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NATIONAL ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT COUNCIL
BARAZA LA TAIFA LA HIFADHI NA USIMAMIZI WA MAZINGIRA
KIHANSI CATCHMENT CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT PROJECT
PROCESS FRAMEWORK
FINAL REPORT
JULY, 2013
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Kihansi Catchment Conservation and Management Project Process Framework
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................................ i
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................... ii
1. INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................... 1
2. METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................................................ 1
3. PROJECT DESCRIPTION .......................................................................................................... 2 3.1 The Global Environmental Objective ........................................................................................ 2
3.2 The Project Development Objective (PDO)............................................................................... 2
4. PROJECT AREA DESCRIPTION .............................................................................................. 4 4.1 Physiographic characteristics ..................................................................................................... 4
4.2 Biological characteristics ........................................................................................................... 5
4.3 Socio-economic characteristics .................................................................................................. 6
4.4 Water Supply for Domestic Use and Livestock ......................................................................... 7
5. LEGAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE FRAMEWORKS .............................................................. 7 5.1 International agreements and conventions ................................................................................. 7
5.2 National legislation that will have an impact on the PF ............................................................. 7
5.3 World Bank Policies ................................................................................................................ 10
5.4 Key policies that are relevant to the implementation of the PF ............................................... 10
6. EXPECTED LIVELIHOODS IMPACTS AND MITIGATIONS .......................................... 11 6.1 Benefits and ecological threats ................................................................................................. 11
6.2 Potential social impacts ............................................................................................................ 11
6.3 Proposed mitigation measures .................................................................................................. 13
7. KEY PRINCIPLES TO GUIDE SELECTION OF PROTECTED AREAS .......................... 13 7.1 Guiding principles .................................................................................................................... 13
7.2 Eligibility criteria ..................................................................................................................... 14
8. IMPLEMENTATION PLAN FOR IDENTIFIED AREAS UNDER PROTECTION ......... 15 8.1 Key implementers of the Process Framework .......................................................................... 15
8.4 Technical studies ...................................................................................................................... 17
9. MONITORING AND EVALUATION (M&E) ARRANGEMENTS ...................................... 18 9.1 Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) arrangements ................................................................... 18
9.2 Financing .................................................................................................................................. 19
10. POTENTIAL CONFLICTS OR GRIEVANCES AND DISPUTE RESOLUTION .............. 19
11. CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................ 20
12. REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 21
ANNEX 1: Issues Raised During Stakeholders Consultations…………………………........22
ANNEX 2: Terms of Reference……………………………………………………………….24
MAPS OF THE PROJECT AREA…………………………………………………………...32
Kihansi Catchment Conservation and Management Project Process Framework
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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
BWO Basin Water Office
DoE Division of Environment
DWR Division of Water Resources
EFA Environmental Flow Assessment
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
EMA Environmental Management Act
IPM Integrated Pest Management
IRA Institute of Resource Assessment
IWRDMP Integrated Water Resource Development and Management Plan
KCCMP Kihansi Catchment Conservation and Management Project
KCMP Kihansi Catchment Management Plan
KST Kihansi Spray Toad
KSCC Kihansi Sub-Catchment Committee
LGA Local Government Authority
LKEMP Lower Kihansi Environmental Management Project
LKHP Lower Kihansi Hydropower Project
NAWAPO The National Water Policy
NBS National Bureau of Statistics
NEMC National Environment Management Council
NEP The National Environmental Policy
OP Operation Policy
PAD Project Appraisal Documents
PAPs Project Affected Persons/Populations
PF Process Framework
RBWB Rufiji Basin Water Board
SUA Sokoine University of Agriculture
TAC Technical Advisory Committee
TANESCO Tanzania Electricity Supply Company
TAWIRI Tanzania Resource Institute
TPRI Tanzania Pesticides Research Institute
WB World Bank
WBG World Bank Group
WUA Water User Association
WRMA Water Resources Management Act
WSDP Water Sector Development Program
Kihansi Catchment Conservation and Management Project Process Framework
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1. INTRODUCTION
The proposed Kihansi Catchment Conservation and Management Project (KCCMP)
aims at enhancing biodiversity conservation in the Kihansi catchment. The catchment is
located in the Uzdungwa Mountains, the largest of the 12 Eastern Arc Mountains in
Tanzania, which contains the highest ratio of endemic plant and animal species to area
of any hotspots in the world.
Despite the catchment’s critical role for both water resource management and the
protection of biodiversity, currently, a comparatively small part of the catchment is
under formal protection – (Njelele, Udzungwa Scarp, Idewa, Ihangana Forest
Reserves). In order to enhance the conservation of the critically endangered and highly
endemic species of flora and fauna, the principle activities of KCCMP will include
identification, demarcation, development of management plans and protection of
important water sources and critical biodiversity hotspots
Implementation of the KCMP will lead to gazettement of water source areas and
ecological hotspot areas found within the Kihansi River Catchment (KRC) into
protected areas status, which is likely to impact on populations particularly resource
users within and outside the catchment. Protection of biodiversity hotspots will be
focused on the Kihansi Gorge (5.5 km2) and the Udzwunga Scarp East Forest Reserve
(91 km2), areas which are uninhabited; while protection of important water source areas
will focus largely on the non-cultivated areas of the Kihansi catchment where human
population densities are low (~ 29 people/km2). In view of the above, it is essential to
ensure that the processes for effective implementation of KCCMP, including the
KCMP, are highly consultative, collaborative and participatory in order to avoid or
minimize negative impacts to communities (populations).
The purpose of the process framework is therefore to establish the design for a
consultative and participatory process by which members of potentially affected
communities participate in design of project activities, determination of measures
necessary to achieve resettlement policy objectives (e.g. definition of eligibility criteria,
mitigation measures, grievances resolution mechanisms available to project-affected
people), and implementation of relevant project activities and monitoring systems for
tracking progress and assessing project impact/results.
METHODOLOGY
The overall methodology used included literature review, interviews and field visits.
Key sources of documentation that have been reviewed were i) reports of the previous
World Bank and other initiatives in the Kihansi catchment, Project Appraisal Document
and other reports produced for the previous Lower Kihansi Environmental Management
Project, ii) the World Bank Group documents including Operational Safeguard Policies
(OP), project concept notes, project information document and Project Appraisal
Document (PAD) for this project and other WBG reports related to the process
frameworks for similar projects.
Interviews and meetings were arranged with officials and representatives of various
stakeholder groups including ministries, departments and agencies at the national and
Kihansi Catchment Conservation and Management Project Process Framework
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district levels, private sector organizations, civil society organizations, academic
institutions and potentially vulnerable communities. They include Sector Ministries
(Environment, Water, Energy and Minerals, Natural Resources and Tourism,
Agriculture, Land, Housing and Human Habitat Development), District Councils
(Kilolo, Mufindi and Kilombero), academic and research institutions (University of Dar
es Salaam – Zoology, Botany, Water Resources Engineering, Institute of Resource
Assessment (IRA); Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA), Tanzania Wildlife
Research Institute (TAWIRI); Tropical Pesticide Research Institute (TPRI)); and Rufiji
Basin Water Office (RBWO). At such interviews, discussions were focused on project
objectives and impacts, suitability of activities/components including alternatives and
budgets, implementation arrangements, readiness to implement, potential project
impacts on Kihansi environment and people and remedial/mitigation measures.
Field visits were made to Kihansi catchment, surrounding areas and districts
headquarters aiming at having direct observations, discussion with key implementers
and consultative meetings with some community members and societies. Stakeholders
consulted were drawn from a wide range of groups including public sector agencies at
the sub-national levels, implementing institutions, civil society organizations, Water
Users Associations (WUAs), traders, herbalists, woodcutters, hunters, farmers, women
and youth, etc. Information sought aimed at facilitating assessment of given
data/information on the description and spatial extent of the Kihansi catchment,
description of legal, regulatory and administrative framework relevant for the KCCMP,
analysis of potential impacts of KCCMP and proposed mitigation measures, key
principles involved in the selection of protected areas and mechanism to be employed in
conflict resolution.
PROJECT DESCRIPTION
3.1 The Global Environmental Objective
The proposed activities to be funded by GEF will contribute to the achievement of
GEF-5 Biodiversity Strategy Objective 2 -- mainstream biodiversity conservation and
sustainable use into production landscapes/seascapes and sectors -- by enhancing
biodiversity conservation in the Kihansi catchment of which 48% is under agricultural
production. The project is to provide for the long-term conservation and management of
globally critically endangered species and critical habitats in the Kihansi catchment.
The Kihansi catchment, which is relatively small (580 km2), brings to the fore the cross-
sectoral challenges associated with water allocation for agriculture, energy,
environment and other water uses. In this context, the Kihansi catchment is critical for
both water resource management and the protection of biodiversity.
