotestbothcompetenceandconfidence,womenrated

themselvesmorenegativelythanmenonskills,yetontheaverageperformedataboutthe

samelevel.Betweenhavingtoovercomedoubtingthemselves,doubtsometimesreinforcedby

malecolleagues,womenareleftinaprecariousposition.YetaccordingtoForbescontributor


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BruceKasanoff,“…seniorleadersperceivethattheyperpetuallyconfrontthesameproblem…

theycan’tfindwomenwhoarebothconfidentandcompetent.”57

Theflipsideofself-doubtmustbeconsideredaswell.HarvardprofessorRosabethMoss

Kanter’sseminal1977bookMenandWomenintheCorporation,58examinedhowstructural

issues,thehigh-visibilityofwomenwheninaminority,andstereotypicalperceptionswithin

organizationsaffectworkplaceperformance.Gender-basedstereotypicalperceptionsremaina

keyissueforwomeninnon-traditionalcareerfields.A2011studybyStanfordGraduateSchool

ofBusiness,59documentedwhatmanywomenalreadyknow:ifwomenbehaveintoofeminine

amanner,theywillbeseenasweakandnotasleaders,butiftheyaretoomasculine,theywill

beseenasaggressive--andostracized.60Consequently,thestudyconcludedthatwomen

neededtoknowhowtoswitchonandoffmasculinebehaviorsofbeingaggressive,assertive

andconfident.Speakingupfirstcouldgetawomanviewedas“bitchy,”whilepiggybackingona

malecommentwasacceptable.Thestudysuggestedthatdisagreeingwithmalecolleaguesby

firststatingthemeritoftheirpremise,beforegentlysuggestinganotheroption,wouldbeless

threateningtothesecolleagues.Whileadmittedlygoodpractice,itneverthelessputswomenin

apositionofhavingto“manage”--orasafemalecolleagueofmineputit,“mommy”--their

malecolleagues.

ArmyGeneralAnneDunwoody(ret),thefirstfemalefour-starofficerinthe

military,wroteabouthoweasyitisforwomentobedismissedwhenintheminority,

evenaflagofficer.

Anewideacouldeasilybedismissedbyafewheadsshakingorsimplybydeft

silenceintheroom.IfIfeltstronglyaboutsomething,Iwouldrepeatit,andifI


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reallyfeltstronglyaboutsomething,Iwouldhavetoraisemyvoiceorthrowout

afour-letterwordtogettheirattention:“Youguysarecomingupwiththesame

oldshitsolutionsthathaven’tworkedinthepast!”61

Unfortunately,fewwomenareinapositionwheretheycouldtakesuchactions,andget

awaywithit.Moreoften,theirviewsaresimplyshutdown,ortheywouldbechastised

forbeingtooaggressive.

Thesefindingshavebeenextendedbeyondbusinessfieldsaswell.Analysisconducted

in2015byNortheasternUniversityAssistantProfessorBenjaminSchmidtondatagathered

throughthewebsiteRateMyProfessor–14millionstudentreviews--foundstudentsevaluate

womenprofessorsdifferentlythanmen.Menprofessorsaremoreoftenconsideredbrilliant

andfunny,whilewomenareeithernice,orrudeandbossy.62Thisreinforcesthetendencyfor

peopletothinkmorehighlyofmenthanwomeninprofessionalsettings,praisemenforthe

samethingstheycriticizewomenfor,andaremorelikelytofocusonawoman’sappearanceor

personalityandonaman’sskillsandintelligence.

A2014studyconductedbylinguistandtechentrepreneurKieranSnyder63documents

thisgeneraltendency.Snyderlookedat248-workplaceperformancereviewsgiventomenand

womenacross28companies.Snyderfoundthatmanagers,regardlessofgender,gavefemale

employeesmorenegativefeedbackthantheygavemaleemployees.Further,76%ofthe

negativefeedbackgivenwomenincludedpersonalitycriticismofsomesort,suchas“abrasive,”

“judgmental”or“strident,”whereasonly2%ofmen’sreviewsincludedsimilarnegative

personalitycomments.Womenarejudgedbydifferentstandardsthantheirmalecounterparts,

andinpersonalizedwaysthatcanmarconfidence.


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CompetenceCanHurtYou?Competencehasbeenanassumedprerequisitefor

acceptanceandsuccess,andmanywomenhaveproventheircompetence,butthathasnot

eliminatedsexism.In2010,EmilioCastilla,aprofessoratMIT’sSloanSchoolofManagement,

andIndianaUniversitysociologyprofessorStephenBernardexaminedhowmeritocraticideals

andperformanceawardsplayoutinorganizations,includingthoseseeingthemselvesas

committedtodiversity.64CastillaandBernarddubbedtheirfindings“theparadoxof

meritocracy”inthatevenwhenanorganizationscorevaluesemphasizedmeritocraticvalues,

managersawardedhighermonetaryawardstomaleemployeesthantoanequallyperforming

femaleemployee.Itseemsthatindividualswhothinktheyareobjectiveandunbiased–blind

fish–don’tmonitorandscrutinizetheirownbehavior.Rather,theyjustassumethattheyare

rightandtheirassessmentsaccurate.65

Withinnon-traditionalcareerfieldswomenwinawardsandcommendationsfor

outstandingperformance.However,whethercompetenceisinfactabenefittowomenoncein

theworkforcehasbeenputintoquestion.LondonBusinessSchoolresearchersM.EnaInesi

andDanielM.Cableconducteda2014studyof200U.S.militarycommandersresponsiblefor

performanceevaluations.Theyfoundahighcorrelationbetweengenderbiasandperformance

evaluations“whentheevaluatorwasmaleandhighsocial-dominanceorientedandwhenthe

femalesubordinate'sobjectiveon-the-jobperformancewashigh.”66SocialDominanceagain

appearedtobeafactor.InesiandCableconcludedthatinhierarchicalorganizationspast

accomplishmentscanactuallybedetrimentaltowomeninevaluationsfrommenwhowantto

maintainthetraditionalgenderbalancebecausewomen’saccomplishmentscanbeviewedas

threatening.


