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Language Development from Theory to Practice, 2e
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.All rights reserved.
Chapter 6Toddlerhood: Exploring the World and
Experimenting with Language
Language Development from Theory to Practice, 2eKhara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.All Rights Reserved.
6-2
Focus QuestionsThis chapter is designed to address the
following questions: What major language development
milestones occur in toddlerhood? What are toddlers’ achievements in
language form, content, and use? What factors influence toddlers’
individual achievements in language? How do researchers and clinicians
measure language development in toddlerhood?
Language Development from Theory to Practice, 2eKhara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.All Rights Reserved.
6-3
Introduction Toddlerhood: period between __
and __ yrs of age
Create matches between ______ and _______ in the world and the language that describes them
Language Development from Theory to Practice, 2eKhara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.All Rights Reserved.
6-4
First Words Pre-verbal to verbal communication First word ~12 mos of age, on average Words:
______________________ ______________________ ______________________
Each new word creates an entry in lexicon
Language Development from Theory to Practice, 2eKhara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.All Rights Reserved.
6-5
First Words, cont Lexical entries: series of symbols that
comprise the word, sound of the word, meaning of the word, and word’s part of speech
3 criteria for true word: ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________
__________________
Language Development from Theory to Practice, 2eKhara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.All Rights Reserved.
6-6
First Words, cont Phonetically-consistent form, or PCF:
__________________________________ __________________________________ __________________________________ Ex. “water” as “ahhhh” Consistent sound structure, used in several
contexts, rather than to name a single referent Learn the value of adopting a stable
pronunciation to communicate in a particular situation
Language Development from Theory to Practice, 2eKhara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.All Rights Reserved.
6-7
Gestures Precedes ______________ Transition from __________ to ________
__________: Referential gestures: _____________________
______________________________________ Ex. Holding a fist to the ear to indicate
“telephone” Share some properties of first true words Use signals an impending transition from pre-
linguistic to linguistic communication
Language Development from Theory to Practice, 2eKhara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.All Rights Reserved.
6-8
Gestures, cont Transition from 1-word stage to 2-
word stage: _____________________ _____________________
Begin to use _______________________, cease to combine two referential gestures
Language Development from Theory to Practice, 2eKhara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.All Rights Reserved.
6-9
Achievements in Language Form, Content, and Use 3 rule-governed domains:
Form Content Use
Toddlerhood: ______________________; ____________; ____________________ __________________________; _______ ______________________ WOW!
Language Development from Theory to Practice, 2eKhara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.All Rights Reserved.
6-10
Norms for Phoneme Attainment Sander’s (1972) customary ages of
production and ages of mastery and speech sounds
Customary age of production: _________ __________________________________ __________________________________
Age of mastery: _____________________ __________________________________
Language Development from Theory to Practice, 2eKhara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.All Rights Reserved.
6-11
Phonological Processes Place of articulation changes: ____________
____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ Fronting: replace sounds produced farther
back in the mouth with sounds produced farther forward in the mouth
Manner of articulation changes: _________ ___________________________________ ___________________________________
Language Development from Theory to Practice, 2eKhara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.All Rights Reserved.
6-12
Phonological Perception First position: ________________________
____________________________________ Only after toddlers enter the ____________
does a restructuring of lexical representations begin
More efficient storage of lexical items and allows toddlers to recognize words at the segmental rather than global level
Second position: ____________________ __________________________________
Language Development from Theory to Practice, 2eKhara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.All Rights Reserved.
6-13
Grammatical Morphemes Morpheme: ________________________
__________________________________ __________________
Grammatical morphemes: _____________ ___________________________________ Appear in speech between _______ mos of
age, or after first ___words acquired Roger Brown (1973): order and ages by
which children master 14 grammatical morphemes
Language Development from Theory to Practice, 2eKhara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.All Rights Reserved.
6-14
Combining Words to Make Longer Utterances
Two-word stage: _________________ _______________________________ Marks the true beginning of syntax (rules that govern the order of words in a child’s language) Functions:____________, ________,
_________, ___________
Language Development from Theory to Practice, 2eKhara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.All Rights Reserved.