3.2 The Project Development Objective (PDO)
The project development objective is ‘to enhance biodiversity conservation in the
Kihansi catchment1’. The project will compliment as well as assist on-going efforts of
key resource regulatory authorities to conserve critically endangered and highly
endemic plant and animal species in the Kihansi catchment. The project will be
implemented within the following three key components:
1“Enhance” in the context of this project is defined as to provide for the long-term sustainability of species and
institutions.
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Component 1: Institutional capacity building for the management of the Kihansi
catchment
The objective of this subcomponent is to incorporate biodiversity conservation at a
planning level into Integrated Water Resource Development and Management Planning
(IWRDMP) under the WSDP. Under Lower Kihansi Environmental Management
Project (LKEMP) – (2001-2011) support was provided for the development of the 2004
Environmental Management Act (EMA) Cap 191 and 10 implementing regulations. .
LKEMP also influenced the preparation of the 2002 National Water Policy
(NAWAPO), 2009 Water Resources Management Act (WRMA) and associated
regulations. NAWAPO, EMA, WRMA and the associated regulations provide an
important policy and legal framework for the integration of water allocation for
biodiversity conservation in river basin planning. However, to fully operationalize this
complex concept of biodiversity conservation in river basin planning in Tanzania, an
operational framework and guidelines relevant to environmental water allocation in
river basin planning and EIAs for water resources infrastructure project by integrating
downstream impacts that relate to water availability, or environmental flow assessment;
the key impact of which will be improved future water resources in environmental
planning and decision making. Component 1 will also support preparation of a
communication strategy and sustainable financing. None of these are physical
interventions, but are aimed at improving knowledge, awareness and understanding of
the complex issues at hand and improving sustainability of the project interventions.
This component comprises of two sub-components; that is Development of Operational
Guidelines for conducting Environmental Flow Assessment (EFA) and Development of
a Sustainable Financing Plan for the Management of the Kihansi Catchment. The first
sub-component will provide support for the development of operational guidelies and
procedures to conduct Environmental Flow Assessment (EFA) in order to adequately
address downstream impacts of water resource infrastructure in future Environmental
Impact Assessments. This study will serve as a pilot program for the broader WSDP
which is working in nine river basins in the country.
To improve the understanding among important stakeholders on the importance of
incorporating downstream environmental flows in river basin plans, the project will
provide support for the development and implementation of a communication strategy
related to the incorporation of environmental flows into river basin and catchment
planning.
Sub-component 2 aims at developing a financing plan for the management of Kihansi
catchment through valuation of ecosystem services with the catchment along with a
detailed examination of fixed and recurrent costs associated with catchment
management.
Component 2: Conserve endangered species in the Kihansi catchment
Component 2 has three distinct sets of interventions, including physical ones: i)
biological interventions (monitoring, reintroduction, scientific experiments, etc.) related
to KST and other endangered species; ii) preparation and implementation of the Kihansi
catchment management plan; and iii) livelihood activities and interventions. The
impacts would therefore be a function of the specific type, size and extent of the
interventions. The component comprises of two sub-components namely Species and
Habitat Conservation and Community Conservation.
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Sub-component 2.1 will focus on activities for continued reintroduction of the Kihansi
Spray Toad (KST), which is a critically endangered species with a restricted habitat
range. Furthermore, there will be activities on in-situ control and mitigation of chytrid
fungus and other diseases that are detrimental to amphibian population, conservation of
spray wetland habitat, ecological monitoring of Kihansi gorge, mapping and
management of other identified endangered species and critical habitats in Kihansi
gorge and preparation of Kihansi Catchment Management Plan.
Sub-component 2 will focus on community conservation and livelihoods, which will
help guide and prioritize community conservation activities within the 14 upstream
villages. Through participatory planning, support will be provided for pilot investments
in alternate livelihood activities, especially to those persons who will somehow be
affected by the restricted farming in valley bottoms. Capacity will also be built to
various key implementers in order to enhance the national capacity and project
sustainability in endangered species conservation and management and enforcement of
water resources and environmental regulations.
Component 3: Project Management
NEMC will be responsible for project coordination at the national, regional, district and
village levels. This will entail facilitating and coordinating the Steering and Technical
Advisory Committees as well as providing overall multi-sectoral coordination among
the governmental sectors. In addition, under this component support will be provided
for day-to-day project implementation and management including, procurement, and
financial and environmental management. The component will provide support for
office operating costs including annual audit costs.
PROJECT AREA DESCRIPTION
4.1 Physiographic characteristics
Kihansi River catchment is located in the southern middle Udzungwa Mountains. Its
altitude ranges from 300 m in the Kilombero floodplain rising sharply to 1200 m at dam
site to 2000 m in the uppermost part. A sharp altitudinal change between the dam and
floodplain is characterised by several waterfalls.
The Riverine system in Kihansi comprises the main River Kihansi and its several
tributaries joining the main river at different locations before it drains into River
Kilombero in the Kilombero floodplain. This Riverine system is subdivided into
upstream and downstream river with respect to the Lower Kihansi Reservoir. Upstream
system comprises River Kihansi (headwaters in Igeleke Village) which is joined by
several small tributaries including Rivers Muhu, Mkalasi and its major tributary River
Ruaha before flowing into the 1.616 Mm3 capacity Lower Kihansi reservoir. The river
flows from the dam to be joined by rivers Mhalala, Jabali and Handaki within the
Kihansi gorge. From the gorge, River Kihansi flows as a single river into the Kilombero
floodplain where it is joined by the return flow of the tailrace before the TAZARA
railway bridge, from which it meanders in the floodplain to discharge into River
Kilombero.
The Kihansi Gorge, which is the most important habitat for critical species of fauna and
flora is not easily accessible; it can only be accessed by foot from the Kihansi Dam or
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from the Kihansi Power Station (KPS). The footpaths up the nearly 900 meters from the
KPS up to the Kihansi dam are narrow, slippery and steeply sloping making the journey
through the gorge difficult and even dangerous for people who may not be used to such
steep and hilly terrain. In view of the above, it is worth noting that are no on-going
community related activities such as farming and/or settlements in this area. Currently,
accessibility to the Kihansi Gorge is restricted to habitat and ecological monitoring
aspects, which are carried out regularly as part of the Environmental Management Plan
(EMP) for the Lower Kihansi Hydropower Plant.
The KCCMP will focus on the protection of the water sources that are located upstream
of the catchment and will therefore have an impact on the flow of water within the
Kihansi River and the Kihansi Gorge. These water sources, which have been identified
by the communities in the catchment as part of the on-going activities in the Rufiji basin
under the Water Sector Development Programme (WSDP), include:
a) Kilolo District: Kilomele, Madete, Ilambwa, Mahare, Kiguka, Ng’embe,
Ngohwani, Msuyu, Kitalawe, Kidope and Mseve;
b) Mufindi District: Kidope, Lwanzala, Kimanyu, Mkulubanzi, Mlungu, Mongoro,
Mnyazungwa, Muhu, Mapanda and Igeleke.
The major threat to water sources arises due to deforestation in search for more land for
cultivation and uncontrolled valley bottom cultivation locally called ‘vinyungu’.
4.2 Biological characteristics
Kihansi catchment forests have abundance of terrestrial and aquatic fauna including
mammals, birds, fish and herptiles (amphibians and reptiles). Eight primate species
occur in Kihansi and Udagaji gorges: Sykes Monkey, Uhehe Red Colobus, Black &
White Colobus, Sanje Mangabey, Vervet Monkey, Baboon and two species of Galago.
One of the Galagos is the rare Matundu Dwarf Galago. The Uhehe Red Colobus and
Sanje Mangabey are globally rare being only known from the Udzungwa Mountains
(including Kihansi) and so are of high conservation importance. In Kihansi gorge the
estimated population size of Red Colobus was the largest, followed by Sykes Monkey
and Black and White colobus. Sixteen bird species recorded from the Kihansi Gorge are
of conservation concern (African Crowned Eagle, Swynnerton's Robin, Uluguru Violet-
backed Sunbird, Sharpe's Akalat, Mountain Buzzard, Half-collared Kingfisher, African
Black Duck, Giant Kingfisher, Orange Ground Thrush, Evergreen Forest Warbler,
Square-tailed Drongo, Fu-elleborn's Boubou, Moustached Green Tinkerbird, Shelley's
Greenbul, Fischer's Greenbul, White-chested Alethe). Seven of 12 globally or
regionally threatened and near-threatened species are found in Kihansi. Eastern Arc
endemic amphibians occurring in the Kihansi forest include: Nectophrynoides tornieri,
Leptopelis uluguruensis, Probreviceps macrodactylus and Arthroleptides martiensseni.
Eastern Arc endemic reptiles include: Cnemaspis udzungwae (an Udzungwa endemic)
and Rampholeon brevicaudatus. A new species of Nectophrynoides (Nectophrynoides
asperginis) or famously known as the Kihansi Spray Toad (KST) is only found in the
Kihansi Gorge.
