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09/09/2019 1
Searching for the Invisible Variables/Factors of
Human behavior/condition and Destiny
© Dr. Francis Adu-Febiri, 2019
MAKING SOCIOLOGY A SCIENCE:
SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH AND THE
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
SCIENTISTS: “Seeing is believing” (FACTFULNESS)
09/09/2019 2
Contents of Presentation
1. Introduction:
– Smarter Than Chimpanzees?
– Sociological Conclusions
– Central Question, Main Thesis, and Main Argument
– Major Concepts of Sociological Research
2. Why sociological research?
3. Types and aims of sociological research
4. Sociological research: the big picture
5. Research Processes: Positivistic Framework: Scientific Method:
Correlation and Causation
6. Research Processes: Interpretive Framework
7. Triangulation: The Fusion Approach
8. Elements and concepts of Research
9.The challenges of sociological research
10. Summary and Conclusion
09/09/2019 3
MOTIVATE– Why we should we care about sociological
research
Are you smarter than a chimpanzee?© Hans Rosling (2018): Factfulness
Where does the majority of the world population
live?
A: low-income countries
B: middle-income countries
C: high-income countries
There are 2 billion children in the world today,
aged 0 to 15 years old. How many children will
there be in the year 2100 according to the United
Nations?
A: 4 billion
B: 3 billion
C: 2 billion09/09/2019 4
FACTFUL
FACTFUL
Are you smarter than a chimpanzee?© Hans Rosling (2018):Factfulness
Worldwide, 30-year-old men have spent 10 years
in school, on average. How many years have
women of the same age spent in school?
A: 9 years
B: 6 years
C: 3 years
In all low-income countries across the world
today, how many girls finish primary school?
A: 20 per cent
B: 40 per cent
C: 60 per cent09/09/2019 5
FACTFUL
FACTFUL
Introduction: What are your responses to
the following sociological conclusions?http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2199PPD8fRw
– Suicide is not caused by depression
– Famine is not caused by drought
– War is not caused by territorial greed
– Economic success is not caused by hard work
– Marriage is not caused by love
– Rape is not caused by depraved lust
– Child abuse is not caused by mentally sick people
FACTFULNESS
Introduction: Sociological Conclusions
Using Scientific Research in investigating the social world
helps sociology to draw conclusions that show
CAUSALITY and distinguish them from conclusions (as
found in the previous slide) that show CORRELATION but
not CAUSALITY:
– E.G. Visible phenomena such as depression and suicide may have
some correlation (association or relationship), but this does not
mean that depression causes suicide.
• There are so many people who are depressed but don’t commit suicide; there
are many people who commit suicide although they’re not depressed.
• CAUSALITY & CORRELATION: The sociological reasoning is that
INVISIBLE social phenomena cause VISIBLE social phenomena.
Visible social phenomena does not cause visible social phenomena.
Visible social phenomena may only CORRELATE (relate or associate).
09/09/2019 8
Introduction: Sociological Conclusions
x
Y
X relates/associates with Y = Correlation
X causes/explains/predicts Y = Causality
Introduction: Sociological Conclusions
Solutions to social problems and designing
programs to effectively improve lives are
derived from accurate DATA or factual
information (empirical evidence) based on
the sociological research’s discovery of
CAUSALITY not mere CORRELATION.
• Discovery of CAUSALITY is the foundation of
Applied Sociology (sociological work that
focuses on creating intervention
programs/projects to solve social problems).
09/09/2019 9
Introduction: Main Theme
Data/factfulness Matter
10/09/2019 10
Introduction: Central Question and
Main Thesis of Lecture 2
CENTRAL QUESTION:
– Why do sociologists do research and why do they use the strategies/processes they use?
MAIN THESIS (Proposed Answer):
– Ultimately, sociologists do research to produce DATA (accurate factual information or empirical evidence) that may help identify patterns/social regularity, inclusing causality [not mere correlation]. In order to achieve this goal sociologists use credible and ethical methodologies, including the Scientific Method, that minimize bias and overcome unscientific thinking.
?
=
Introduction: Main Argument
(Amplified Thesis)
MAIN ARGUMENT:Sociologists use credible and ethical quantitative (positivistic) and/or qualitative (interpretive) research methodologies, processes, methods/designs and techniques to systematically collect, analyze, display, and interpret DATA to show empirical evidence about social regularity or patterns, including causality [not mere correlation] for the following three purposes:
a) to test theories and construct theories
b) to make visible the unseen social forces that shape human behavior, the human condition, and human destiny
c) to help create social policies and community programs/projects that provide solutions to social problems and improve the human condition and change lives.
