kings institute of learning and teaching kilt david b hay the alignment of learning and teaching...

King’s Institute of Learning and Teaching KILT

David B Hay

the alignment of learning and teaching using

educational technology

1. LearningTheory

2. Methods ofGraphic Organisation

3. CognitiveStructures

4. A Model of Teaching

Technology useIn HE

New Learning Frameworks

that can reveal

to introduce

that explains thedevelopment of

alternative

which we useto explain

illustratedby

5. with considerable implications for

and the design of

Constructive Alignment

to achieve to achieve

Learning Theory

Learning Processand Learning Quality

The Learning Process Jarvis 1987, 1985

the person

the person reinforced

but relatively unchanged

situation

experience

the person changedand more

experienced

practiceexperimentation

reasoning andreflection

memorisation

evaluation

the person

the person reinforced

but relatively unchanged

situation

experience

the person changedand more

experienced

practiceexperimentation

reasoning andreflection

memorisation

evaluation

there are 9 routes through the model

three lead to ‘the person reinforced but relatively unchanged’ and are classed as NON LEARNING

three lead through memorisation to either ‘reinforcement without change’ or to ‘the person changed’: these constitute NON REFLECTIVE LEARNING

three lead to ‘the person changed and more experienced’ and are examples of REFLECTIVE LEARNING

non-learning

presumption, non-consideration and rejection

the person

the person reinforced

but relatively unchanged

the person reinforced

but relatively unchanged

the person changedand more

experienced

practiceexperimentation

reasoning andreflection

memorisation

evaluation

the person situation

experience

the person situation

the person reinforced

but relatively unchanged

experienceexperience

reasoning andreflection

the person reinforced

but relatively unchanged

non-reflective learning

preconscious, practice and memorisation

the person

the person reinforced

but relatively unchanged

the person changedand more

experienced

memorisation

practice evaluation reflection

the person reinforced

but relatively unchanged

experience

the person changedand more

experienced

practiceexperimentation

reasoning andreflection

memorisation

evaluation

the person situation

memorisationmemorisation

the person reinforced

but relatively unchanged

the person changedand more

experienced

reflective learning

contemplation, practice and experience

the person

the person changedand more

experienced

practice evaluation reflection

the person reinforced

but relatively unchanged

experience

the person changedand more

experienced

practiceexperimentation

reasoning andreflection

memorisation

evaluation

the person situation

the person changedand more

experienced

practiceexperimentation

reasoning andreflection

memorisation

evaluation

Learning Quality

Marton and others e.g.. F. Marton, D. Hounsell, & N. Entwistle (Eds.) 1984 The

experience of learning (Edinburgh, Scottish Academic Press)

Entwistle, 1990; Entwistle, McCune, & Walker, 2001; Entwistle & Tait, 1994; Entwistle, Meyer & Tait, 1991:Marton & Säljö,1976: Marton, 1986; Säljö, 1975.

KNOWLEDGE

APPLICATION

ENDURANCE

an increase in knowledge or information about a subject acquired by gathering unrelated facts and

without integration with what is already known

an ability to apply new knowledge to particular tasks and problems but without transferability

an ability to recall new information but usually only short-term

Surface Learning

KNOWLEDGE

APPLICATION

ENDURANCE

an increase in UNDERSTANDING of a subject involving grasp of underlying principles

an ability to apply newly understood principles in a variety of different contexts and situations

long-lasting personal change

Deep Learning

1. LearningTheory

2. Methods ofGraphic Organisation

3. CognitiveStructures

4. A Model of Teaching

Technology useIn HE

New Learning Frameworks

that can reveal

to introduce

that explains thedevelopment of

alternative

which we useto explain

illustratedby

5. with considerable implications for

and the design of

Constructive Alignment

to achieve to achieve

Concept MappingNovak and Colleagues

e.g. Novak & Gowan, 1986; Novak, 1998

meaningfullearning

Meaningful versus Rote Leaning

Learnersrelevant

prior knowledgemeaningful

materiallearner chooses

network ofneurones

teacher

meaningfullearning

rotelearning

encourages

discourages

to use not to useselected

by

assessedby

produces constructivechanges in

storedin

the concept mapping method

Concepts are arranged hierarchically on a page

Concepts are written in boxes and linked with directional linking statements to form propositions