The 1995 EIA for Lower Kihansi Hydropower Project (LKHP) listed plants for the
forest that were known to be endemic to the Eastern Arc, which is the area of high
biodiversity and endemism. Some of these plants were poorly known scientifically or
Kihansi Catchment Conservation and Management Project Process Framework
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were significant range extensions. For example, collection of Oxyanthus haerdii in
Kihansi was the first time the plant had been found since its initial discovery in 1959,
and identification of the rare Cola scheffleri extended its range southwards by several
hundred kilometres. The largest Udzungwa Forest Reserve extends into eastern part of
the catchment within the sub-catchment of River Ruaha extending for the entire area
between the river and eastern border of Kihansi catchment. There are two small forests,
the Mwatasi and Igeleke Forests located on the northwest part of the catchment.
4.3 Socio-economic characteristics
The main livelihood activities in the area include rain-fed agriculture; livestock
keeping; fishing and fish-farming; trading on basic necessities; and harvesting of forest
products. These activities are carried out mainly for subsistence. All villagers have
access to agricultural land through customary ownership or through temporary use-
rights. There are no individuals or groups of people who cannot access agricultural land
in the area. Customary (traditional) ownership is the dominant form of land ownership
in the area. Land is more accessible in the lowland areas in comparison to the upland
villages. Only a small area of farmland is under irrigation (approximately 200 acres in
Udagaji village) although the area has over 100 streams and rivers. Farming land is
characterized by steep slopes in the upland areas, while the lowland farms are generally
flat. There is a fruit and meat processing factory in Boma la Ng’ombe. Mlimba “A” and
Boma la Ng’ombe have a number of grain mills and sawmills.
The dominant economic activities of Kihansi population are crop production (85%) and
animal keeping (10%). Different crops are grown between the lowland and upland areas
due to the difference in altitude and climate between the two areas. Maize; cassava;
sweet potatoes; and some of the fruits/vegetables are grown in both areas. Upland crops
include maize, wheat, finger millet, round potatoes, sweet potatoes and pyrethrum.
Fruits grown in upland areas include bananas, pears, peaches, avocado, oranges and
guava. Vegetables grown in those areas include beans, green peas, cabbages and
tomatoes. Lowland crops include rice, maize, sorghum, cassava; sweet potatoes,
pumpkins, pigeon-peas, groundnuts and sesame. Other lowland crops include coconuts,
cashew nuts, cocoa, palm-oil and sugar cane. Fruits grown in lowland areas include
bananas, oranges, mangos, pawpaw, sweet melons, lime fruits and guava. Vegetables
grown in those areas include beans, cabbages, onions, okra and tomatoes.
Illegal hunting for bush-meat is among the activities carried out in lowland areas.
Livestock keeping include cattle in lowland areas and dairy cows in upland areas.
Goats, sheep, pigs, rabbits and chicken are kept in both areas. Pigeons are reared in
lowland. Intercropping is widespread and often results in complicated cropping
patterns.
Exploitation of forestry resources is primarily for fuel. The main source of energy is
firewood obtained from wood forests and rain forest. Firewood is used for cooking.
Electricity is also available in some areas of Mlimba and Kihansi TANESCO area from
power produced at Lower Kihansi Power Plant. Alternative power sources include
generators, which produce energy to various financially able persons as well as solar
powers. Logging is becoming widespread following the flourishing market of timber
within and outside the country. Preferred species for logging include Mninga, Mhongo,
Mpangapanga, Msekeseke, Pamosa, Msufi and Mtondo/Mtondoro.
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Commercial and trade facilities are run by the private sector. Private businessmen
operate shops of various merchandise, restaurants, hotels, guesthouses, bars and kiosks.
Supplies are obtained from Ifakara, Kilombero and Mikumi Towns and Morogoro
Municipality through roads and railway.
4.4 Water Supply for Domestic Use and Livestock
Most of the population in the area is supplied with water for domestic use from rivers,
streams, dug-out traditional wells and springs. Only Mlimba “A” and Boma la Ng’ombe
have limited access to tap water. Shallow wells are also among the sources of water for
domestic use. Most of the livestock in the upland areas are on zero-grazing but a good
number of lowland livestock are free-range and utilize various ponds and streams for
watering.
LEGAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE FRAMEWORKS
There is an overall national institutional and legal framework for the management and
protection of the environment.. The responsibility for the management and protection of
the environment presently lies with the Division of Environment (DoE) and the
National Environment Management Council (NEMC) under the Vice President’s
Office. NEMC is a public body established under the Environmental Management Act
Cap 191, responsible for managing the environment in Mainland Tanzania and hence to
ensure that EMA and its regulations are complied with accordingly.
5.1 International agreements and conventions
Tanzania’s commitment is reflected in a number of global and international
environmental and natural resource management conventions which the country is
signatory to and has acceded to. These include The Convention on Biological Diversity
(CBD), United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), United
Nations Convention to Combat Drought and Desertification (UNCCD), Vienna
Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, Montreal Protocol on Substances
that Deplete the Ozone Layer and the London Amendments to the Montreal Protocol on
Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, Basel Convention on the Control of Trans-
boundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal, Convention on the
Conservation of Migratory Species, Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species of Wild Fauna and Flora(CITES), Convention on Wetlands of International
Importance (Ramsar), Convention Covering the Protection of the World Cultural and
Natural Heritage and United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea.
Tanzania is also a party to a number of Africa regional agreements such as the Bamako
Convention on the Ban of the Import into Africa and the Control of Trans-boundary
Movement and Management within Africa of Hazardous Wastes and The African
Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.
5.2 National Legislation Relevant to the PF
There is no specific legislation for the protection and conservation of biological
diversity as a whole. The EMA (2004), The Wildlife Conservation Act (2009), The
Forest Act (2002), The Water Resources Management Act (2009), The Land Use
Planning Act (2009) and The Village Land Act (1999) form the current legislative basis
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for Wildlife Protection and Biodiversity Conservation in Tanzania. Some of the
provisions of these legislation are insufficient and above all, the institutions set up to
manage and implement these legislation have inadequate manpower as well as financial
capacity to execute daily mandates. These policies and legislation designed to foster
conservation and national management of natural resources date back to the colonial
era.
5.2.1 The Environmental Management Act (2004)
The Environmental Management Act (2004) repealed the National Environmental
Management Act, 1983 and provides for continued existence of the National
Environmental Management Council (NEMC). EMA introduces a concept of right of
Tanzanians to clean, safe and healthy environment and right of Tanzanians to access to
various segment of environment for recreational, educational, health, spiritual, cultural
and economic purposes (Section 4 (1) and (2)). Under this Act, NEMC is mandated to
undertake enforcement, compliance, review and monitoring of environmental impact
assessment and has a role of facilitating public participation in environmental decision
making, exercise general supervision and coordinating over all matters relating to the
environment.
5.2.2 Village Land Act (1999)
The Village Land Act No.5 of 1999 is arguably amongst the laws that most directly
impact the well-being of most Tanzanians. Unlike the Land Act, the Village Land Act
has in its provisions, which bear witness of some attempt to learn from past problems
and experiences. The Act suggests that the major parts of the administration of land
have been decentralized to the village and that there are firm guarantees in place to
protect the smaller-holder security of tenure. Fundamentally, the Act vests all village
land in the village. The precise distribution of authority between the Village Council
and the Village Assembly is not always defined, but the underlying principle is clearly
that Village Land is vested in the Village Assembly and that the Village Council
administers the land through the authority of the Village Assembly.
The Village Land Act through Section 18 (1) states that a “customary” right of
occupancy is in every respect of equal status and effect to a granted right of occupancy.
The meaning of this statement is somewhat unclear as the holder of customary rights
answers to a different set of rules with different hindrances and privileges than does a
holder of a granted right of occupancy. This statement in its own right is unimportant
because the status of customary rights will only be determined by the way in which the
law will be administered.
However, Section 60 of the Act makes special provisions for the establishment of a
Village Land Council “to mediate between and assist parties to arrive mutually
acceptable resolution on any matters concerning the village land. Sections 11 and 58 of
the Act show that for some reasons, the Village Land Council jurisdiction has been
limited to cases related to land sharing arrangements with other villages and land
sharing. Since the proposed KCCM Project will be carried out in the part of village
lands, the provisions given in this Act will be applicable.
5.2.3 Wildlife Conservation Act (2009)
The objective of this law is to protect, conserve and administer areas with great
biological biodiversity; protect and conserve wildlife resources and its habitats. Section
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35 under this Act provides legal requirement of conducting EIA for significant
intervention in wildlife protected areas and their associated dispersal areas. The act
provides legal framework for various uses of wildlife resources within and outside
protected areas.
5.2.4 The Forest Act (2002)
The law provides the promotion and enhancement of the contribution of forest sector to
the sustainable development and conservation and management of natural resources for
the benefit of present and future generations. The law also encourage and facilitate the
active participation of the citizens in the sustainable planning, management, use and
conserve forest resources through the development of individual and community. To
ensure ecosystem stability through conservation of forests biodiversity, water
catchments and soil fertility.