6-15
Combining Words to Make Longer Utterances Cont. Brown’s Stages of Language Development:
__________________________________ __________________________________ Mean length of utterance (MLU): __________
_____________________________________MLU= total number of morphemes/total number of
utterances As language develops, MLU increases systematically General standard: calculate MLU using a language
sample of 50 utterances or more
Language Development from Theory to Practice, 2eKhara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.All Rights Reserved.
6-16
Sentence Forms Telegraphic quality: omit key
grammatical markers _______________________________
_______________________________ _______________________:
Yes/no questions Wh-questions Negatives
Language Development from Theory to Practice, 2eKhara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.All Rights Reserved.
6-17
Achievements in Content Novice to expert __________________
Large gains in ___________________ ___________________
Language Development from Theory to Practice, 2eKhara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.All Rights Reserved.
6-18
The Receptive and Expressive Lexicon Receptive lexicon: _________________
________________________________ Expressive lexicon: ________________
___________________________ Vocabulary spurt, word spurt, naming
explosion: _________________________ __________________________________ _____________________ Children learn an average of ___new words
per day!
Language Development from Theory to Practice, 2eKhara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.All Rights Reserved.
6-19
Overextension Overextension: children use words in an
overly general manner 3 major kinds of overextensions made
by toddlers: Categorical: _______________________________
________________________ Analogical: ________________________________
_________________________________________ Relational: _________________________________
__________________________________________ Overgeneralize about ____ of new words
Language Development from Theory to Practice, 2eKhara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.All Rights Reserved.
6-20
Underextension Underextension: _________________
_______________________________ More common than overextensions
Language Development from Theory to Practice, 2eKhara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.All Rights Reserved.
6-21
Overlap Overextend in some circumstances and
underextend in other circumstances 3 possible explanations for why children
make such errors (Gershkoff-Stowe, 2001): ________________________ Pragmatic error: ________________________
______________________________________ _____________________________
Retrieval error: _________________________ ______________________________________ _____________________
Language Development from Theory to Practice, 2eKhara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.All Rights Reserved.
6-22
Social-Pragmatic Framework for Acquiring New Words
Follow another’s gaze and pointing gestures, engage in joint attention, and imitate actions by _____mos of age (Baldwin, 1995)
By ______ of age infants use social cues, including line-of-regard, gestures, voice direction, and body posture to make inferences about intentions underlying others’ actions (Baldwin & Baird, 1999)
Language Development from Theory to Practice, 2eKhara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.All Rights Reserved.
6-23
How Do Toddlers Acquire Words So Quickly?: Fast Mapping
Fast mapping: _________________ _____________________________
Lexical representation from brief exposure to the novel word and its referent
Language Development from Theory to Practice, 2eKhara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.All Rights Reserved.
6-24
Conversational Skills Initiate a _____________, sustain that
topic for ___________, and then appropriately __________________________
Difficulty keeping their _______________ in mind
Not yet proficient at realizing when they are _____________________________; unlikely to seek clarification
Language Development from Theory to Practice, 2eKhara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.All Rights Reserved.
6-25
Theory to Practice 1991 National Institute of Child Health and
Human Development (NICHD) began a longitudinal Study of Early Child Care (SECC)
Data concerning cognitive, social, emotional, and language development from birth on
Indicators associated with positive caregiving behaviors:
_________________ _________________ __________________________ ______________________________________ (NICHD ECCRN,
1996)
Language Development from Theory to Practice, 2eKhara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.All Rights Reserved.
6-26
Theory to Practice, cont Overall quality of child care, and
______________ in particular, was consistently but modestly related to toddlers’ cognitive and language outcomes at ___months, ___ months, and ____ months (NICHD, ECCRN, 2000)
Language Development from Theory to Practice, 2eKhara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.All Rights Reserved.
6-27
Individual Differences in Language Development
Language development is not linear (e.g., Fenson et al., 2000; Scarborough, 2002)
_______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________
Language Development from Theory to Practice, 2eKhara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.All Rights Reserved.
6-28
Variation in Receptive and Expressive Language Development
___________ generally precedes ___________ in language learning
Disparity between size of one’s receptive and expressive lexicon continue throughout ____________, ____________, and into _________
Language Development from Theory to Practice, 2eKhara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.All Rights Reserved.