Each concept can be used only once

Each concept can be linked to as many as is desirable

INVERTEBRATE

ANIMALS

VERTEBRATE

can be

MARINETERRESTRIAL

e.g. crabs, lobsters

e.g. beetles,flies

FEATHERSFUR

e.g. robins, penguins

e.g. sheep,cats

MORE

SPECIFIC

COLDBLOODED

ARTHROPODS WARMBLOODED

can be insulated with

aremostly can be

linkexample

event

link

keyconcep

t

concept

concept less generalconcept

link

less generalconcept

specificconcept

specificconcep

t

link link

link

link link

linklinklink

cross link

example example

object object

linkexample

event

concept

concept

specificconcept

generalconcept

generalconcept

generalconcep

t

cross link

Novak’s scoring system

8

9

14

18

Reducing rich data to a number

= 5/10

= 8/10

= 6/10

= 4/10

= 7/10

= 9/10

= 6.5/10

1. LearningTheory

2. Methods ofGraphic Organisation

3. CognitiveStructures

4. A Model of Teaching

Technology useIn HE

New Learning Frameworks

that can reveal

to introduce

that explains thedevelopment of

alternative

which we useto explain

illustratedby

5. with considerable implications for

and the design of

Constructive Alignment

to achieve to achieve

a qualitative approach toconcept map analysis

Kinchin, Hay and colleagues

Kinchin, Hay & Adams, 2000

CELLS

DISEASES

invade

causing

MEASLES

ANTIBIOTICS

BACTERIA

only kill

such as

DISEASES

MEASLES

ANTIBIOTICS

invade

cause unaffected by

cause

CELLSMEASLES ANTIBIOTICS

BACTERIA

caused by

invade killed bycause

VIRUSES

DISEASES

caused by

smaller than

not killed by

work outside

A

C

B VIRUSES

not treatable with

smaller thanVIRUSES

CELLSBACTERIA

student maps comprise three basic structures

expert (teacher maps) are network structures

lesson plans however, tend to be chains

CHAINS

LINEAR

CHANGE

are

so

DIFFICULT

RESTRUCTURE

COLLAPSE

because

requires

is

CROSS-LINKS

SIMPLE

LEARNINGREADINESS

CHANGIBLE

indicateare

SPOKES

ARGUMENT CONTRADICTION

COMPLEXITY

sub-subsumes

EXPERTIESE

NETWORKS

is indicative of

amelioratedthrough

A

C

B

have no

indicate

are

NON-LINEAR

are

comprise

justified by

STABLE

which is

A

B C

D E

E

C

A

B

D

EXPERT STRUCTURE

CONVENTIONALTEACHING SEQUENCE

E

C A B D

STUDENT RECONSTRUCTION

PR

E

C

A

B

D

STUDENT NON-ENGAGEMENT

(memorization)