5.2.5 The Water Resource Management Act (2009)
This is a new legislation that has repealed the Water Utilization (Control and
Regulation) Act (1974). The Act provides for institutional and legal framework for
sustainable management and development of water resources; outlines principles for
water resources management for prevention and control of water pollution and provides
for participation of stakeholders and general public in implementation of the National
Water Policy. Its main objective is to ensure that the Nation’s water resources are
protected, used, developed, conserved, managed and controlled in ways that among
others, meets the basic human needs of present and future generations, prevents and
controls pollution of water resources and protects biological diversity especially the
aquatic ecosystems.
According to Section 39 (1) of this act, owner or occupier of land on which any activity
or process is performed or undertaken, or any other situation exists which causes
pollution of a water source, shall take all reasonable measures to prevent any such
pollution from occurring, continuing or recurring. It is stated under Section 39 (2) that a
Basin Water Board may direct any person who fails to take the measures required under
subsection (1) to commence taking measures before a given date, diligently continue
with those measures or complete the measures before a given date.
Section 40 (1) states that where a person fails to comply or comply inadequately with a
directive given under Section 39 (2), the Basin Water Board may take measures as it
considers necessary to remedy the situation. Section 40 (2) provides more that the
responsible person, any other person involved in the incident or any person with
knowledge of the incident must, as soon as is practicable after obtaining knowledge of
the incident, report the incident to the Basin Water Board or any public officer and the a
responsible person shall take all reasonable measures to contain and minimise the
effects of the incident, undertake clean-up procedures, or take such measures as the
Basin Water Board may verbally or in writing direct and any verbal directions shall be
confirmed in writing within fourteen days to have effect under this subsection
The KCCMP will strive to comply with the provisions of the Water Resource
Management Act of 2009.
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5.2.6 Land Use Planning Act (2007)
The Act established the Land Use Planning Commission, which is the principal
advisory organ of the Government on all matters related to land use. The Act has the
function of formulating policy on land use planning, coordinating the activities of all
bodies concerned with land use planning matters, and evaluating existing and proposed
policies and activities of the Government directed to the safeguarding of land against its
wrongful, wasteful or premature use or development and, on that basis, recommend
policies and programs which will achieve more effective protection and enhancement of
the land quality and encourage better land use planning.
Other functions include recommending measures to ensure Government policies are
complied with, including those for the development and conservation of land. This is
also an important environmental provision, which introduces the requirements for
environmental impact assessment at least in respect of land use matters.
5.3 World Bank Policies
The Involuntary Resettlement Policy (OP/BP 4.12) covers direct economic and social
impacts that emerge from Bank-financed investment projects, and are caused by
involuntary taking of land resulting in relocation or loss of shelter, loss of assets or
access to assets, loss of income sources or means of livelihood, whether or not the
affected persons must move to another location or the involuntary restriction of access
to legally designated parks and protected areas resulting in adverse impacts on the
livelihoods of the displaced persons. The policy is triggered in situations involving
involuntary taking of land and involuntary restrictions of access to legally designated
parks and protected areas.
The objective of this policy is to avoid where feasible, or minimize the resettlement,
exploring all viable alternative project designs. The policy calls for sustainable
development programs, providing sufficient investment resources to enable the persons
displaced by the project to share project benefits and to improve their livelihoods. The
standards of living should be restored, in real terms, to pre-displacement levels or to
levels prevailing prior to the beginning of project implementation, whichever is higher.
This policy may be triggered because the proposed project is envisaged to entail some
restriction of livelihood and other activities to selected critical habitats and water
sources which will be earmarked for protection. Therefore, consistent with OP 4.12, this
Process Framework has been prepared to manage any implications for communities
relying on natural resources in these areas.
5.4 Key policies that are relevant to the implementation of the PF
The key policies and strategies that will be of relevance during the implentation of this
framework include the National Environmental Policy (1997), The National Agriculture
and Livestock Policy (1997), The National Water Policy (2002), The National Forest
Policy and the National Strategy for Urgent Actions on Land Degradation and Water
Catchments (2006).
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EXPECTED LIVELIHOODS IMPACTS AND MITIGATIONS
6.1 Benefits and ecological threats
Most of the socio-economic activities of Kihansi communities are carried out outside
protected areas from the right bank of River Ruaha to the western catchment boundary.
This leaves only the protected Udzungwa Scarp Forest (between the left bank of River
Ruaha and eastern catchment boundary) where these activities are not carried out or
illegally carried out.
Consequently, agriculture is widespread in the catchment with communities utilising
natural resources outside protected areas for most of their livelihood needs and
cultivation is extended to the river banks (popularly known as vinyungu), particularly in
dry seasons. Agricultural practice is slash and burn, and has occasionally resulted into
serious damages and changes to vegetation structure and faunal composition. Farms
occur in gentle and steep slopes on the western portions of the reserve. Other uses and
services from the unprotected areas include bee-keeping, firewood collection and wood
/timber mainly for domestic use and subsistence income generation. Communities
bordering the Udzungwa Scarp Forest Reserve (Uhafiwa, Ihimbo, Kipanga and Mbawi)
do most of the illegal hunting of primates in the forest.
6.2 Potential social impacts
The implementation of the Kihansi Catchment Management Plan to be supported by the
proposed project is envisaged to support water and soil conservation activities and
propose appropriate protection status and management systems for these sites.
However, formal protection or gazettement of water source areas to a lesser degree and
biodiversity hotspots is likely to result in undesirable impacts to community livelihoods.
The possibility remains that implementation of project activities to protect important
water sources and biodiversity hotspots might materially affect the current livelihoods
of certain persons in the catchment, largely by restrictions in access to natural resources
in these newly protected areas. The main community concerns are possible restrictions
on their historical use of "natural" resources from natural forest such as harvesting of
timber and fuel wood collection and restriction on cultivation and use of fertile riparian
soils in vinyungu or valley bottom plots.
The land potential for gazettement as important water source areas is most likely is
along the water courses and adjacent to forest reserves. Protection of water sources
within the Kihansi catchment will involve prevention of steep slope cultivation or
through appropriate agricultural practices including terracing and contour bands. This
might entail joining parts of Igeleke and Mwatasi Forests (Figure 1) and consequently
gazetting the area between the two forests and most of the Mhalala sub-catchment
because of its immediately proximity to the Kihansi Gorge.. Apart from protection of
other sources, entire lengths of rivers in Kihansi might need protection against
destructions of the banks by compliance enforcement of 60 m or any established
relevant distances from sources, as mandated in Section 57 of EMA Cap 191 and
Section 34 of the WRMA of 2009.
This Process Framework outlines the key guiding principles, criteria and procedures
which the project will follow in such cases, to ensure that eligible, affected persons are
assisted in their efforts to restore or improve their livelihoods in a manner which
maintains the environmental sustainability and territorial integrity of the relevant
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protected areas. In all such cases, the National Environment Management Council
(NEMC) as the executing agency and respective Local Government Authorities would
seek to address the livelihood issues of these persons in a manner which is fair, just, and
in accordance with the Tanzanian laws and Regulations, as well as consistent with the
World Bank's Safeguard Policies on Involuntary Resettlement (OP 4.12),
Environmental Assessment (OP/BP 4.01), Natural Habitats (OP 4.04), Forest (OP/BP
4.36).
Figure 1: Location of socio-economic facilities in Kihansi River catchment
(upstream)
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6.3 Proposed mitigation measures
Mitigation measures against these anticipated negative social impacts of project
activities will be developed under this project in consultation with, and taking into
account of the needs of local communities. The project will be guided by the EMA
(2004) and WRMA (2009) and the National Water Policy, which provide for
community participation in the management of natural resources. The project will work
with the Village governments, Village Environmental Management Committees and
Water User Associations to develop Kihansi Catchment Management Plan as among
envisaged outputs of KCCMP. Among the mitigations to be implemented by the project
is establishment of woodlots as part of the catchment management plan as an alternative
for firewood collection from natural forests that will be demarcated for protection.
Awareness on alternative energy sources and efficient energy use technologies (e.g.
using saw dust for cooking) and improved stoves will also be provided. The project will
also provide support for pilot investments in alternative livelihoods activities in the
Kihansi catchment based on community consultation and preferences in the use, timing,
and application of pesticides, terracing, contour bunds, mulching, intercropping, shelter
crops, the planting of insect trap crops, soil stabilizing grasses and shrubs, honey
production, poultry keeping, fruit trees, and the marketing of fruits. Demonstration
plots in the form of farm field schools will be established for communities to participate
and learn both the theory and practice of soil and water conservation, IPM and
appropriate agricultural practices. These activities will be promoted as alternatives to
traditional valley-bottom cultivation.