Introduction: Main Argument
Illustrated Since it was first founded, many people interested in
sociology have been driven by the scholarly desire to
contribute knowledge to this field [including research that
discovers social regularity/patterns including causality],
while others have seen it as way not only to study/research
society, but also to improve [transform] it. Besides the
creation of public health care in Canada, sociology has
played a crucial role in many important social reforms such
as equal opportunity for women in the workplace, improved
treatment for individuals with mental and learning
disabilities, increased recognition and accommodation for
people from different ethnic backgrounds, the creation of
hate crime legislation, the right of aboriginal populations to
preserve their land and culture, and prison system reforms
(http://opentextbc.ca/introductiontosociology/chapter/chapt
er1-an-introduction-to-sociology/)
09/09/2019 13
09/09/2019 14
EXPLORE• To develop awareness and understanding of
concepts and/or theories/paradigms
MAJOR CONCEPTS OF SOCIOLOGICAL
RESEARCH“Concepts or ideas are not as important as the relationships that went
into forming them” (Wilson, 2008, p. 74)
Major Aims of Sociological Research
Types and Purposes of Research: Exploratory, Descriptive,
Explanatory, and Empowerment Research
Variables: Independent (X) and Dependent (Y)
Correlation and Causality
Qualitative Research and Quantitative Research
Deductive Logic and Inductive Logic
Positivistic Research Framework: The Scientific Method
Interpretative Research Framework: Alternative Methods
Research Methods/Designs and Techniques/Instruments
Triangulation or Fusion Research Approach or Mixed Methods
Ethics in Research09/09/2019 15
WHY SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH?
Four Major Reasons:
1. To minimize the chance of drawing
biased conclusions:
In everyday life, believing is seeing. In other words,
in everyday life our biases easily influence our
observations. This often leads us to draw incorrect
conclusions about what we see. In contrast, in
science (similar to philosophy of chimpanzees),
seeing is believing. Scientists, including sociologists,
develop ways of collecting, observing, analyzing and
thinking about DATA or factual information/evidence
that minimize their chance of drawing biased
conclusions.
09/09/2019 16
FACTFULNESS
WHY SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH?
2. To overcome unscientific thinking.
Sociological research seeks to
overcome unscientific thinking such
as tradition, authority, personal
experience, opinion, media myth and
commonsense about human
behavior and the social world.
09/09/2019 17
WHY SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH?
3. To produce DATA (accurate factual
information or empirical evidence) that
discovers social regularity/patterns,
including causality and use it to:
– a) make the unseen social forces visible
– b) test social theories
– c) construct social theories
– d) develop social policies09/09/2019
18
WHY SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH?
4. To create a solid basis for sustainable
social and community programs/projects
that improve the human condition and
change lives.
09/09/2019 19
09/09/2019 20
Major Aim, Types and
Purposes of
Sociological Research
A MAJOR AIM OF SOCIAL
RESEARCH
“In large part, social research aims to find
patterns of regularity in social life…social
affairs do exhibit a high degree of regularity
[rhythm, consistency, orderliness] that can be revealed
by research and explained by theory” (Earl
Babbie and Lance Roberts 2018, p. 11)
– “What about Exceptions?”: Social regularities
are probabilistic patterns, and they are no less
real simply because some cases don’t fit the
general pattern (ibid., p. 12). 09/09/2019 21
TYPES AND PURPOSES OF
SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH
1. To EXPLORE patterns of human behavior and
social worlds: EXPLORATORY RESEARCH
2. To DESCRIBE patterns of human behavior and
social worlds: DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
3. To EXPLAIN/PREDICT patterns of human
behavior and social worlds: EXPLANATORY
RESEARCH
4. To CHANGE patterns of human behavior and
social worlds: EMPOWERMENT RESEARCH
09/09/2019 22
09/09/2019 23
PURPOSES AND TYPES OF
SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH
FOCUS OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Systematic gathering, analysis
and interpretation of information
to produce Empirical Evidence
EXPLANATORY:To discover
patterns governing
the social world
so as to explain
and/or predict
events.
DESCRIPTIVE: To describe patterns
of data, human behavior, social action,
and social world.
EMPOWERMENT:
To smash patterns
of the myths of
human behavior
and to utilize
patterns in the
social world in
order to empower
people to change
lives and society.
