lecture jan 23, 2003 introduction and definition of motivation what is motivation? – motivation is...

LECTURE JAN 23, 2003Introduction and Definition of Motivation

What is motivation?– Motivation is what makes an individual put forth

some amount of effort in a specific direction.– Any attempt to measure motivation must be

inferential because it cannot be measured directly.

What is motivation? ...

– It is generally concluded that motivation is based on NEEDS

Needs refer to deficiencies that a person experiences.

Needs energize behaviors– i.e. the need for money can lead to

good work performance.

A Classification System for Specific Motivational Theories

Content Theories

Focus on what arouses or initiate an individual’s behavior. The specific “things” that motivate people. Four major content theories

1. Maslow’s Need Hierarchy

2. Aldefer’s ERG theory

3. McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory

4. Herzberg Two-Factor Theory All four are based on needs.

Process Theories

Skeptical of Content Theories because they place little emphasis on what actions people will choose to satisfy their needs.

Process theories attempt to explain and describe the process of how people start, direct, sustain, and stop behavior.

They are concerned with factors that increase the likelihood desired behavior will be repeated.

Process Theories Cont.

The four major Process Theories are...

1. Expectancy Theory

2. Equity Theory

3. Goal Setting

4. Reinforcement

The discussion today will center on Content Theories

Content Theories of Motivation

Maslow’s Need Hierarchy - one of the most widely discussed theories

– The essence of Maslow’s Need Hierarchy is that basic human needs are organized into a HIERARCHY of 5 needs

1. Physiological

2. Safety

3. Affiliation

4. Esteem

5. Self actualization

Maslow’s Need Hierarchy....

– Gives 2 insights into motivation Specifies what goals people value at specific times Suggest what types of behaviors will influence the

fulfillment of those needs. The theory, however, provides no explanation as to how

needs originate.– Need fulfillment varies on age, sex, race, size and type of

company and culture.

Alderfer’s ERG Theory

Alderfer agrees with Maslow that individuals have needs that are

arranged in a hierarchy.– However, only involves 3 levels of needs:

1. Existence - these are needs that are satisfied by such things as food, air, water, pay, and working conditions.

2. Relatedness - these needs are satisfied by meaningful social and interpersonal relationships.

3. Growth - these needs are satisfied by making creature or productive contributions.

Alderfer’s ERG Theory…

Differs from Maslow in several ways– 3 instead of 5 needs

E needs = physiological and safety needs

R needs = belongingness, social and love needs

G needs = esteem and self actualization

Alderfer’s ERG Theory…

– Differ on how people move through the different sets of needs.Maslow relied on prepotency idea.Alderfer suggested that in addition

to the satisfaction progression process, a frustration-regression process also occurred.

Alderfer’s ERG Theory …

Suggestions to managers about employee behavior– If a manger observes that an employees higher

order needs are being blocked, because of a company policy or rule, then it is in the manager’s best interest to redirect the employee’s efforts toward relatedness or existence needs.

McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory

Need for Power Npow Need for Affiliation Naff Need for Achievement Nach

McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory...

These needs are learned early and are hard to change.

Most research and focus on Nach--Profile of high Nach

Nach - applied

McClelland made the following suggestions about developing a positive high Nach - That is a high Nach where there is no fear of success.

Nach - applied

Arrange tasks so they receive periodic feedback

Seek goo models of achievement Modify self-image Control their imagination

Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory

2 continua were needed - satisfaction had 2 dimensions

Dissatisfiers - extrinsic, not job related

Hygiene factors (pay, supervision, company policies, co-workers)

Lead to a neutral state of motivation, satisfaction, and performance

Satisfier’s - intrinsic, job related

Motivator Factors (achievement, advancement, recognition)

Result in a high state of motivation, satisfaction, and performance

Original Research was based on a survey of 200 accountants and engineers

Asked questions like– When did you feel good about your job?– When did you feel bad about your job?– Grouped these experiences into satisfiers and

dissatisfiers?

Problems

Based on accountants and engineers– limited sample of non-people oriented jobs

Oversimplification of satisfaction concept– satisfaction resides in both intrinsic and extrinsic aspects of

the job. Methodology

– when people are asked to recall things they do not remember everything. People are prone to primary and recency effects etc.

No research to test the theory was done by Herzberg

Most important contribution of Herzberg’s Theory...

Stimulated thought about MOTIVATION AT WORK

– Maslow and McClelland’s theories were based on lab research and clinical judgments.