KEY PRINCIPLES TO GUIDE SELECTION OF PROTECTED
AREAS
7.1 Guiding principles
The following principles will guide the project’s identification and protection of
protected important water sources and biodiversity hotspots in consultation with
communities living in core and buffer zones of those areas.
a) Livelihood activities inside the proposed protected areas: Currently there is no
form of resource utilisation within the proposed protected areas. The area earmarked
to be gazetted as a biodiversity hotspot is the Kihansi Gorge where there is no
human settlement and access is already restricted. The restriction will likely be
increased under the project after gazettement.
b) Information and communication: The Project will develop a Communication
Strategy that will emphasize dissemination of clear, true and timely information to
beneficiaries (including government and non-governmental organizations and the
general public) as to the Project objectives, scope and benefits. The Project will
strongly emphasize the provision of detailed information regarding the rights and
obligations of the direct project beneficiaries, in a manner that is accessible and
enables any questions, doubts or issues to be raised and resolved as quickly and
efficiently as possible.
c) Participation: Broad public participation in the catchment particularly by those
communities living in and near the protected areas will be strongly emphasized in
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the formulation, updating, execution, monitoring and evaluation of Management
Plans. The community participation will be through the Village Environmental
Committees (natural resources, biodiversity hotspots) and the Water User
Association (important water sources).
d) Biodiversity conservation and sustainable development: Sub-catchment
Management plans will aim to harmonize the needs of local human populations with
the conservation of natural resources. These management plans will be prepared
with full participation of communities that will be involved in the implementation of
activities identified in the management plans.
e) Environmental education. Environmental education will be strongly emphasized
so as to promote awareness and sound behaviour among the population of the
importance of natural resource conservation.
f) No involuntary resettlement. To effectively implement the project, no
involuntary physical displacement or relocation of people will take place as a part of
implementation of this project.
g) Voluntary resettlement. In the case that current livelihood activities are not
considered compatible with the conservation of important biodiversity hotspots and
water sources, innovative measures to mitigate the impacts of those household will
be developed with the participation of would-be beneficiaries in livelihood and
catchment management demonstrations that would guarantee the reestablishment of
existing socio-economic conditions. These households would be the priority
beneficiaries of activities from the community conservation and livelihood activities
sub-component.
h) Transparency. The dissemination and validation of management plan formulation,
execution, monitoring and evaluation will be done in a fully transparent manner,
such that all protected area community sectors are aware of the process. This
process will be managed so as to guarantee that established criteria and procedures
are applied transparently and equitably for all.
i) Co-responsibility. Management plan development and implementation will
include clearly defined roles and responsibilities for all institutions involved,
including national and local governmental entities, social organizations and
communities.
7.2 Eligibility criteria
Due to current limited accessibility in the proposed biodiversity hotspot (Figure 2), it is
anticipated that access to resources will not be limited as a consequence of
implementation of this project. However, restriction to cultivation near water sources is
anticipated. This restriction will be in line with the provisions by the law as outlined in
Sections 57 and 34 of the EMA of 2004 and WRMA of 2009, respectively. EMA and
WRMA will form the basis for the identification and protection of water sources in the
project area. The Water User Associations (WUAs) and Village Environmental
Committees have the primary responsibility of protecting these important water source
areas with or without the project. Gazettement of these water sources will not limit
households to collect firewood and other forest products, but will rather focus on
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restricted valley bottom farming of ‘vinyungu’. Procedures will be put in place to ensure
that such farmers who will be affected are included in the proposed community pilot
investments under Sub component 2.2. These community investments will promote
alternative livelihood activities as well as improve water quality and its flow into River
Kihansi.
Figure 2: Kihansi gorge has limited accessibility to surrounding communities
8. IMPLEMENTATION PLAN FOR IDENTIFIED AREAS UNDER
PROTECTION
8.1 Key implementers of the Process Framework
Implementation of this Process Framework is the responsibility of NEMC. Supporting
NEMC will be a number of actors such as the LGAs, Village governments and Village
Environmental Committees, Community Based Organizations and NGOs. Identification
and demarcation of biodiversity hotspots will be carried out by the Ministry of Natural
Resources and Tourism and Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute. The Ministry of
Water and Rufiji Basin Water Office (RBWO) will be responsible for the identification
and demarcation of important water sources. Technical studies such as Socio-economic
Diagnostics will be overseen by NEMC and carried out by private sector firms and/or
NGOs (or other competent actors). Implementation of the CMP will be the
responsibility of LGA in collaboration with the RBWO.
8.2 Public participation and consultation and community concerns
Public consultations were carried out during designing of project activities as well as
ESIA and Process Framework preparation exercise with the aim of explaining the
objectives and scope of the project as well as to identify, discuss and respond to project
issues of concern to different stakeholders. During the field visits and stakeholder
consultations, information was gathered on the population, land use patterns and
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agriculture and key economic activities within the catchment (see Annex 1). At present
only an estimate of the categories of people to be affected by the relevant project
components has been made as detailed consultation will be carried out during project
implementation as part of the preparation of the Kihansi Catchment Management Plan,
particularly on identification of important water sources from protection. Generally,
most of the stakeholders view the proposed project as a positive initiative that will
support and build on the earlier work done under LKEMP. Stakeholders view the
overall objective and the project design as a constructive initiative in terms of
biodiversity conservation, community support by prompting alternative livelihood
activities as well as enhancing protection of water sources. Capacity building to raise
community awareness on the issues of provision of alternative investment opportunities
(referring to previous small grant schemes under LKEMP); protection of water sources;
as well as improvement of water quality were seen to be of high priority during the
discussion. These views were incorporated during the formulation of KCCMP.
Protection of critical biodiversity has existed already in the Kihansi Gorge during the
previous IDA support to LKEMP and prior to the start of World Bank project as for the
case of Njelele forest reserve. After the launch of the proposed project, there is no new
restriction of access to natural resource in these areas. During consultations
communities expressed their understanding on the biodiversity and the presence of
endemic species in the catchment, particular the Kihansi Gorge as a habitat for the
Kihansi Spray Toad and the conservation efforts under the earlier project,
LKEMPHowever, the proposed project will enhance awareness of protected areas and
involve communities in administrative action plans for biodiversity protection and
monitoring including: media publicity, on-site and off-site training, posters and
promotional graphics observing the conservation of water, soil management and
vegetation cover in demonstration plots.
Based on the community’s past involvement and knowledge they were less concerned
with the protection of biodiversity hotspots in the Kihansi Gorge where there is no
human habitation and where access is already restricted. Communities have a clear
understanding on the local environment, and are also aware that establishment of the
protected areas will help improve the local living environment for future generations.
But they are also clearly aware of various impacts of the project on their livelihood.
Concerns were aired with regard to the restricted access to cultivation along valley
bottoms and water source areas, which were not clearly defined at project preparation.
Nevertheless, communities have no objection to the project implementation, from
which they expect to benefit from conservation activities. They appeal the Government
to provide electricity and a passable road to villages on the upstream of the Lower
Kihansi Hydropower Dam. Since conservation initiatives in Kihansi catchment started
during the construction of the dam, communities associate most of the conservation
activities with the functioning of the dam. Therefore, the main argument is that, since
these villages, particularly Ukami conserve the catchment to ensure continuous flow of
water in Kihansi River for power generation, they deserve consideration form the
benefits accrued from conservation.
Communities proposed that the new project emulates the participatory approach in
identification and protection of water sources as implemented by the WSDP through
RBWO. Under WSDP, communities establish Water User Association for sub
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catchments and agree on management and utilization procedure, which are formulated
in constitutions and by-laws, which regulate utilization in protected areas. The by-laws
are made binding and formal between the communities and the respective Local
Government Authority.
8.3 Project information dissemination
Information regarding the project’s goals, activities and advances will be disseminated
at the local, regional and national levels in accordance with the communication strategy
that will be prepared by this project. This strategy will be developed to specifically
target key stakeholders such as local communities and NGOs, as well as local, regional
and national institutions and the general Tanzanian public. At the national and regional
level the project aims to disseminate its objectives and achievements and encourage
public support during the implementation of its planned activities. For those
communities living in the project area and in the surrounding buffer zones of potential
protected areas, the strategy aims to encourage support for the sustainable use of natural
resources and conservation; motivate local participation in the design and
implementation of Management Plans; disseminate the mechanisms for, and encourage
participation in, local community-based or village committees and establish a two-way
communication channel between communities and those responsible for project
development and implementation.
The communication strategy will disseminate key information to the public through a
variety of channels, in both the public and private sector, such as governmental
institutions, NGOs, private businesses, schools, and civil society.
8.4 Technical studies
The following technical studies will be done to document the status and location of
important water sources and biodiversity hotspots within the catchment. This will be in
addition to what has been documented by the Rufiji Basin Water Office for the entire
Rufiji Basin.
a. Rapid Ecological assessment: Rapid Ecological Assessment (REA) will be done
focusing on Kihansi gorge to identify issues that are pertinent to biodiversity
conservation. The REA will be done using field verification of existing information
and aerial photography and/or satellite images. The results will be used as a basis
for preparation of management plans, with priority set for endangered and endemic
species.
b. Socio-economic Diagnostics: These diagnostics will be done to characterize the
existing livelihood uses of the potential areas for protection and help to prioritize the
identified water sources in terms of the level of degradation. Specifically, the
diagnostics will: a) characterize existing land use, b) assess the local social
dynamics, identifying key relationships between local actors, and the prevalent
forms of social organization, c) characterize the local economic dynamics,
identifying the role of actors and economic agents, and their relationships with the
natural resources of the area and d) identify historic values linking the identity of
local populations with the natural resources of the areas and their surroundings.