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Complaintsaboutincompetentwomeninthemilitarybeingadvancedthroughtheranks

tomeet“diversitymetrics”(quotas),receivingplumassignmentsbasedon“affirmativeaction,”

especiallypilots,datebacktothe1994deathofLt.KaraHultgreenwhileattemptingtolandher

F-14onboardanaircraftcarrier.Whiledifferingphysicalstandardshavebeenalong-standing

sourcesofdiscourse–complaints-aboutwomenbeingacceptedintocertainmilitarybillets,

studieshaveshownaculturalissuescomeintoplayaswell,issuesrelatedtoSocialDominance

Orientation.67Certainlynotallwomenaremore,orevenequallyqualifiedforallorparticular

positionsthanallmen.Thepoint,however,isaboutassumptionsmadeaboutwomen’s

competency,dismissalofcompetencyoncedemonstrated,andthatSocialDominance

Orientationmeanswhentheyarecompetent,thatveryfactcanworkagainstthem.

Themainstreammediadoesnothelpeither.InaSeptember2014FoxNewssegment

abouttheUnitedArabEmirates’firstwomanpilot,MajorMariamalMansouri,launching

bombsagainsttheIslamicStateofIraqandSyria,panelistGregGutfieldquipped“Problemis,

aftershebombeditshecouldn'tparkit.”Anotherpanelist,EricBolling,thenasked,“Would

thatbeconsideredboobsontheground,orno?”68Suchsexistattitudesbroadcastthroughthe

media,evenwithanapologyofferedbyGutfieldandBollinglater,perpetuatesingrainedSocial

DominanceOrientationattitudes.

HelpingEachOtherUptheLadder?Women’snetworkinggroupsaredescribedby

ForbeswriterMeghanCasserlyas“groupsintendedtohelpwomentosucceedbybuildinga

solidcommunityofwomentohelplifteachotherup.”69Sheexpressedskepticism,however,

aboutthevalueofthosegroupsandoffersadviceontellingwhetheragroupisworththetime

commitmenttoattend.Whatkindofwomenattend?Aretheywellconnectedwithinthe


19

businessworld?Istherefunctionalcommunicationwithinthegroup?Herbottomline:Isthisa

groupthatcouldhelpherland“aplumpositionhigherupthefoodchain.”

DarleneIskraconsideredmentorshipinher2007dissertationBreakingThroughthe

GlassCeiling:EliteMilitaryWomen’sStrategiesforSuccess.Mentorshipwasconsideredan

importantfactorinsuccess,yetshefound“therehasbeenalackoffemalerolemodelsand

mentorsinthehighestechelonofthemilitarybranches.”70Whileinsomeinstancesmenare

willingtomentorwomen,anddoanoutstandingjob,thatisnotalwaysthecase.

HarvardExtensionSchoolstudentAllysonReneaudidaninternshipattheNavalWar

Collegein2013.Aspartofthatinternshipsheinterviewedmembersofallmilitaryservices,but

mostlyNavy,andwroteapaperonmentoringlaterpublishedbytheUnitedStatesNaval

Instituteasablogpost.71Reneau’smentorshippostmadeCHINFOClips,adailynewsupdate

compiledbytheChiefofInformationofficeoftheUSNavy,andwidelydistributed.Titled

“MentoringintheMilitary:Who’sYourSeaDaddy?”ittalkedabouttheformalmentoring

systemsinstitutedwithinsomeservicesand,accordingtothoseinterviewed,thefarmore

effectiveorganicmentoringthattakesplacebetweenindividualswithinallservice

communities.Genderwasconsideredaswell.

Severalwomenmilitaryofficers,includingthoseatthelevelofNavycaptainand

Army/AirForcecolonel,declinedinterviewsforReneau’sprojects,andmostwhoagreedtobe

intervieweddidsoonlyonconditionsofanonymityandthatmeetingswouldbeconducted

privatelysoasnottodrawattentiontothemselves.Notwantingtodrawattentionto

themselveswasaprevalentreasonstatedamongwomenfordecliningReneau’sinterview

requestsasdrawingattention,shewastold,cangetafemaleofficerdubbedweakora


20

problem.Reneauquotesafemaleofficerwhohadserved25yearsassaying,“Activedutyin

theNavy–asawoman–isaskingtobelongtoaclubwheretheydon’twantyou.”Fromthose

shespokewith,Reneaufoundthatculturalbias,fearofreprisalsandintra-gendercompetition

allinhibitedwomeninthemilitaryfrombeingaffordedthesamekindofeffectivementoring

opportunitiesastheirmalecounterparts.