– Showed importance of considering the motivation of people at work.

Application of Need Theories

suggests that managers should be sensitive to the differences and desires among their employees since each one is unique.– One example of the application of need theories is

the modified work week. i.e. flex time, 4 day work week, etc.

– Research on modified work weeks 14 studies - 9 related to job satisfaction

– 5 of those showed job satisfaction to be improved.

Process Theories of Motivation

Process theories attempt to explain and describe how behavior is energized, directed, sustained, and stopped.

4 major process theories– 1. Reinforcement– 2. Goal setting– 3. Equity– 4. Expectancy

Process theories incorporate the learning process

Background on learning...

Learning is one of the fundamental processes underlying behavior.– most of the behavior within organizations is learned

behavior.

i.e. perceptions, attitudes, goals, and emotional reactions are learned.

Learning defined...

Process by which a relatively enduring change in behavior occurs as a result of practice.

Types of learning - 3 types considered here...

Classical conditioning (Pavlov)– Association learning– Conditioned stimulus paired with unconditioned

stimulusConditioned response and unconditioned

response.

Types of learning ...

Operant Conditioning - B.F. Skinner– concerned with learning that is a consequence of

behavior The sequence of events is independent of the individual’s

behavior. Behaviors that can be controlled by reinforcers or

punishers are called operants. An operant is strengthened or weakened by the events that

follow it.

Types of learning...

Most workplace behaviors are operants– i.e. job related tasks

Difference between Operant and Classical conditioning is that in classical conditioning the desired behavior is already present; however, in operant it is not necessarily present.

– No identifiable stimulus that evokes the behavior.

Types of learning...

Observational Learning– Learning by observing other’s actions

Has a lot of potential especially for training programs

– Improves communication skills etc.

Process theories of Motivation...

Reinforcement Theory - Behavior is influenced by its consequences

– Based on Skinner’s work with Operant Conditioning

– When Operant Conditioning principles are applied to individuals it is called Behavior Modification

In an organizational setting it is called OB modification. Defined as the systematic reinforcement of desirable

organizational behavior and the nonreinforcement of undesirable org. behavior.

Reinforcement Theories...

Important Principles Reinforcement - anything that both increases the strength

and frequency of behavior.– Reinforcers are often used to alter behavior in organizations.– however, one must make the reinforcement contingent on the

desired behavior.– Also, the reinforcement must come close enough after the

behavior so the association is made.

Reinforcement Theories...

Negative Reinforcement– refers to an increase in the frequency

of a response following removal of a negative reinforcer immediately after the response. An event is a negative reinforcer only if its removal increases the probability of future behavior.

Alarm clock, we don’t se a lot of negegavie reinforcement.

Reinforcement Theories...

Punishment - an uncomfortable consequence of a particular behavioral response. The presence of the punishment decreases future behavior.

– Is punishment as affective as positive and negative reinforcement?

Research on punishment shows...

1. Results of punishment are not as predictable

2. Less permanent

3. Accompanied by negative attitudes toward the administrator of the punishment as well as to the activity that led to the punishment

Is it as affect as reinforcement………….not really because it is not predictable.Sometimes it is necessary to punish. Needs to be consistent.

Reinforcement Theories ...

ExtinctionThe reduction of undesirable

behaviors– caused by withholding reinforcement– usually causes a general fading of the

behavior.

*varies on reinforcement schedules*

Reinforcement Theories...

All four principles of Behavior Modification – Base on Thorndike’s Law of Effect

Of several responses to the same situation, those that are accompanied or closely followed by satisfaction (reinforcement) will be more likely to recur, those which are accompanied or closely followed by discomfort will be less likely occur.

Of several responses to the same situation, those that are accompanied or closely followed by satisfaction (reinforcement) will be more likely to recur, those which are accompanied or closely followed by discomfort will be less likely occur.

Reinforcement Theories ...

2. Reinforcement Schedules The timing of reinforcement is critical to the strengthening

of behavior.– This timing is referred to as reinforcement scheduling.

Continuous and intermittent schedules produce differences in behavior.

– Continuous reinforcement accelerates early performance and intermittent schedules are better at maintaining behaviors

Reinforcement Theories ...

3. A Managerial Perspective on OB modificationBehavioral mod. assumes that behavior is more

important than its psychological causes.

Reinforcement Theories...