Additionally, these diagnostics will assess the characteristics of the local
populations, existing conflicts and infrastructure.
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c. Development of Management Plan: The project will develop and implement a
catchment management plan (CMP) for the protected water source areas. Working
with communities, the project will develop strategies that encourage medium- and
long-term sustainable management and utilization of the protected areas. Building
upon these inputs, the CMP will include the definition of the external pilot area
boundaries (including both the core and buffer zones), as well as internal boundaries
of differential use zones. These zones will be developed considering the livelihood
activities and the compatibility of human uses with natural resource conservation.
The allowable uses within internal zones will be defined, taking care to incorporate
those persons whose existing uses and practices may be limited by these zones. The
draft CMP will be disseminated and consulted with local stakeholders so as to
validate and revise it where necessary. The final CMP will also be heavily
disseminated so that stakeholders and local beneficiaries are knowledgeable about
this key project activity.
d. Implementation of the Management Plan: The project will ensure the full
implementation of CMPs in priority zones. For programs included within the CMPs
that require community participation, by-laws will set forth the obligations and rights
of each participant. Regular meetings will be held with local actors to update them on
the CMP’s advances and results.
9. MONITORING AND EVALUATION (M&E) ARRANGEMENTS
9.1 Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) arrangements
Arrangements for monitoring the implementation of this Process Framework fit the
overall project monitoring plan led by NEMC. The lead coordinating institution
(NEMC), under the Project Coordinator, will be responsible for monitoring and
evaluation (M&E) and will report on project performance based on the field visits and
implementation reports to the Technical Advisory Committee (TAC) through the
Director General – NEMC who will be the Chair. The TAC will consist of all
implementing institutions of the project and will be required to report on the status of
implementation of their activities. The outputs of the TAC will be reported to the
Steering Committee that will comprise of Permanent Secretaries (PSs) or their
representatives of the implementing institutions2 and chaired by the PS at the Vice
President’s Office. The Steering Committee will make policy related decisions for the
project.
The objectives of monitoring implementation of the PF are a) to ensure that the bodies
established and tasked, inter alia, with implementing the PF are performing their duties
adequately and if not, to ensure their capacity is built to do so, b) to ensure that the
actions taken to resolve conflicts, to compensate losses, to distribute benefits catalyzed
by the project and to improve overall welfare in the peripheral zones of the selected
Protected Areas are having their intended impacts and to take corrective action if not
and c) to conduct a final evaluation of whether or not the PAPs identified have been
affected in such a way that their living standards are equal or higher than before the
project.
2 Ministries of Water, Natural Resources, Agriculture, Energy, Finance and Regional Administration and Local
Government.
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A number of indicators will be used to determine the status of livelihood of affected
communities. Definitive indicators and milestones of success will be developed in a
participatory manner after the project start date by local community representatives
chosen to represent the views of communities in the project area, established water user
associations, Districts focal persons for districts of Kilolo, Mufindi and Kilombero and
RBWO.
The project will establish an appropriate M&E system to track progress against the set
indicators to provide an overall assessment of project performance. At the protected
area level, M&E will be carried out in a participatory manner with the beneficiary
communities. A number of indicators could be used to determine the status of PAPs and
of affected communities. Definitive indicators and milestones of success will be
developed in a participatory manner after the project start date by local community
representatives chosen to represent the views of communities in the project area,
established water user associations, Districts focal persons for districts of Kilolo,
Mufindi and Kilombero and RBWB.
At the project level, M&E will include those indicators established in project documents
and aligned with the GEF biodiversity tracking tool. The overall monitoring of project
progress will be achieved through quarterly reporting.
The PF will be considered successfully implemented if affected individuals, households
and communities maintain their project standard of living or improve on it, and local
community support is built and remains supportive of the project.
9.2 FinancingThe activities mentioned above are included in the scope and costs of the project. With
respect to subprojects to mitigate potential adverse impacts, the financing for these
activities would come from component 2, Subcomponent, 2.2 regarding community
conservation activities that will focus on improving water quality and quantity for the entire
catchment.
10. POTENTIAL CONFLICTS OR GRIEVANCES AND DISPUTE
RESOLUTION
A forum for communicating and debating potential conflicts will be established in line with
the existing community conflict resolution system. The project may require the resolution
of conflicts expected to include those i) related to land use in the buffer of protected areas
and ii) regarding the use of natural resources in the protected areas. Such conflicts may be
addressed through an existing mechanism provided in the Village Land Act of 1999 or use
specific alternative resolution mechanism that will be developed by the project.
Section 60 of the Act makes special provisions for the establishment of a Village Land
Council “to mediate between and assist parties to arrive at a mutually acceptable
resolution on any matters concerning the village land”. However, the Village Land Council
jurisdiction has been limited to cases related to land sharing arrangements with other
villages and land sharing among community members. Since the proposed KCCM Project
will be carried out in the part of village lands, the provisions given in this Act will only be
partly applicable.
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The alternative mechanism is expected to function as follows: Initially, conflicts will be
addressed at community level through the Village Environmental Committees and Water
User Associations that will investigate the complaint, and attempt to resolve it through
mediation, then through the respective LGA, and will include representatives from NEMC,
local communities and NGOs working in the protected area. If the conflict cannot be
resolved at this level, it will be escalated to NEMC. If still not resolved, the conflict will be
addressed at the national project steering committee for policy decisions. In order to trigger
this process, conflicts should be addressed to: The Project Coordinator, National
Environment Management Council, 29-30 Regent Street, P. O. Box 63154, Dar es Salaam.
11. CONCLUSION
This process framework aimed to lay down processes that will lead to effective
implementation of mitigation measures for the proposed impacts that were detailed in
the Environmental and Social Impact Assessment report. The framework has put in
place consultative measures to ensure that proposed measures are sustainable in order to
achieve the overall objective or conservation of Kihansi catchment and its important
biodiversity.
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REFERENCES
Butynski, T.M., Ehardt, C.L., Struhsaker, T.T. (1998). Notes on two dwarf galagos
(Galagoides udzungwensis and Galagoides orinus) in the Udzungwa Mountains,
Tanzania. Primate Conservation 18: 69-75.
East African Community Treaty. 1999.
IUCN Red List
Lovett, J.C., J. Hatton, L.B. Mwasumbi, & J. Gerstle. (1997). Assessment of the impacts of
the lower Kihansi hydropower project on the forests of Kihansi Gorge, Tanzania.
Biodiversity and Conservation 6: 915-933.
NORPLAN (1995). Lower Kihansi Hydropower Project. Environmental Impact Assessment.
Report produced for Tanzania Electric Supply Company Ltd. (TANESCO), Dar es
Salaam, Tanzania.
NORPLAN (1999). Vegetation Survey in Kihansi Gorge, Tanzania. Report produced for
Tanzania Electric Supply Company Ltd. (TANESCO), Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
Poynton, J.C., Howell, K.M., Clarke, B.T. & Lovett, J.C. (1998). A critically endangered new
species of Nectophrynoides (Anura: Bufonidae) from the Udzungwa mountains,
Tanzania. African Journal of Herpetology 47(2): 59-67.
Poynton, J.C., Howell, K.M., Clarke, B.T. & Lovett, J.C. (1998). A critically endangered new
species of Nectophrynoides (Anura: Bufonidae) from the Udzungwa mountains,
Tanzania. African Journal of Herpetology 47(2): 59-67.
Rodgers, W.A. & Homewood, K.M. (1982). Biological values and conservation prospects for
the forests and primate populations of the Uzungwa Mountains, Tanzania. Biological
Conservation 24: 285-304.