EXPLORATORY:To document patterns of human
behavior, social action, and the social
world that has not been previously
researched.
09/09/2019 24
QUIZ #1
Kate Weeks is doing research that involves
interviewing victims of identity theft at
Camosun to discover the meaning that
victimization has in their lives with the primary
purpose of helping them to take control of and
move on with their lives. What type of
sociological research would provide more
validity to this project?
a) Empowerment research
b) Exploratory research
c) Explanatory research
d) Descriptive research
09/09/2019 25
Sociological Research:
The Big Picture
SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH:
THE BIG PICTURE
Research involves
– data collection
– data analysis
– display of regularity/pattern discovered and
interpretation of it.
Data collection methods are designed to detect or
measure social regularities/patterns, while data
analysis techniques are used to specify and
interpret these patterns and theories to explain
them” (Earl Babbie and Lance Roberts 2018, p. 12)09/09/2019 26
09/09/2019 27
Idea or Topic Research Problem & Questions
SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH: DATA COLLECTION PROCESSES
Theory
Hypothesis or
Thesis
METHODOLOGY
Concepts: Abstract Reality
Variables/Factors
MEASUREMENT
of real social regularities
Ethics
Validity Reliability
Research
Methods
Objectivity
Approach
Instruments
Qualitative
Inductive
Quantitative
Deductive
ExperimentSurveyEthnographic Research
Non-reactive Research
Questionnaires & InterviewsObservations & Content Analysis
Positivism, Interpretism,
Attributes
Fusion
Correlations & Causality
Sampling
Inductive Deductive
09/09/2019 28
STORYLINES OF THE PATTERN OF
SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH
1. Sociology is a science. Therefore, it is in the business of using the Scientific Research Processes to produce empirical evidence about causation a) to make unseen social forces visible, b) to test and/or construct theories to explain and predict and/or c) to formulate policies and strategies to change/improve human behavior and condition.
2. In order to produce empirical evidence, there is the need for reliable and valid ways of collecting, analyzing and interpreting information or data.
3. To ensure reliability and validity in the production of empirical evidence, there are certain processes/procedures and research decisions/choices that have to be made.
RESEARCH PROCESSES
Source: Del Balso and Lewis (2008, p. 15)
Design researchGather data Analyze data
THEORY
09/09/2019 30
RESEARCH STEPS:
a) The Positivistic Framework: Scientific Method
THEORY
(1)
Begin with a Theory,
Deduce Research
problem and questions
focusing on
a gap in existing
knowledge
Review
literature to show that
the proposed
gap in knowledge is
theoretically logical
(2)
(3)Deduce
Hypothesis from Theory/Literature.
(4)Select Quantitative Methods
and instruments to collect
data
(5)Analyze data
statistically for a
Pattern, display pattern
and interpret it to
confirm or reject
hypothesis in relation
to theory
(6)
Share results in a report;
Show new problem that
emerges from the
research
RESEARCH STEPS:
b) The Interpretive Framework
THEORY
Begin with a
particular
Research problem or
question focusing on
goals of researcher or
the researched
Review literature to
show that the pattern
is true/valid
Analyze data
for pattern & display
pattern
Share results in a report;
Show new research issues
that emerge from this
research
Select
Qualitative
Methods and
instruments to
collect data
Interpret the
pattern, formulate thesis
and show how it connects
with existing knowledge.
Suggest theory
1
2
3
4
5
6
09/09/2019 32
Research Frameworks :–RESEARCH PROCESSES GUIDES:
• 1) Positivistic or Quantitative– Sociological Imagination supports this framework
• 2) Interpretive or Qualitative– Social construction of reality supports this framework
• 3) Fusion or Triangulation– Both Sociological Imagination and Social Construction
of Reality support this framework
09/09/2019 33
Research Processes Guides:
–a) Positivistic Framework: The Scientific
Method: (See pp. 8 and 26 of Textbook)
• The world is a single reality that can be known by independent,
neutral and objective scientists using the scientific method (Van de
Sande & Schwartz 2011, p. 70). It focuses on the production of
“positive” or certain knowledge based on “sensory experiences”
subjected to logical reasoning; knowledge that is generalizable.