4. Research on Reinforcement Theory – limited # of field studies with small samples of org.

specific– Often found unexpected findings

i.e. continuous reinforcement yield the highest levels of performance. Especially with pay.

Very little GOOD research on Reinforcement theories.

Most popular field study at Emery Air Freight

Their approach 1. Regularly inform employees how well they were

meeting specific goals 2. Reward improvement with praise and recognition.

The goal was to increase the use of containers for shipping. (i.e. grouping parcels marked for same address) from 45 to 90 percent

– Increase capacity to reduce rates for clients– Results showed an increase from 45 to 90%.

Savings=500,000 in first year and 2 million over 3 years.

– However, effects diminished over time.– The use of praise, recognition, and feed back became

routine.– Emery changed the reinforces to luncheons,

promotion, etc. and performance again increased.

Reinforcement Theories...

– Criticisms of OB mod– Criticized on several grounds

There is no “real change in behavior and people are essentially being bribed.

Doesn’t consider a person’s beliefs, values, or mental processes- too simplistic

Doesn’t account for observational learning, imitation, etc. Behavior becomes dependent on the reinforcer (i.e. pay)

and will not be performed in the absence of the reinforcer.

Goal Setting - Locke

A cognitive process whereby an individuals conscious goals and intentions are the primary determinants of behavior.– Locke observed that one of the most commonly

observed characteristics of intentional behavior is that it tends to keep going until it reaches completion.

Very strong part of performance-

Setting mutual agreeable goals between manager and subordinate.

Setting challenges………..is good! People like a challenge!!!!

Goals are very strong motivators.

Goal Setting - Locke

Description Goal Setting– A goal is the object of an action.

– i.e. cut costs by 3,000

Locke uses Frederick Taylor’s ideas about goals in the work place

Taylor assigned each person a challenging but attainable goal based on the results of time and motion studies.

The methods needed to achieve the goal were spelled out in detail.

Goal Setting ...

– Locke described three attributes of the Cognitive Process that occurs during goal setting.

1. Goal Specificity– degree of quantitative precision (clarity) of the goal.

2. Goal Difficulty is the degree of proficiency or level of performance that is sought.

Reduce turnover=specificincrease morale=not specific

Should be difficult but not impossible.Don’t allow people to sandbag.

Goal Setting - Locke Cont.

3. Goal intensity or commitment is the process of setting the or deciding how to reach it.

– Not studied much– Your book leave it out– Other researchers talk about goal

commitment instead - Amount of effort used to reach the goal.

Key Steps in applying goal setting

Diagnose for readiness of goal setting. Prepare employees by increasing interpersonal

interaction, communication, training, and action plans for goal setting.

Emphasizing the attributes of the goals that should be understood by a manager and subordinates.

Key Steps in applying goal setting...

Conducting intermediate reviews to make necessary adjustments in established goals.

Review to check the goals set, modified and accomplished.– All steps are needed if Goal setting is to be an

effective motivating technique.

Goal Setting Research

Specific goals lead to higher output than do ambiguous ones

Research on Goal difficulty– Generally believed that the more difficult the goal

the higher the performance.

Equity Theory - Adams

The essence of Equity Theory is that employees compare their effort and rewards with those of others in similar work situations.– based on the assumption that individuals are

motivated by a desire to be equitably treated at work.

Four Important Terms

Person - The individual for whom equity or inequity is perceived.

Comparison Other - Any group or persons used by the person as a reference regarding the ratio of input and outcomes.

Inputs - The individual characteristics brought by the person to the job. These may be achieved (i.e. skills, experience, learning) or ascribed (i.e. age, sex, race)

Outcomes - What the person received from the job

Equity exists when employees perceive that the ratios of their inputs (efforts) to their outcomes (rewards) are equivalent to the ratios of other employees.

Equity Theory diagrammed

EquityOutputs/Inputs = CP Outputs/Inputs

OverpaymentOutputs/Inputs > CP Outputs/Inputs

UnderpaymentOutputs/Inputs < CP Outputs/Inputs

What can be done to restore equity?

Change inputs - put less effort or time on the job.

Change outputs - produce more/pay more Change attitudes - change attitude about the

job. “I put in enough time at work.”

What can be done to restore equity?

Change the reference person Change inputs or outputs of reference person.

– i.e. Coworker - ask them to slow sown or quit being a rate buster or sabotage others work

Change the situation– i.e. quit or get transferred.