United Republic of Tanzania (URT). 1995. The National Land Policy (1995)
United Republic of Tanzania (URT). 1999. The National Land Act, No. 4
United Republic of Tanzania (URT). 2002. The National Water Policy
United Republic of Tanzania (URT). 2005 Environmental (Registration of Environmental
Experts) Regulations
United Republic of Tanzania (URT). 2005. The Environment Impact Assessment and Audit
Regulations, Gn No. 349 of 2005
United Republic of Tanzania (URT). 2009. The Wildlife Conservation Act
United Republic of Tanzania (URT). 1997. The National Environmental Policy
United Republic of Tanzania (URT). 2002. The Forest Act
United Republic of Tanzania (URT). 2009. The Water Resource Management Act, 2009
United Republic of Tanzania (URT). 2004. Environmental Management Act Cap 191
United Republic of Tanzania (URT). 2011. National Poverty Eradication Strategy
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ANNEX 1: Issues Raised During Stakeholder Consultations
Issues of Institution/Organization Recommended Actions
RUFIJI RIVER BASIN
More awareness to surrounding communities over
importance of catchment management and increase
understanding about the KST
Communities awareness programs is part
of project activities
Sediment Assessment has proven that communities’
agricultures activities have contributed to basin siltation
The project will provide training on good
agricultural practices
Land use changes in some villages close to Kihansi
catchment have contributed to changes in vegetation
species as a result of commercial tree plantation activities
The project should facilitate the planting of
natural water friendly trees close to
catchment areas
Introduction of Catchment Protected Areas. This can be
implemented through gazettement of potential Kihansi
catchment parts
The project should speed up process to
gazette some potential sites of Kihansi
catchment to form Protected Area
Land use Plan to villages along Kihansi catchment KCCMP to facilitate Land use Plan to
villages close to potential areas of Kihansi
catchment
KILOLO DISTRICT
Restriction of farming in valley bottoms (Vinyungu) in
order to reduce pesticides contamination to water
Introduction of catchment protected areas
through gazettement of some potential sites
Establish bylaws to give power to village
leaders to deal with their farmers
Involve Water User Associations (WUAs) in the
management of the catchment
Facilitate and establish a sustainable funds
for Water User Association
Land use planning to villages is the main guide to enforce
the bylaw for protection of catchment areas and restriction
of vinyungu farming
Facilitate land use plan to villages with this
farming system and establish bylaws to
give power to village leaders to deal with
their farmers
Provision of alternative livelihoods to restrict vinyungu
farming
Alternative livelihoods in agricultural
sector could be bee keeping, fruit trees
cultivation and natural trees and
commercial plantation programs
Group of villagers for training through KCCMP be
established by the villages and district authorities
Project to collaborate with Village and
district authorities to select group for
alternative livelihood trainings programs
The district and Tea Plantation has already initiated Tea
groups for tea cultivation in Kabanga area hence any
training must consider Tea Growers Association
Project to collaborate with district councils
to avoid duplication of efforts and to cover
other communities which are not covered
by any other program within a district
Awareness and Publicity to community to show them
impacts of unregulated water use
The project must create awareness in
communities about the importance of
proper water use
The district receives some funds from the central
Government to support training and little capital fund to
women and youth
The project to collaborate with district
social development department to support
training to those who will get little capital
support for alternative livelihoods activities
The project group must include youth Project should consider youth as part of
community and avoid groups which have
only village leaders
The district should involve financial Institutions to
support those groups that will receive training from the
proposed project
The project to create a link between trained
village groups and Financial Institutions
and district council to be guarantor of
village groups for any financial matters
from financial institutions
MUFINDI DISTRICT
Kihansi Catchment Conservation and Management Project Process Framework
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The previous project was not successful in agriculture
training to villagers through Demonstration Plots because
after training villagers did not receive supporting facilities
for implementation
The project to find ways to support
agriculture tools for implementation of
proper agricultural practices
Bee keeping could be main alternative livelihood to many
villagers as this will complement on-going efforts within
the Eastern Arc
Project to train and support in gears for
successful provision of alternative
livelihood to villagers
Project to join hands with existing social
development and conservation programs
Siltation in the Kihansi catchment can be reduced through
preventing of soil erosion by planting certain plantation
and contour farming practices on upper areas
Project to support trees plantations
programs and train villagers on proper
farming practices that will reduce erosion
from farming activities
The project to consider start up facilities after training bee
keeping farmers
Project to consider support of gears
TANESCO
The project to trigger process of electrification to villages
along Kihansi catchment
Water user Association in Kihansi catchment is not
practically working
The project in collaboration with Rufiji
Basin to strength water user association of
Kihansi catchment
WARDS AND VILLAGES
Wards and Villages authorities usually give awareness to
villagers on conservation of Kihansi catchment by
restricting farming (vinyungu farming), and other
economic and social activities closer to water sources.
Also support plantation of water friendly trees closer to
water sources.
Project to facilitate Land Use Plan in order
to set areas of catchment out of villagers
economic and social activities
Set of protected areas through gazetting
part of potential areas to become protected
areas
Development of bylaws that focus on
protection and conservation of catchment
areas. The wards and villages will enforce
bylaws
Water user Association to help in
conservation programs
Conflict between few villagers who were in groups
supported by LKEMP and those who were not in group
Involve a wider group of communities in
the implementation (rather than providing
funds for groups as in the previous phase)
To support more youths in conservation
programs
The proposed project should support sectors such as
Education and Health that cover a big population of
villagers to reduce conflict among villagers
The project to develop projects that will
involve many villagers in the communities
in line with the project objectives
Villagers need electricity in order to feel their effort on
conservation of Kihansi catchment. They also need
electricity to stimulate other alternative livelihood
activities.
Project to make discussion with Rural
Energy Authority (REA) and TANESCO
as part of payment for ecosystem services
initiative under the project
Some activities such as tree planting programs need a
continual support even after completion of project
Project to identify such types of programs
and incorporate them in sustainable
funding plan
Kihansi Catchment Conservation and Management Project Process Framework
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Annex 2: Terms of Reference
TERMS OF REFERENCE FOR THE ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL IMPACT
ASSESSMENT OF THE PROPOSED KIHANSI CATCHMENT CONSERVATION
MANAGEMENT PROJECT IN KIHANSI CATCHMENT MOROGORO AND
IRINGA REGIONS, TANZANIA
1. Introduction
The Kihansi Catchment is located in the Udzungwa mountains which is the largest block of
the 12 Eastern Arc Mountains (EAM) in Tanzania. The Udzungwa mountains contain nearly
one-half of all the remaining closed forests in the Eastern Arc and as result have the highest
diversity of endemic and threatened plant and animal species including the Kihansi Spray
Toad (KST) and Sanje mangabay monkeys.
The catchment refers to the upper watershed area above the dam and hydropower station and
lies between 1,200m and 2,200m above sea level. The high-biodiversity Udzungwa forest
reserve covers the land to the east, while the rest of the catchment is covered with forest,
grassland and bush. The catchment is 584 km2 and spreads over the Kilolo and Mufindi
administrative districts. The area receives rainfall between 1,000mm in the western and
northern parts to 3,200 mm in the eastern part of the catchment. There are no significant high
flow seasonal changes within years responding to wet and dry seasons and moderate flows
are sustained throughout the year.
The National Environment Management Council (NEMC) is a public body established under
the Environmental Management Act Cap 191, responsible for managing the environment in
Mainland Tanzania. As part of fulfilment of her many mandates, the Council intends to
implement a GEF project to be able to mainstream biodiversity conservation is catchment
conservation. Due to the magnitude of the project and the type of activities to be
implemented, it is foreseen that some positive and negative environmental impacts will arise.
In this context NEMC is seeking a Consultant who will be able to carry out Environmental
and Social Impact Assessment of the upcoming project, identify and devise a plan to mitigate
the foreseen impacts.
2. The Kihansi Catchment Conservation and Management Project (KCCMP)
Background
The Government of Tanzania has ratified three key conventions: Convention on Biological
Diversity (CBD), the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), and
the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). As part of
implementation of these global environmental conventions, the GoT officially submitted for
endorsement by the Global Environmental Facility (GEF), a project proposal titled ‘Kihansi
Catchment Conservation and Management Project (KCCMP)’. The Project is full-sized with
a five year implementation period, with the key objective being ‘to enhance biodiversity
conservation in the Kihansi catchment’. This development objective will be achieved through
the implementation of activities categorised into three key components: a) Conserving
endangered species in the Kihansi catchment; b) Development of operational guidelines for
Kihansi Catchment Conservation and Management Project Process Framework
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conducting downstream Environmental Flow Assessment and a sustainable financing plan for
the Kihansi catchment; and c) Project management.
The KCCMP is aligned under the CBD with five major Aichi Biodiversity Targets for 2011 –
2020: Strategic Goal A - Mainstreaming biodiversity across government and society;
Strategic Goal B – Reduce direct pressures on biodiversity and promote sustainable use;
Strategic Goal C – Improve the status of biodiversity by safeguarding ecosystems, species,
and genetic diversity; Strategic Goal D - Enhance the benefits to all from biodiversity and
ecosystem series; and Strategic Goal E – Enhance implementation through participatory
planning, knowledge management, and capacity building
The project will be implemented within the three key Components
Component 1: Develop operational guidelines for conducting Environmental Flow
Assessment and a sustainable financing plan for the management of the Kihansi
catchment
The objective of this subcomponent is to incorporate biodiversity conservation at a planning
level into Integrated Water Resource Development and Management Planning (IWRDMP)
under the WSDP. Under Lower Kihansi Environmental Management Project (LKEMP) –
(2001-2011) support was provided for the development of the 2004 Environmental
Management Act (EMA) and 10 implementing regulations. These regulations and EMA
provided an important legal framework for the integration of biodiversity conservation in
river basin planning. However, to fully operationalize biodiversity conservation in river
basin planning in Tanzania, an operational framework and guidelines relevant to river basin
planning and EIA, which integrates environmental flow assessment, are required. This
component comprises of two subcomponents; that is Develop operational guidelines for
conducting Environmental Flow Assessment and Develop a sustainable financing plan for the
management of the Kihansi catchment.