6-29
Effects of Gender Girls produce ___________________ than
boys and also produce more ___________ combinations than boys
Boys lag behind girls in their _________ ______________
Differences in boys’ and girls’ maturation rates, particularly with respect to _________ ___________, may contribute to gender differences in language acquisition
______ interact differently with boys and girls
Language Development from Theory to Practice, 2eKhara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.All Rights Reserved.
6-30
Effects of Birth Order Children’s language development
might differ according to the order in which they are born _________ children are more likely to have
larger vocabularies in their second year, and to reach the 50-word mark sooner than their later-born counterparts
Possible that first born and only children receive a larger amount of _________ attention than children who are not first born
Language Development from Theory to Practice, 2eKhara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.All Rights Reserved.
6-31
Effects of Socioeconomic Status Some measure of __________, _________
___________, or ______________ Associated with a variety of health, cognitive,
and socioemotional outcomes in children, with effects beginning prior to birth and continuing into adulthood (Bradley & Corwyn, 2002)
____ is associated with toddlers’ receptive and expressive language development
Language Development from Theory to Practice, 2eKhara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.All Rights Reserved.
6-32
Multicultural Focus Exposing children to multiple languages Laura Ann Pettito and colleagues (2001):
“being exposed to two languages from birth, by itself, ________________________ to the normal process of human language acquisition” (p. 494)
Ability to detect __________________ _______________ regularities, in infancy, contributes to our capacity to acquire multiple languages simultaneously
Language Development from Theory to Practice, 2eKhara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.All Rights Reserved.
6-33
How Researchers Measure Language Development
Methods for assessing children’s language development (McDaniel, McKee, & Smith, 1996) ________________ ________________ ________________
Language Development from Theory to Practice, 2eKhara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.All Rights Reserved.
6-34
Production Tasks Produce, or say, the language
targets under investigation Unstructured or semi-structured:
___________________________ Structured and systematic: ________
______________________________ ______________________________
Language Development from Theory to Practice, 2eKhara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.All Rights Reserved.
6-35
Naturalistic Observation Researchers must consider:
_________ __________________, ____________ __________________________, and the variety of ___________________ ___________________
Language Development from Theory to Practice, 2eKhara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.All Rights Reserved.
6-36
Elicited Imitation Natural ability to imitate others’
movements and speech sounds in order to gauge their underlying linguistic competence ___________________________ and requests
that the child ___________________________ ______________________________________
In order for a child to successfully imitate a target, that target must be a part of the child’s _________________
Language Development from Theory to Practice, 2eKhara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.All Rights Reserved.
6-37
Elicited Production Produce __________________________ Jean
Berko Gleason’s (1958) Wug Test Investigate children’s acquisition of English
morphemes, including the plural marker Allomorphs (variants of a morpheme with the
same meaning, but different sounds) of the morpheme –s
/z/, /s/, and /Iz/ Presented children with a pseudo word and asked
them to say what two of the same word would be called
Language Development from Theory to Practice, 2eKhara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.All Rights Reserved.
6-38
Comprehension Tasks Match pictures to target words and
phrases or act out phrases that they hear an experimenter say ____________________ ____________________
Language Development from Theory to Practice, 2eKhara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.All Rights Reserved.
6-39
Picture Selection Task Present a _______________ and ask
the child to choose the picture that corresponds to that target Investigate children’s understanding
of lexical items and syntactic constructions
Language Development from Theory to Practice, 2eKhara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.All Rights Reserved.
6-40
Act Out Task Present a child with a __________
and instruct the child to “act out” the sentences he or she hears in order to investigate the child’s _____________ _______________________________
Language Development from Theory to Practice, 2eKhara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.All Rights Reserved.
6-41
How Clinicians Measure Language Development Individuals with Disabilities Act of 2004
(IDEA; 2004): Evaluation: _____________________________
__________; includes determination of the child’s status across developmental areas
Structured, standardized, and limited in duration Assessment: ____________________________
_______________________________________ Less formal; variety of methods Encourage parent and caregiver participation
Language Development from Theory to Practice, 2eKhara L. Pence Turnbull and Laura M. Justice
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.All Rights Reserved.
6-42
Evaluation and Assessment Tools Limitations:
Limited role for family members in the assessment process
Limited allowance for individual variation across children due to standardization
Limited predictability of later language and communication abilities
Ecological validity: extent to which the data resulting from these tools can be ________________________, including the child’s home and daycare surroundings
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