Withorganicmentoringclearlythemostsuccessful,personalconnectionsarea

prerequisiteformentoring.ButmaleofficersadmittedtoReneauareluctanceto

mentorwomenforfearofaccusationofsexualharassment.Evenanaccusationcould

putablackeyeontheircareerandtheywereconcernedthat“sometimescompliments

canbetakenwrongbyanoverlysensitivefemale.”Women,however,canalsobe

reluctanttomentorwomen.Calledthe“queenbeesyndrome”,researcherssincethe

1970haveshownthatwomenwhoachievesuccessinmale-dominatedcareers“wereat

timesreluctanttoopposetheriseofotherwomen.”72Further,andclearlymost

disingenuously,“whereasmenhelpingmenisconsideredmentorship,womenhelping

womenisoftenconsideredfavoritism,favoritismthatcangetthementorshunnedby

malecolleaguesinthefuture.”73Experiencedwomenwhomentoryoungerwomenfear

accusationsoffavoritism,whichoftenleavesyoungerwomenwithoutamentor.Both

womensuffer,asdoestheirworkorganization.

FIGHTORFLIGHT

Womenmightbeallowedintoallcareerfields,buttheirriseandtenureisstill

determinedonfactorsverydifferentfromtheirmalecounterparts.Obviously,rather

than“climbtheladder”somewomenoptouttoraisefamiliesorattendtoother


21

personalissues.Somebasetheirdecisiononwhathasbeencalledthe“fight-or-flight”

moment,about10yearsintotheircareer.

In2008researchersattheHarvardBusinessSchoolconductedastudyofwomen

inprivatesector,male-dominated,Science,TechnologyandEngineering(SET)fields.74

TheywereconcernedwiththebraindrainofwomeninSET,withresultsthatcanbe

morebroadlyappliedtomanynon-traditionalcareersgenerally.DubbedtheAthena

Factor,researchersfoundthatfivefactorsplayedintohighlyqualified,talentedwomen

optingoutataboutthe10-yearmark,manygender-centered.

“1.Hostilemachocultures.WomeninSETaremarginalizedbylabcoat,hard

hat,andgeekworkplaceculturesthatareoftenexclusionaryandpredatory(fully

63%experiencedsexualharassment).

2.Isolation.AwomaninSETcanbethelonewomanonateamoratasite.This

makesitdifficulttofindsupportorsponsorship(45%lackmentors;83%lack

sponsors).

3.Mysteriouscareerpaths.Asaresultofmachoculturesandisolation,women

inSETfindithardtogainanunderstandingofthewayforward–fully40%feel

“stalled”or“stuck”intheircareers.

4.Systemofriskandreward.The“divingcatch”cultureofSETcompanies

disadvantageswomen,whotendtoberiskaverse(35%havedifficultywithrisk).


22

Withoutbuddiestosupportthemtheyfeelthatcangofrom“herotozero”ina

heartbeat.

5.Extremeworkpressures.SETjobsareunusuallytimeintensiveand,becauseof

theirglobalscope,involveworkinginmultipletimezones(54%workacrosstime

zones).”75

Manywomeninnon-traditionalcareerfieldsfindhostileenvironments,workingin

isolationornear-isolation,andmysteriouscareerpathsarecommonalitiesfoundtiedto

nothavinganinternalsupportnetwork.

Asaresultofthe2008study,sometechcompaniesinstitutedprograms

specificallydesignedtochangethepatternsofwomenleavingtheSETfield,focusingon

alleviatingtheperceivedhostileandisolatedenvironment.76However,a2014studyby

theCenterforTalentInnovation,foundedbySylviaAnnHewlett,theleadresearcheron

the2008study,stillfoundthatwomenare45%morelikelytoleavetheirSETjobsthan

theirmalecounterparts,andincreasinglyearlier.Manyleavethefirstyear,citing

generallythesamereasonsascitedinthe2008study,andhaving“towalkthefamously

trickylinebetweenaggressivenessandassertivenessthatcanoftenderailwomen’s

careers.”77Thegoodnewswasbeingthelonewomanonateamwaslesspervasive

thanin2008.78

Consideringtheevidencepresented,quiteclearly,womencannotrelyonmale-

dominatedinstitutionsto“fix”thingsontheirown.SocialDominanceOrientation,

especiallyinhierarchicalorganizationsincludingthemilitary,theblindfish


23

phenomenon,andthemilitarytendencytoseefixesasrootedin“processes”,combine

inapowerfulwaytodiminishthelikelihoodofthatoutcome.Further,relyingonothers

tomakechangescarrieswithitanunhealthyvictimmentality.Realistically,atleastpart

oftheresponsibilityforsuccessfallstowomentofindwaystoeffectivelybuildtheir

owninternalsupportsystems.

REALITIESANDROADSFORWARD

AstheSchmidtandSnyderstudiesevidenced,powerfulwomenarecriticizedinanoften

verypersonalwaythatrarelyhappenswithmen.Ithappensandshowslittlesignofabating.

Thepublicandhigh-levelnatureatwhichtheyoccurperpetuatesculturalstereotypes.New

York’sjuniorSenatorKirstenGillibrandtalksaboutherpeerscommentingonherweight,

includingcallingher“porky,”inher2014bookOffTheSidelines.AsbothaPresidential

candidateandSecretaryofState,HillaryClinton’spantsuitsandhairstyleswereoftenfodderfor

watercoolertalkandTwitterchains.Men,however,arenotsimilarlycriticizedfortheirhairor

clothesbecauseitisimplicitlyunderstoodthosehavenobearingontheirabilities.Generally,

menarevaluedandevaluatedbasedontheirknowledgeandskills;womenfortheirlooksand

manner.