–b) Interpretive Framework: The
Alternative Method: (See p. 9 of Textbook)
• Values of the researcher cannot be separated from the research—
objectivity is not possible, nor is it desirable because there are
multiple realities based on subjective interpretations people assign to
their worlds (van de Sande & Schwartz 2011, p. 14)
09/09/2019 34
Research Processes Guides:
C) Fusion Framework: Mixed
Methods (See pp. 27 and 28 of Textbook)
– Using mixed methods (both positivist and
interpretist frameworks) to research the same
phenomenon to achieve high validity and
reliability. Feminist Research Methods fall into the
Fusion Framework (See pp. 58-60 of Textbook)
RESEARCH FRAMEWORKS:
a) Positivistic or Quantitative
Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
mi8DQspNeX4
09/09/2019 35
POSITVISTIC FRAMEWORK:
SCIENTIFIC METHOD: “VARIABLES”
Facts: Correlation & Causality
X is a variable
Y is a variable
X relates/associates with Y = Correlation
X causes/explains Y = Causality
POSITVISTIC FRAMEWORK:
SCIENTIFIC METHOD: “VARIABLES”
“Variables are properties of objects
that can change. Variables change
across a set of scores called
attributes” [or indicators]. For example,
sex/gender, blood type, social class,
height, ethnicity, IQ…” (Earl Babbie
and Lance Roberts 2018, p. 13)
09/09/2019 37
POSITVISTIC FRAMEWORK:
SCIENTIFIC METHOD: “VARIABLES”
A Focus on Facts: Correlation & Causality
Independent Variable Dependent Variable
X (CAUSE) Y (EFFECT)
Parents’ Income Likelihood of children’s
enrolling in college or
university
Correlation does not necessarily mean CAUSALITY:
– Is the connection between parents’ income and children’s enrollment
college/university a correlation or causality
Reference: Witt & Hermiston 2010, p. 25; Ravelli 2013, p.
100.09/09/2019 38
INTERPRETIVE FRAMEWORK: “FACTORS”:
A Focus on Truths: Social Relationships
The impact of parents’ income on children’s educational
outcomes may depend on the values and beliefs of parents.
These factors are interpretations that cannot be quantified.
QUIZ #2
In the above context, the Interpretive Frameworks is
arguing that…..
– a) Parents’ income causes their children’s educational
attainment
– b) Parents’ income influences enrollments in Canadian
schools
– c) Parents’ income correlates with, but does not
necessarily cause their children’s educational attainment
– d) Parents’ income does not influence enrollments in
Canadian schools
09/09/2019 40
POSITIVISTIC FRAMEWORK (SCIENTIFIC METHOD):
APPROACH & NATURE OF EVIDENCE
QUANTITATIVE: Numerical or Mathematical Testing for FACTS: Hard Data
(See pp. 38-39 of Textbook): We see social forces as/in numbers.
Chance of Getting a Job: The Skin Colour or Criminal Record Effect?
34%
17%
14%
5%
No criminal record
Criminal Record
No criminal record
Criminal record
Source: Pager 2003, p. 958. Cited in Witt & Hermiston 2010
WHITE
BLACK
POSITIVISTIC FRAMEWORK (SCIENTIFIC METHOD):
APPROACH & NATURE OF EVIDENCE
QUIZ #3:
What is the Dependent Variable
in the graph in the previous
slide?
– A) Chance of getting a job
– B) Skin colour
– C) Criminal Record
– D) Numerical Testing
09/09/2019 41
QUIZ #4
For many of the social issues confronting humanity today such as hate crimes, other
crimes, violence against women and minorities, sexism, racism, etc., it might not be
an exaggeration to say that new patterns of socialization are ultimately necessary if
our society wants to be able to address these issues effectively. Parents and
teachers of young children and adolescents bear a major responsibility for making
sure our children do not learn to hate and commit harm to others, but so do our
schools, mass media, and religious bodies. No nation is perfect, but nations like
Japan have long been successful than the United states in raising their children to
be generous and cooperative (Steven Barkan 2012, p. 75). If you understood Chapter
One of the required textbook for this course, you discovered that Sociology is also
about transformation of society. What is the correct Independent Variable of the
transformation process suggested in the above scenario?
a) Crime, violence and the isms.
b) Confronting humanity
c) New Patterns of Socialization
d) Parents and Teachers
e) School, mass media and religious bodies09/09/2019 42
INTERPRETIVE FRAMEWORK: APPROACH & NATURE OF EVIDENCE
QUALITATIVE: Non-numerical or
Words: Soft Data: (See pp. 38 and 40-43 of Textbook) (Also,
see Ravelli 2013, pp. 16, 17, 97, 98 & 106). Rigorous
research for TRUTHS or creative
insights:
– We see the social forces
beyond/beneath the
numbers/statistics/facts.