CELLSMEASLES ANTIBIOTICS

BACTERIA

caused by

invade killed bycause

VIRUSES

DISEASES

caused by

smaller than

not killed by

work outside

EXPERT

VIRUSES

CELLS

DISEASES

invade

causing

MEASLES

ANTIBIOTICS

BACTERIA

not treatable with

only kill

such as

LECTURE

DISEASES

MEASLES

ANTIBIOTICS

invade

BACTERIA

cause

smaller than

unaffected by

cause

LEARNING READY

CELLS

VIRUSES

VIRUSES

CELLS

DISEASES

invade

causing

MEASLES

ANTIBIOTICS

BACTERIA

not treatable with

only kill

such as

ROTE LEARNING

VIRUSES

CELLSMEASLES ANTIBIOTICS

BACTERIA

caused byDISEASES

caused by

MEANING MAKER

CELLSMEASLES ANTIBIOTICS

BACTERIA

caused by

invade killed bycause

VIRUSES

DISEASES

caused by

smaller than

not killed by

work outside

using concept mapping

• knowledge and understanding become graphic representations

• change (that is indicative of learning) becomes measurable in quality terms

• and the consequences of different teaching strategies are observable

1. LearningTheory

2. Methods ofGraphic Organisation

3. CognitiveStructures

4. A Model of Teaching

Technology useIn HE

New Learning Frameworks

that can reveal

to introduce

that explains thedevelopment of

alternative

which we useto explain

illustratedby

5. with considerable implications for

and the design of

Constructive Alignment

to achieve to achieve

if the approach is valid

• then some of the predicted outcomes of learning should be measurable

• deep versus surface learning (Marton)

• learning versus non learning (Jarvis)

• meaningful versus rote learning (Novak)

deep, surface and non-learningare observable phenomena

Studiesin HigherEducation

David B Hay (2007) Using concept maps to measure deep, surface and non-

learning outcomes. Studies in Higher Education, 32 (1) due for publication Feb 2007

retained concepts

newly added concepts

old conceptsnow rejected

newly addedconceptnever

incorporated

basic knowledge structure remains unchanged = non learning

new knowledge addedsuperficially = surface learning

non – learning and surface learning are

observable phenomena – but so to is

deep (or meaningful) learning

old links broken

meaningful learning

old concepts rejected

new concepts added

new links forgedbetween old and new

EXPERT NON-LEARNER

SURFACE LEARNER

MEANINGFUL LEARNER

EXPERT

EXPERT

xNO INTERACTION

TRIVIAL INTERACTION

based on undue repetitionof transmission signal

MEANINGFUL INTERACTION

based on meaningfulsharing of cognitive

structures

non learning

surface learning

meaningful learning

concept mapping can be used to measure learning quality

but it also provides a framework for the constructive alignment of

teaching and learning

facilitate sharing of understanding of the rich and complex knowledge

structures that belie prescriptive lesson plans

this is because concept mapping can also:

1. LearningTheory

2. Methods ofGraphic Organisation

3. CognitiveStructures

4. A Model of Teaching

Technology useIn HE

New Learning Frameworks

that can reveal

to introduce

that explains thedevelopment of

alternative

which we useto explain

illustratedby

5. with considerable implications for

and the design of

Constructive Alignment

to achieve to achieve

conventional lesson plans, lectures, practicals and other formal or organised learning activities

tend towards linearity

this promotes a surface approach to learning that is commonly unwarranted

often the student who follows the lecture route is ignorant of any other route through the over-arching knowledge structure

in fact many different routes exist and the knowledge and

understanding developed by an awareness of these routes is not to

be foregone if the novice is to become and expert

Earl’s Court Holborn

furthermore, expert status is only really attained when the learner comes to be able to locate what they know and understand in a

broader context

meaningful teaching

is the art of selecting appropriate routes through complex networks of expert understanding

meaningful learning

is the art of navigation through chains of expression in order to discover underlying

networks of understanding

concept mapping

allows the knowledge and understanding of experts to be organised in systematic

ways that permit the designation of learning routes through rich and complex

subject networks

when they do so they will be able to choose tolearn in ways that are strategically appropriate

students can follow these routesand explore new routes for themselves

this is a justified approach grounded in research and in the

principles of constructive alignment

it aims to balance the goals of self-directed and student centred learning with the traditions of

didactic and expert led teaching in higher education

The approach has application in all areas of teaching and learning but it is likely to have particular impact in the design and development of

educational technology

we would argue that to date there is no such thing as a pedagogy of e-learning, but that when lecturers

are provided with concept mapping tools for organising knowledge and

information and for developing routes of learning through these

networks then e-learning will have pedagogy

far from replacing the lecturer, educational technology will re-

asserting the central role ofthe academic expert as author of meaningful learning experiences

and as the agent of support for student progressiontowards expert status

David B Hay and Ian M Kinchin

expert(teacher)

learningroutes

students

cognitivenetwork

maps plans

choosesIn order to develop

own

through

CONCEPT MAPS

whe

n th

ey t

hem

selv

es b

ecom

e th

e