Womenarefightingagainstculturalandhistoricalnorms.Culturally,manyworld

religionshavetraditionallyconsideredwomenas“subservient.”79Historically,womenhavehad

torelyonmenfortheirphysical,social,andeconomicwell-being,making“beingliked”a

practicalimperative.Inher1994bookRevivingOphelia:SavingtheSelvesofAdolescentGirls,

therapistMaryPipherdiscussedthesocietalpressuresonyoungwomenthattoooftenresultin

transformingconfident,athleticchildrenintoself-consciousadolescents.80Centuriesof


24

acceptedgenderrolesandculturalnormsaredifficulttoovercome.Strivingtobelikedturns

outnottobegoodtrainingfordealingwithandacceptingcriticism.Sohowdoesone“toughen

up”?

A2014studybyEYWomenAthletesBusinessNetworkandsponsoredbyespnW

surveyedmorethan400femaleexecutivesinfivecountries(20%wereU.S.women)andfound

ajobapplicant’sinvolvementinsportswasconsideredapositivefactorbywomenexecutivesin

hiringdecisions.Surveyparticipantsbelievedthatpeoplewhohaveplayedsportsmakegood

professionalsbecausetheybringqualitieslikecompetitiveness,teamwork,theabilityto

motivateothersandacommitmenttobringingprojectstocompletiontotheirjobs.Amongthe

groupsurveyed,overhalfhadplayedsportsatthecollege/universitylevel,andonly3%had

neverplayedsportsatall.81Theoverallresultsshowedanemphasisonintangibleskillsgained

orhonedthroughparticipationinsports.

OlympicChampionDonnadeVaronasummarizedtheoverallbenefitsofsports

participationindevelopingteamworkandleadershipskills.

Ifyoutryoutforabasketballteambutquitinthemiddleofthefirstgame,orifyou

choosenottopasstheballtoyourtalentedteammatebecauseyoudon’tlikeher,orif

youareunwillingtospendextrahourstoworkonaweakness,youaren’tgoingtoget

veryfar.Sportsteachesfundamentalsforsuccessandthatiswhybothmenandwomen

executivesliketohireathletes.C-suiteexecutives[CEO,CFO,COOorBoardofDirectors]

hirethesewomenbecausetheyshareacommonbondandknowwhenthepressureis

ontheywillnotbeletdown.82


25

Buildingcommonbondsisimportantinovercomingthesituationthattoooftenresultsinmid-

career“flight”;anindividualfeelingthatshedoesnothaveaninternalsupportnetwork.

Womenmustproactivelybuildtheskillsandseektheopportunitiestobettergettoknowher

femalecolleaguestowardbuildingtheall-importantinternalsupportsystems.

Thereisalsopreliminaryevidencethatparticipationinsportscorrelateswithhigher

retentionratesforwomeninthemilitary,andsomayhavebeenconditioningforworkplace

challenges.A2004thesispapercompletedattheNavalPostgraduateSchoolconsidered

whetherparticipationinvarsitysportsattheNavalAcademyyieldedhigherofficerretention

ratesthanforthosewhohadnot.83Thesmallsamplesizeofwomen,however,madefirm

gender-specificconclusionsdifficult.However,seventy-eightpercentofthefemaleflagofficer

interviewedbyDarleneIskraaspartofher2007dissertationindicatedtheyhadparticipatedin

individualsports,and81%wereactiveinteamsports.84Whetherparticipationinsportsbuilds

enduringorganicnetworks,“acceptable”leadershipskills,somehowequatestocombat

experienceintermsofbeinga“bonding”experience,justtoughenscompetitorsuptocriticism

--oralloftheabove--remainsuntested.Itappearsworthexploringthoughaspartof

continuingresearchonfemaleofficerretentioninthemilitary,researchthatmayyieldresults

transferrabletoothernon-traditionalfields.

Obviously,womenalreadyintheworkforcewhodidnotplaysportsintheirformative

yearscannotgobackandchangehistory.Butbeingawareoftheadvantagesthosewomenwho

didparticipationinsportsfeeltheygainedfromtheexperiencemaybeuseful.Awarenessalso

allowsyoungwomenwhomightnothaveotherwiseconsideredsportsaspartoftheircareer

trainingtodoso.


26

Towardtakingresponsibilityfortheirowndestinies,womenmustalsochangetheir

attitudestowardandmethodsofmentoring.Whydon'twomeneffectivelymentorother

women?Unquestionably,organizationalstructurescurrentlycreatecompetitionbetween

women.Butwomenaregoingtohavetopullotherwomenalongthroughmentoring,which

theyhavesofarfailedatmiserably.Perhapsthatisbecausewomenhavesofewpositive

mentoringrolemodels.Hollywooddoesn’thelp.Womenwentfromgrowingupinthe1960’s

seeingwomeninmoviesandtelevisiongettingmarriedandlivinghappilyeverafterwithtwo

children,wearingpearlsandanapron,toSEALwanna-beDemiMoorebeingbetrayedbyAnn

BancroftinGIJaneinthelate1990’s,andAnneHathawaybeingtormentedbyMerylStreep’s

characterinTheDevilWearsPradain2006.

Mentoringcanmakeallthedifference.Ina2013interview,AirForcefighterpilotLt.

ClancyMorrical–whofinishedherF-16initialpilottrainingasaDistinguishedGraduate-told

oftheimportanceofmentoringinhercareer."Iwascrazyluckytobeinasquadronwithtwo

womeninleadership,"shesaidenthusiastically."Itwasreallyneattowatchthemleadandto

havetheopportunitytolearnaboutbeingafemalepilot,suchasthedifferencesandlogisticsof

flyingasawoman.Theyareamazingpilots.”85Butnotallwomeninnon-traditionalcareerfields

are“crazylucky,”norshouldtheyhavetobe.