Each of these methods is designed to reduce or change the discomfort of inequity. Equity theory proposes that when inequity exists, a person will be motivated to take one of those steps.

Research on Equity

Most research has focused on pay as the basic outcome.– The failure to investigate other relevant outcomes

limits the application of the theory. Some researchers have questioned whether or not

over payment or over rewarding leads to a state of inequity.

Most research focuses on short-term comparisons

Expectancy Theory

One of the most popular explanations of motivation. Over 50 studies have been conducted testing expectancy theory’s ability to predict behavior.

Vroom defines motivation as a process governing choices among alternative forms of voluntary activity.

Key terms of Simplified Version

First and Second Level Outcome

First level outcomes are those that result from doing the job itself.– These include productivity, quality, absenteeism,

turnover, etc.– Second level outcomes are those events (rewards

or punishments” that the first level outcomes are likely to produce (i.e. merit pay, group acceptance, promotions)

Instrumentality

Perception by the individual that first-level outcomes will be associated with second level outcomes.

Asks - If I succeed what outcomes will I receive?

Values range from 0 to 1

Expectancy

Refers to individual’s belief that a particular behavior will be followed by a particular outcome.– Values range from 0 to 1

Valence

Refers to the value you attack to an outcome Values range from -1 to 0 to 1.

– -i.e. value of promotion, pay raise etc.

Porter - Lawler Integrated Model of Motivation

An expansion of the Expectancy Model to examine the factors that influence an employees job performance and satisfaction.

The Components of the Porter-Lawler Model

1. Value of Reward (Similar to valence)

The value of the reward reflects the individual’s state on need satisfaction– Rewards come in the form of friendship with

coworkers, raises, promotions, feeling of accomplishment

2. Perceived Effort - Reward Relationships

Refers to the person’s expectations that given amounts of reward depend upon given amounts of effort.

3. Effort

Refers to the amount of energy a person exerts in any situation, that is, how hard the person is trying.– effort is just the energy expended and not whether

the effort is successful or not.

4. Abilities and Traits

According to Porter and Lawler effort and motivation does not directly lead to performance but is mediated by individual abilities and role perceptions.

Abilities and Traits refer to individual characteristics like intelligence, manual skills, and personality

5. Role Perceptions

Refer to the kinds of activities people believe are necessary to perform the job successfully.– They deal with how the employee defines their job

and the types of effort they feel are essential for effective performance.

6. Performance

The combination of the value of rewards and the perceived effort-reward relationship creates expectancies about performance.

Performance comes after effort (motivation) has been exerted. Depend on the amount of effort exerted, their abilities, and their role perceptions

7. Rewards

These are desirable outcomes

Extrinsic Rewards - Job Related

Given by the organization in the form of supervision, pay, status, working conditions, security, fringe benefits.

Intrinsic Rewards

Administered by the individual themselves and include such things as achievement, self-recognition, the work itself, responsibility, and personal growth.

Research has shown that Intrinsic rewards are much more likely to produce higher job satisfaction.

Perceived Equitable Rewards (from equity theory)

Refers to the amount of rewards people feel they should receive as the result of a given level of performance.

9. Satisfaction

Refers to the person’s attitude on internal state. To the degree that perceived equitable rewards exceed actual rewards, a person is dissatisfied.

Satisfaction is important for TWO reasons

As the Porter-Lawler model points out, satisfaction is only partially determined by the actual rewards received.

It also depends on what the individual feels that the organization should reward them for a given level of performance.

Managerial Implications of the Porter-Lawler Model

Implications have to do with ways to motivate employees to achieve good performance.

1. Managers should figure out what outcomes each employee values

This can be accomplished through questionnaires, observing employees reaction to different rewards, or just asking employees outright.

2. To motivate others, managers should determine what kinds of performance they desire.

Managers must define good performance and adequate performance in terms that are measurable

3. Managers should make sure desired performance levels are reachable

• According to the model, motivation is determined by both expectancy and instrumentality.

• If employees feel the levels of performance are too high, motivation to perform will be low.

4. Managers should directly link the outcomes desired by employees (pay and promotion) to specific performances desired by management

• employees need to see a good example of the reward process in work.

5. Managers should analyze the entire situation for conflicts

• Even after setting up high expectancies managers must survey the situation to see that their are no group norms (informal) that are in conflict with good performance (i.e. Binging)

6. Managers should make sure changes in outcomes or rewards are sufficiently large to motivate significant behavior

• Rewards should not be trivial– JND’s