RESEARCH FRAMEWORKS:
a) Positivistic or Quantitative and
b) Interpretive or Qualitative
ILLUSTRATION VIDEO:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
MlU22hTyIs4
09/09/2019 44
POSITIVISTIC FRAMEWORK:
Logic or System of Reasoning
DEDUCTIVE LOGIC : From Theory
through Hypothesis to Data (see p. 37 of
Textbook)
– Researchers who use QANTITATIVE
approach typically use deductive
reasoning (Ravelli 2013).
– The focus is on Hypothesis = Suspected
testable causal link between/among
variables (Witt and Hermiston 2010, p.
24).
45
INTERPRETIVE FRAMEWORK:
Logic or System of Reasoning
INDUCTIVE LOGIC: From Data
through thesis to Theory (see p. 37 of Textbook)
– Researchers who use QUALITATIVE
approach usually use inductive
reasoning (Ravelli 2013, p. 92).
– The focus is on Thesis = proposed
answer to a qualitative research
question.
FRAMEWORK Quantitative (pp. 95-96): POSITIVISTIC Qualitative (p. 96): INTERPRETIVE
AIM/TYPE Descriptive or Explanatory Descriptive, Exploratory or
Interpretive
FOCUS/CONCEPTS Variables, Hypothesis, Validity,
Reliability, Correlation, Causality (pp.
99-100 of Ravelli & Weber 2014)
Factors, Thesis, Credibility,
Dependability
SAMPLING Random, probability (pp. 100-101, Ibid.) Non-random, non-probability (pp.
100-101, ibid.))
DESIGN/METHODS Structured: Experiment, Quantitative
Survey, Non-reactive (pp. 100, 102, 110-
112 Ibid.)
Flexible: Field Research, Qualitative
Survey, Participatory Action
Research, Mixed (p. 106, Ibid.)
REASONING Deductive: From theory thru hypothesis
to data (p. 98, Ibid)
Inductive: From Data thru thesis to
Theory (p. 98, Ibid)
RESEARCHER Researcher uses inanimate instruments Researcher is the main instrument
INSTRUMENTS or
TECHNIQUES
Questionnaires and tests, Statistical
software, Content Analysis (pp. 101-105,
Ibid.)
Participant Observation, interviews,
Focus Group, Content Analysis (pp.
103-105, ibid.).
ETHICS Do No Harm: Milgram’s Obedience
Study, Stanford Prison Experiment (pp.
110-112 ibid.), Tuskegee Syphilis
Experiment
Do No Harm: Humphery’s Tearoom
Trade (p. 112, ibid)
THEORY Functionalism, Social Conflict,
Feminism (pp. 94 & 108, ibid.)
Interactionism, Feminism (pp. 94 &
108, Ibid.), postmodernism
QUIZ #5
Canada’s Attorney General has awarded you a major funding to research into the causes of and solutions to marijuana grow-ops in British Columbia. You have decided to adopt the qualitative research approach. What would be your role as a researcher?
A) A research instrument
B) A research instrument user
C) Experimenter
D) Surveyor
QUIZ #6
Jasmica believes that the social world is a stable, macro social structure and culture that have objective existence ruled by deductive logic. She has decided to research into the drug trade from this perspective. What would be the, methodological approach, method, and the main instrument she would adopt?
A) Qualitative, field research and content analysis
B) Qualitative, participatory action research, and focus group
C) Quantitative, survey, and questionnaire
D) Qualitative, experiment, and intensive interviews
KEY ISSUES OF RESEAECH
Regardless of which of the three
major research frameworks you
choose, there are three critical
issues that must be addressed:
– 1. Sampling (See pp. 46-48 of Textbook)
– 2. Validity & Reliability (See last para of p.36 of Textbook)
– 3. Ethics (See p. 54, para 2 of Textbook)
09/09/2019 50
09/09/2019 51
RESEARCH FRAMEWORKS:
c) FUSION APPROACH or
TRIANGULATION (see p. 42, para 3 of Textbook)
09/09/2019 52
Triangulation:– ILLUSTRATION VIDEO:
– Humphreys’ Tearoom Trade
–https://www.youtube.com/watc
h?v=rsFa10JFats
09/09/2019 53
TRIANGULATION: THE FUSION APPROACH
Using mixed methods to research the same phenomenon to
achieve high validity and reliability
EXPERIMENT
Quantitative
SURVEY:
Quantitative
Participatory
Action Research
Qualitative
FIELD
RESEARCH:
Qualitative
09/09/2019 54
Challenges of Research
09/09/2019 55
CHALLENGES OF SOCIOLOGICAL
RESEARCH
1. Time and Money
2. Sensitive and/or dangerous topics: sexuality, crime, conflicts, etc.
3. Ethics: a) Do no harm (Milgram’s Obedience Study); b) Safety of research subjects (Stanford Prison Experiment); c) Informed consent (Humphreys’ Tearoom Trade; the Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment); d) Privacy—anonymity & confidentiality—(Humphreys’ Tearoom Trade) See Ravelli 2013 pp. 110-112 and p. 54 para 2 of Textbook)
4. Emotions, values, and morality
UNETHICAL RESEARCH:
Milgram’s Obedience to Authority
Experiment http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bc
vSNg0HZwk
09/09/2019 56
UNETHICAL RESEARCH: The
Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x
-YMdaEdbcg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
mi8DQspNeX4
09/09/2019 57
UNETHICAL RESEARCH:
Humphrey’s Tearoom Trade
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T
huhwPdI-04
09/09/2019 58
09/09/2019 59
CREATE
•Be a Changemaker
09/09/2019 60
SCIENTIFIC METHOD: Guiding Questions for and
Answers to the Research Processes:
ILLUSTRATION
1. What is your research topic?: Social Media Technology
2. What theory applies?: The use pattern of social media technology is generation-specific
3. What is already known about Social Media technology?—The usage pattern of Myspace, Twitter and Wiki among the various generations living Victoria.
4. What is missing from this knowledge? The pattern of generational gap in the use Facebook Networking Program in the city of Victoria.
5. What exactly are your research questions? What is the difference in the Facebook use pattern between teenagers and older adults living in Victoria?
6. What is your hypothesis or Thesis? Teenagers use Facebook to communicate more than older adults in Victoria.
7. What research framework informed your research? Positivism /Quantitative
8.What methods and instruments/techniques did you use to gather needed information? Survey and Observation: Questionnaire and online monitoring.
0. How did you record and analyze the information? Electronic; Statistics Software
10. What did the data tell you and what is your interpretation of this? There is no difference in the pattern of Facebook usage among teenagers and older adults in Victoria: Interpretation: This is because of similarity in access to social media technology. The hypothesis is refuted
11. What is your conclusion?: There is no generation gap in Facebook usage pattern in Victoria. The gap is in accessibility to the technology
12. What can you change with the conclusion?: Advocate for equal access to technology
10/09/2019 61
SCIENTIFIC METHOD: Use the answers to the
Guiding Questions in the previous slide as a guide to
answer the following questions based on your own
chosen research topic:
1. What is your research topic?:
2. What theory applies?:
3. What is already known about Social Media technology?
4. What is missing from this knowledge?
5. What exactly are your research questions?
6. What is your hypothesis or Thesis?
7. What research framework informed your research?
8.What methods and instruments/techniques did you use to gather needed information?
9. How did you record and analyze the information?
10. What did the data tell you and what is your interpretation of this?
11. What is your conclusion?
12. What can you change with the conclusion?:
09/09/2019 62
APPLY
•See the multiple choice
questions in the EXPLORE
section.
09/09/2019 63
Summary and Conclusion
09/09/2019 64
DNA is not Destiny; The
SOCIAL is Destiny SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH, using the SCIENTIFIC METHOD and
LOGICAL REASONING, has produced enough EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE and THEORIES to substantiate the PARADIGM that the SOCIAL is destiny, not DNA or the BRAIN.
In effect, things do not happen in the world and to people because PHYSICAL and EMOTIONAL forces cause them (Robert J. Brym 2004: 3-4: New Society: Sociology for the 21st Century. Fourth Edition). Examples of correlation but
not causality:– Famine is not caused by drought
– War is not caused by territorial greed
– Economic success is not caused by hard work
– Marriage is not caused by love
– Suicide is not caused by depression
– Rape is not caused by depraved lust
– Child abuse is not caused by mentally sick people
09/09/2019 65
CONCLUSION: A PARADIGM
SHIFT
Sociology has caused a paradigm shift about
the world and human behavior/condition
because of Sociological Research
methodologies/methods/techniques that
– a) utilize the principles of science, including
the Scientific Method, to discover/reveal
unseen social forces as causality and not
mere correlation.
– b) constitute the foundation of sociological
theorizing that will be discussed in Lecture 3.
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