Iforganizationsareseriousaboutinclusivediversity,womenshouldbeincentivized–

lendingitselftoaprocess--tomentorotherwomen.Organizationsmusttakeresponsibilityfor

removingthe“favoritism”stigmathathasinhibitedwomenfrommentoringotherwomen.

Ratherthanostracizingwomenfororganicallyselectingandmentoringaprotégée,women

shouldbeorganizationallyencouragedandrewardedfordoingso.Realisticallyaswell,inmany


27

instanceswomenwillhavetobetaughttobementorsbecausetheyhavehadsofewrole

modelsorexperiencementoring.

Organizationallyendorsedmentoringwillhaveanotherbenefitaswell.Competent

womenareoffendedbyhiringorpromotionschemesthatarenotmeritbased.Mentorswould

carefullyselectprotégéesbecausetheprotégée’sperformancewouldprofessionallyreflecton

thementor.Otherwomenwouldidentifywomenwhocannotprovethemselvescompetent.

Womenshouldhelpthemselvesandothers,butalsoweedouttheoneswhohurttheirefforts.

Energizingwomenasmentorsisnottosaysinceremaleleadersshouldbeleftoutofmentoring

womenaswell,butwomenneedtostepupinfargreaternumbers.

Asthenumberofwomeninnon-traditionalfieldsgrows,thepotentialforchange

increasesaswell.A2011studyatRensselaerPolytechnicInstitutefoundthatthe“tipping

point”foraminorityopiniontoeventuallygrowtoamajorityopinion(herethatopinionbeing

theimportanceofinclusivediversity)isacommitted10%ofapopulation.86Thekeywordin

thatpropositionis“committed,”whichrequiresaperceivedabilitytovoiceopinionswithoutit

beingpotentiallycareerdamagingorending.Themoreanorganizationbecomesdiversified

numerically,includingbutnotlimitedtogender,thelessthepotentialeffectsofSocial

DominanceOrientationontheorganizationbecausedominanceofasinglegroupdecreases.

Womeninnon-traditionalworkforcecareerswillnotbeamatterofchoiceinthefuture

butrather,asGeneralDempseysaid,amatterofchangingdemographics.Aslongassexism

existsintheworkplacethough,eventacitlyorasafunctionofblindfish,competencywillbea

necessarybutnotnecessarilysufficientqualificationforwomen’sentryintonon-traditional

careers,andcannotbeassumedasanequalizeroradvantageinconsiderationsfor


28

advancement.Tenacityseemsatleastequallyrequired.Whetherthroughexperienceplaying

competitivesportsorsomeothermethod,womenenteringnon-traditionalfieldsmustenter

armedwithtenacitytoendureandadvance.Andwomenmustmentoreachotherinthesame

waythatmendo,includinghelpingprotégée’slandplumpositions,withinstitutionalsupport.

ChangingSocialDominanceOrientationmeanschangingorganizationalculture,andthat

isaleadershipissuethattakestimeandconcertedeffortthatgoesbeyondrhetoric,and

processsolutions.Butitisintheinterestofthenationtohire,retainandadvancethebestand

thebrightest.Itistheresponsibilityoftherelevantorganizationstoprovidethebestandthe

brightesttheopportunitytoreachtheirfullpotentialandanenvironmentconducivetodoing

so.Itistheresponsibilityofwomeninthesecareerstopreparethemselvesforthechallenges

theywillface.Everyonewillbenefitfromtakinghisorherresponsibilitiesseriously.

1IwouldliketothankCommanderDarleneIskra(USN,ret)Ph.D;Col.EllenHaring(USA,ret)Ph.D;MaryRaum,Ph.D.USNWC;CommanderKevinKelley(USN,ret)Professor,USNWC;Lt.Col.MaryBethUlrich(USAF,Reserve)Ph.D.;NegeenPegahi,Ph.D.USNWC;MichaelMiner,KingsCollege,London;Lt.Col.CynthiaSexton(USAF,ret)Professor,USNWC;ZonaDouthit,Attorney;andYvetteRogersfortheircommentsandveryusefulinsightsondraftsofthisarticle.Responsibilityforthecontent,however,isminealone.TheviewsexpressedarealsominealoneanddonotreflecttheviewsoftheNavalWarCollege,theU.S.NavyortheDepartmentofDefense2“‘TimeandCasualties’:Gen.DempseyonCostofSequester,”NationalPublicRadio,February17,2013,availableatwww.npr.org/2013/02/17/172227744/obamas-top-military-adviser-says-cuts-would-cost-time-and-casualties3HeatherGraham-Ashley,“Chairmandiscussesthreats,budget,diversityatFortHood,”June23,2015.http://www.jcs.mil/Media/News/NewsDisplay/tabid/6800/Article/601651/chairman-discusses-threats-budget-diversity-at-ft-hood.aspx4AsdefinedbytheU.S.DepartmentofLabor.http://www.dol.gov/wb/factsheets/nontra2009.htm5“ViceAdmiralMichelleHowardFirstAfrican-AmericanWomantoReachtheRankofThreeStar,”October12,2012.WJLA-TVWashington,http://www.wjla.com/articles/2012/10/vice-admiral-michelle-howard-first-african-american-woman-to-reach-rank-of-three-star-officer-80588.html6TheinvestigationconcernedashiphandlingincidentduringatransitthroughtheStraitofMalacca.SamFellman,“Report:Fired1-starsentraciallyoffensiveemails,”MilitaryTimes,April12,2013.http://www.militarytimes.com/article/20130412/NEWS/304120015/Report-Fired-1-star-sent-racially-offensive-emails7“Howard’sPathtoNavyHistory,”NavyTimes,January4,2014.


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8NationalWomen’sLawCenter,”DACOWITSshouldberevitalized,”December2008.http://www.nwlc.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/DACOWITS.pdf9DODPressRelease,September18,2014.http://www.defense.gov/Releases/Release.aspx?ReleaseID=1694810https://www.deomi.org/DiversityMgmt/index.cfm11R.NormanMoody,“Newcommander‘proud’toleadDEOMI,”FloridaToday.June28,2014.http://www.floridatoday.com/story/news/local/2014/06/28/new-commander-proud-lead-deomi/11579891/.12http://www.sealeader.org13DavidFeitler,“TheCaseforDiversityGetsEvenBetter,”HarvardBusinessReview,March27,2014.https://hbr.org/2014/03/the-case-for-team-diversity-gets-even-better/14MargueriteRigoglioso,“DiverseBackgroundsandPersonalitiesCanStrengthenGroups,”StanfordBusiness,August1,2006.https://www.gsb.stanford.edu/insights/diverse-backgrounds-personalities-cn-strengthen-groups15ChristineM.Riordan,“DiversityisUselessWithoutInclusivity,”HarvardBusinessReview,June5,2014.https://hbr.org/2014/06/diversity-is-useless-without-inclusivity16http://hr.fas.harvard.edu/inclusive-culture;Seealso,T.HudsonJordan,“Movingfromdiversitytoinclusion,”DiversityJournal,http://www.diversityjournal.com/1471-moving-from-diversity-to-inclusion/17Foranexampleofresistancetoinclusivediversitysee:JoanJohnson-FreeseandEllenHaring,“IsPatriarchalSexismAliveandWellintheMilitary?”BestDefense,December18,2014.18MatsAlvesson&YvonneDueBilling,UnderstandingGenderandOrganizations2ndEdition,SAGE,2009;IngridM.Nembhard&AmyEdmondson,“Makingitsafe:theeffectsofleaderinclusivenessandprofessionalstatusonpsychologicalsafetyandimprovementeffortsinhealthcareteams,”JournaloforganizationalBehavior,”Vol.27,Issue7,November2006,pp.941-966;BorisGroysberg&KatherineConnolly,“GreatleadersWhoMaketheMixWork,”HarvardBusinessReview,September2013,https://hbr.org/2014/03/the-case-for-team-diversity-gets-even-better/19LouGerstner,WhoSaysElephantsCan’tDance,HarperBusiness,2003.20See,forexample,FredP.Stone,“WhytheMilitary’sSolutiontoBadLeadershipIsn’tGoingtoFixAnything,”Task&Purpose,April9,2015.http://taskandpurpose.com/why-the-militarys-solution-to-bad-leadership-isnt-going-to-fix-anything/?utm_source=facebook&utm_medium=social&utm_campaign=share21InTheirPlace:MeasuringGenderAttitudesandEgalitarianismAmongU.S.ArmyPersonnel,UniversityofNorthCarolinaStateUniversity,2008.http://repository.lib.ncsu.edu/ir/bitstream/1840.16/5085/1/etd.pdf22MichaelDambrun,SandraDuarteandSergeGuimond,“Whyaremenmorelikelytosupportgroup-baseddominancethanwomen?Themediatingroleofgenderidentification,”BritishJournalofSocialPsychology,Vol43,Issue2,June2004,pp.287-297and23Ryan,pp.19-20,referencingtheearlierworkofDambrun,Duarte&Brief,andSidanius,Pratto&Bobo.24JamesSidanius,F.Pratto&D.Brief,“GroupDominanceandthePoliticalPsychologyofGender:ACross-CulturalComparison,”PoliticalPsychology,Vol.16,1995,pp.381-396.25JamesSidanius,FeliciaPratto,&LawrenceBobo,“Racism,Conservatism,AffirmativeActionandIntellectualSophistication:AMatterofPrincipledConservatismorGroupDominance?”JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology,Vol.70,1994,pp.476-490.26DeraldWingSu,“Microaggressions:MoreThanJustRace,”PsychologyToday,November1,2010.https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/microaggressions-in-everyday-life/201011/microaggressions-more-just-race27MaryLouKendrigan,GenderMatters,Praeger,1991;LorryM.Fenner,WomeninCombat,GeorgetownUniversityPress,2001.28WallyZimolong,“5waystorecoveryourattorney’sfeeswhenlitigatingwiththegovernment,”July7,2014.http://www.supplementalconditions.com/2014/07/5-ways-to-recover-your-attorneys-fees-when-litigating-with-the-government/29MichaelDambrun,SandraDuarteandSergeGuimond,“Whyaremenmorelikelytosupportgroup-baseddominancethanwomen?Themediatingroleofgenderidentification,”BritishJournalofSocialPsychology,Vol43,Issue2,June2004,pp.287-297.30Ryan,p.32.


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31M.S.WilsonandJ.H.Liu,“Socialdominanceorientationandgender:themoderatingroleofgenderidentity,”BritishJournalofSocialPsychology,”Vol42,2003,pp.187-198.32LaurieRudman,inJohnDovidio,PeterGlickandLaurieRudmaneds.,OntheNatureofPrejudice:FiftyyearsAfterAllport,Wiley-Blackwell,2005,p.107.33RamaLakshmi,“India’sModiJustDeliveredtheWorld’sWorstCompliment,”WashingtonPost,June8,2015.http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/wp/2015/06/08/indias-narendra-modi-meant-to-praise-bangladeshs-female-prime-minister-but-it-was-viewed-as-an-insult-to-all-women/34JulieBeck,“TroubleWithGirls:“WhatTimHunt’sResignationShouldTellUsAboutSexisminScience,”TheAtlantic,June11,2015.http://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2015/06/tim-hunt-resignation-science-sexism/395642/35Accordingto2012DODDemographicinformation,16.1%ofactivedutymilitaryofficersarefemale.2012Demographics:ProfileoftheMilitaryCommunity.http://www.militaryonesource.mil/12038/MOS/Reports/2012_Demographics_Report.pdf36MatthewRosenbergandDavePhillips,“AllCombatRolesNowOpentoWomen,”NewYorkTimes,December3,2015.http://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/04/us/politics/combat-military-women-ash-carter.html?_r=037“BlueAngelspilotbreakssound,genderbarriers,”CBSNews,April10,2015.http://www.cbsnews.com/news/blue-angels-first-female-pilot-takes-to-sky/38Ibid.39RonStallcup,“KatieHiggins,firstfemaleBlueAngelspilot,takestotheskyinC-130‘FatAlbert’,”PensacolaToday,April12,2015.http://pensacolatoday.com/2015/04/katie-higgins-first-female-blue-angels-pilot-takes-to-the-sky-in-c-130-fat-albert/40ArecentcasestudyatHarvardBusinessSchoolconsideredthatgenderbiascanstartearly,includingintheclassroom.JodiKanter,“HarvardBusinessSchoolCaseStudy–GenderEquity,”TheNewYorkTimes,September7,2013.http://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/08/education/harvard-case-study-gender-equity.html?hp&_r=041CorinneA.Moss-Racusin,etal,“Sciencefaculty’ssubtlegenderbiasfavormalestudents,”ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences,Vol.109,Number141,2112.http://www.pnas.org/content/109/41/16474.full;42ErnestoReuben,etal,“Howstereotypesimpairwomen’scareersinscience,”ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences,Vol.111,Number12,2014.http://www.pnas.org/content/111/12/4403.full43A2015studybyWendyM.Williams&StephenCecichallengesthebiasagainstwomeninacademicSTEMpositions.“NationalHiringExperimentsReveal2-to-1FacultypreferenceforWomenonSTEMTenureTrack,”ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences,http://www.pnas.org/content/112/17/5360.abstract.Challengestothestudymethodologyhavebeenraised.MatthewR.Francis,“ASurprisinglyWelcomeAtmosphere,”Slate,April20,2015.http://www.slate.com/articles/double_x/doublex/2015/04/no_sexist_hiring_in_stem_fields_a_vaunted_new_study_makes_that_claim_unconvincingly.html44ChrisWoolston,“Sexistreviewcausestwitterstorm,”May1,2015.http://www.nature.com/news/sexist-review-causes-twitter-storm-1.17457?WT.mc_id=TWT_NatureNews45“ValleyoftheDudes,”TheEconomist,April4,2015.http://www.economist.com/news/business/21647611-tech-firms-can-banish-sexism-without-sacrificing-culture-made-them-successful-valley?fsrc=scn%2Ffb%2Fte%2Fpe%2Fed%2Fvalleyofthedudes46Fewerfemalegraduatesinnon-traditionalfieldscreatepartofthehiringissue.Thatraisesquestionsregardingeducationalopportunitiesandbiasesforwomeninthosefieldsbeyondthescopeofthisarticle.See,forexample:NationalScienceFoundation,Science&EngineeringIndicators,2014.http://www.ngcproject.org/statistics;HazelStive,“Howtoundostereotypesthathinderwomen,”December11,2012.http://bbs.yale.edu/molecularcell/people/jo_handelsman-2.profile47PaxWorldNews,“Investorsputgenderontheagenda,”October10,2010.http://www.paxworld.com/news-resources/pax-world-news/Pax-World-News/1348DanPrimack,“VentureCapital’sStunningLackofFemaleDecision-Makers,”Fortune,February6,2014.http://fortune.com/2014/02/06/venture-capitals-stunning-lack-of-female-decision-makers/


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49JoanJohnson-Freese,MarybethUlrichandEllenHaring,“TheCounterproductiveSeaofSamenessinPME,”JointForcesQuarterly,July2014.http://ndupress.ndu.edu/News/NewsArticleView/tabid/7849/Article/577529/jfq-74-the-counterproductive-sea-of-sameness-in-pme.aspx50Ibid.51KattyKayandClaireShipman,“TheConfidenceGap,”TheAtlantic,May2014,59.52InstituteforLeadershipandManagement,AmbitionandGenderatWork.https://www.i-l-m.com/~/media/ILM%20Website/Downloads/Insight/Reports_from_ILM_website/ILM_Ambition_and_Gender_report_0211%20pdf.ashx53TheauthorwasinattendanceatthatpresentationonJuly10,2014.Seealso:DanielOberhaus,“SexisminSpace,”Motherboard,April2,2015.http://motherboard.vice.com/read/sexism-in-spaceHastings54JoanC.Williams,KatherineW.Phillips,&ErikaV.Hall,DoubleJeopardy,UCHastingsCollegeofLaw,2015.http://www.uchastings.edu/news/articles/2015/01/double-jeopardy-report.pdf55JustinKrugerandDavidDunning,"UnskilledandUnawareofIt:HowDifficultiesinRecognizingOne'sOwnIncompetenceLeadtoInflatedSelf-Assessments,JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology,Vol.77,No.6(1999)1121-34.56JoyceEhrlingerandDavidDunning,“HowChronicSelfViewsInfluence(andPotentiallyMislead)EstimatesofPerformance,”JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology,Vol.84,No.1,5–17.(2003)57“Women:IfYou’reCompetent,It’sTimetobeConfident,”March23,2015.http://www.forbes.com/sites/brucekasanoff/2015/03/23/women-if-youre-competent-its-time-to-be-confident/58BasicBooks,1993.59OliviaO’ReillyandCharlesO’Reilly,“WomenWhoDisplayMasculineTraits–andKnowWhenNotTo–GetMorePromotionsThanMen,”March1,2011.http://www.gsb.stanford.edu/news/research/womencareerresearchbyoreilly.html60Foradiscussionofhowwomen“manage”femininityinthemilitarysee:MelissaHerbert,CamouflageIsn’tOnlyforCombat,NYUPress,2000.61“America’sFirstFemaleFour-StartonDiversityintheMilitary,”DefenseOne,July28,2015.http://www.defenseone.com/ideas/2015/07/americas-first-female-four-star-diversity-military/118671/62“GenderedLanguageinTeacherReviews,”http://benschmidt.org/profGender/#%7B%22database%22%3A%22RMP%22%2C%22plotType%22%3A%22pointchart%22%2C%22method%22%3A%22return_json%22%2C%22search_limits%22%3A%7B%22word%22%3A%5B%22funny%22%5D%2C%22department__id%22%3A%7B%22%24lte%22%3A25%7D%7D%2C%22aesthetic%22%3A%7B%22x%22%3A%22WordsPerMillion%22%2C%22y%22%3A%22department%22%2C%22color%22%3A%22gender%22%7D%2C%22counttype%22%3A%5B%22WordCount%22%2C%22TotalWords%22%5D%2C%22groups%22%3A%5B%22unigram%22%5D%7D63KieranSnyder,“PerformanceReviewGenderBias:High-Achievingwomenare“abrasive,”Fortune,August26,2014.http://www.fortune.com/2014/08/26/performance-review-gender-bias/64“TheParadoxofMeritocracyinOrganizations,”http://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/6588465MarianneCooper,“TheFalsePromiseofMeritocracy,”TheAtlantic,December1,2015.http://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2015/12/meritocracy/418074/66M.EnaInesiandDanielM.Cable,“WhenaccomplishmentsComeBacktoHauntYou:TheNegativeEffectsofCompetenceSignalsonWomen’sPerformanceEvaluations,”PersonnelPsychology,67:3(2014).67See:CarolCohn,“HowCanSheClaimEqualRightsWhenSheDoesn’tHavetoDoasManyPush-upsasIdo?”MenandMasculinity,Vol.3,No.2,131-151.68http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/09/24/fox-the-five-sexist-jokes_n_5879358.html69“WhyWomen’sNetworkingGroupsFail,”July21,2012.70DarleneIskra,BreakingThroughtheBrassCeiling:EliteMilitaryWomen’sStrategiesforSuccess,UniversityofMarylandCollegePark,p.16.71April14,201472PeggyDrexler,“TheTyrannyoftheQueenBee,”WallStreetJournal,March6,2015.http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424127887323884304578328271526080496;GrahamStaines,CarolTavris,TodyEpsteinJayaratne,“Thequeenbeesyndrome,”PsychologyToday7(1),1974,pp55–60;


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73Reneau,April14,2014.http://blog.usni.org/author/areneau74Mathwasnotincluded.75SylviaAnnHewlett,etal,“TheAthenaFactor:ReversingtheBrainDraininScience,EngineeringandTechnology,”HarvardBusinessReview,ResearchReport#10094,June2008,pp.i-ii.76KathleenMelymuka,“WhyWomenQuitTechnology,”ComputerWorld,June112,2008.http://www.computerworld.com/article/2551969/it-careers/why-women-quit-technology.html77JenaMcGregor,“KeepingWomeninHigh-TechFieldsisBigChallenge,ReportFinds,”WashingtonPost,February12,2014.http://www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/keeping-women-in-high-tech-fields-is-big-challenge-report-finds/2014/02/12/8a53c6ac-93fe-11e3-b46a-5a3d0d2130da_story.html78SylviaAnnHewlett,“What’sHoldingWomenBackinScienceandTechnologyIndustries,”HarvardBusinessReview,March13,2014.http://blogs.hbr.org/2014/03/whats-holding-women-back-in-science-and-technology-industries/79BarbaraCrandall,GenderandReligion:TheDarkSideofScripture,2ndedition,BloomsburyAcademic,2012.80BallantineBooks.81NanetteFondas,“Research:MoreThanHalfofTopFemaleExecsWereCollegeAthletes,”HBRBlogNetwork,October9,2014.http://blogs.hbr.org/2014/10/research-more-than-half-of-female-execs-were-college-athletes/82Ibid83RichardA.Robbins,Jr.,“RetentionofRecruitedAthletesfromtheUnitedStatesNavalAcademy,”NavalPostgraduateSchool,2004.http://www.usna.edu/IR/htmls/lead/database/cohort7/c07_robbins.pdf84DarleneIskra,BreakingThroughtheBrassCeiling:EliteMilitaryWomen’sStrategiesforSuccess,UniversityofMarylandCollegePark,p.142.85AlexisSeikert,“Feature–Femalefighterpilotstandsalone,”OsanAirBase,March28,2013.http://www.osan.af.mil/news/features/story.asp?id=12334198086J.Xie,S.Sreenivasan,G.Korniss,W.Zhang,C.Lim,andB.K.Szymanski,“SocialConsensusThroughTheInfluenceofCommittedMinorities,”Phys.Rev.E84,011130,July22,2011.http://journals.aps.org/pre/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevE.84.011130

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