Component 2: Conserve endangered species in the Kihansi catchment
This component focuses on operational level interventions in the Kihansi catchment to ensure
the conservation of critically endangered plant and animal species and their critical habitat
are conserved and sustainably managed over the long-term. The component comprises of
two subcomponents namely Species and habitat conservation and Community conservation.
Within subcomponents there are number of activities to be implemented as detailed in Annex
1 as well as Project Apraisal Document.
Component 3: Project Management
NEMC will be responsible for project coordination at the national, regional, district and
village levels. This will entail facilitating and coordinating the Steering and Technical
Advisory Committees as well as providing overall multi-sectoral coordination among
governmental sectors. In addition, under this component support will be provided for day-to-
day project implementation and management including, procurement, and financial and
environmental management. The component will provide support for office operating costs
including annual audit costs.
Kihansi Catchment Conservation and Management Project Process Framework
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The aim of developing the Terms of Reference (ToR) is to provide formal guidance to the
project proponent and contracted Consultant for carrying out the ESIA of the proposed
project on the range of issue that must be addressed in the ESIA process. Furthermore, they
form the basis for subsequent review process.
3. Objectives of Environmental and Social Impact Assessment (ESIA)
The objective of the EIA is to identify, assess and evaluate the potential likely adverse bio-
physical and socio-economic impacts of the proposed project activities in the proposed area
and develop an Environmental and Social Management Framework outlining the necessary
steps and procedures to avoid, minimize or mitigate identified impacts. The ESIA will
provide decision-makers in VPO - NEMC and the other stakeholders with sufficient
information to justify, on environmental grounds, the acceptance, modification or rejection of
the project. It will also provide the basis for guiding subsequent actions, which will ensure
that the project is carried out taking into account the environmental, socio-economic, cultural
and health issues and concerns identified.
The objective focuses on: -
Establishing baseline information on both natural and built environment including
socio-economic conditions of the proposed project in Kihansi Catchment
Predicting and evaluate foreseeable impacts, both beneficial and adverse, of the
proposed project
Develop Environmental Management Plan or mitigation measures that aim at
eliminating or minimising the potential negative impacts and promote positive ones;
and
Develop an environmental and social screening form and checklist to evaluate project
activities related to identification of water sources and biodiversity hotspots and their
protection so that unforeseen impacts, if any can be identified, and corresponding
mitigation measures determined, managed and monitored throughout the life of the
project.
4. Environmental and Social Impact Assessment Requirements
The environmental management Act, Cap 191 requires that ESIA be undertaken for all new
projects that may cause adverse environmental and social impacts. Under the environment
Impact Assessment and Audit Regulations, 2005 the proposed project is categorized as an
EIA obligatory project for which a full EIA is required.
Additionally, the project will be supported by the World Bank, requiring compliance with
their environmental and social Safeguards policies. Based on a preliminary review of the
project design, it is likely that the relevant policies include: Environmental Assessment (OP
4.01), Natural Habitats (OP 4.04), Pest Management (OP 4.09), Involuntary Resettlement
(OP 4.12), Forests (OP 4.36).
4.1 Scope of Work
Task 1: Description of the Proposed Project
The Consultant shall give details of:
Background of the project, highlighting the link between Kihansi dam operation and
the spray toad reintroduction plan;
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Location of all project – related development and operation sites;
General description of the proposed project and its major components, phases and
activities to be implemented in each phase of the project life; and
Organisation relationships, mandates and interactions among the different parties to
be involved in the project.
Task 2: Description of the environment
The Consultant shall:
a) Provide information on biological environment on flora, fauna, rare or endangered
species and sensitive habitats including parks, reserves, significant natural sites, forest
and any other area that qualifies as a Critical Natural Habitat in accordance with OP
4.04.
b) Provide general description of surface and ground water hydrology, existing sources
of water pollution discharges and receiving water quality.
c) An assessment of the socio-economic environment; including community
demographics, gender issues, and existing land use practices in the catchment
including specific details on the types and amounts of pesticides used among project
affected persons.
d) Identify areas that require special attention in the project implementation and their
proposed mitigation measures.
e) Recommend improved land use and options for reducing pesticide use.
Environmental Impact Assessment shall specifically focus on these ecological
components in the environment to ensure that the proposed development does not harm
the well-being of these characteristics.
Task 3: Legislative and Regulatory Considerations
The Consultant shall describe pertinent local, national and international regulations,
standards and institutional framework governing protection of sensitive areas, protection
of endangered species, land use/catchment management etc. which are important to
observe during the implementation of the project activities. The consultant shall clarify
how each legal or institutional aspect is relevant to the project, and provide guidance as to
what the specific implication is for project design and operation.
The Consultant shall describe the relevant World Bank Safeguard Policies, and assess
which of those policies apply in the project context. The Consultant shall clarify how the
project design must take such provisions into account.
Task 4: Determination of potential impacts of the proposed project
The consultant shall identify potential impacts of the project on natural resources, humans
and ecosystems. Describe the impacts quantitatively and qualitatively, where possible in
terms of environmental costs and benefits. Impact analysis should clearly address direct,
indirect and cumulative impacts. In the analysis, distinguish between:
Positive and negative impacts
Direct and indirect impacts
Long term and short term impacts
Reversible and irreversible impacts
Identify linkages among project components and the issues
Kihansi Catchment Conservation and Management Project Process Framework
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Evaluate the levels of significance of the impacts indicating the criteria used.
Identification, prediction and analysis of impacts should be made for each phase of the
project life. Explain significant information deficiencies or any uncertainties associated
with prediction of impacts. Recommend appropriate mitigation measures for mitigating
the negative impacts and identify opportunities from positive impacts and how they can
be enhanced.
Among other issues, the determination of potential impacts should identify the following:
Potential for involuntary resettlement. In accordance with OP 4.12, involuntary
resettlement includes those impacts associated with restriction of access to natural
resources;
Potential impact of the project on forests and/or the rights and welfare of local
communities;
Potential impact of the project on Critical Natural Habitats;
Potential for the project to lead to increased use of pesticides;
Task 5: Analysis of alternatives of the proposed project
The Consultant shall describe at least three viable design alternatives that would achieve the
same objectives. Consider and analyse alternatives in terms of location, design, technology
and phases, operating and maintenance procedures. Compare alternatives in terms of
potential environmental impacts, capital and operating costs, suitability under local
conditions, institutional, training and monitoring requirements.
Task 6: Resource evaluation or cost benefit analysis
The consultant shall describe the extent possible; quantify total/ environmental costs and
benefits of each alternative incorporating the estimated costs of any associated mitigation
measures. The zero alternative i.e. of not having the project must be included.
Task 7: Development of an Environmental and Social Management Plan
Based on this assessment, the ESIA should set forth an Environmental and Social
Management Plan (EMP). The ESMP shall spell out specific management measures
including, budget estimates, schedules, institutional responsibilities, staffing and training
requirements and any other necessary support services to implement the mitigation measures.
The Consultant shall ensure the EMSP describes feasible and cost effective measures to (i)
prevent or reduce significant negative impacts to acceptable levels and (ii) enhance positive
impacts.
Task 8: Development of an environmental and social screening form and checklist As the area size and type of some of the activities that will be supported by the project in
relation to protection of important water sources and biodiversity hotspots are not specified at
this time, the consultant shall develop an environmental and social screening form and
checklist to identify potential impacts and outline the specific environmental and social
management measures that will be applied to all activities that may result in any potential
identified impact.
Task 9: Development of an Integrated Pest Management Plan (IPMP)
The Consultant shall prepare IPMP including: (i) measures to identify potential activities
(supported by project or counterpart funds) where pesticides may be used, (ii) a list of
pesticide products authorized for procurement under the project, and (iii) plan (and budget)
Kihansi Catchment Conservation and Management Project Process Framework
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for ensuring safe pesticide handling equipment is provided to those who may be using
pesticides).
Task 10: Resettlement Process Framework
The Consultant shall prepare a Process Framework for addressing potential social issues that
may arise from protection of water sources and biodiversity hotspots. These shall include:
measures to establish a process by which members of potentially affected communities
participate in design of project components; determination of measures necessary to achieve
resettlement policy objectives, and implementation and monitoring of relevant project
activities as per OP 4.12.
Task 11: Development of an Environmental and Social Monitoring Plan
The Consultant shall prepare a detailed plan for monitoring the implementation of the ESMF
during project life cycle. Include in the plan an estimate of the capital and operating costs and
a description of other inputs needed to carry it out.
The Consultant shall be guided by the cost-effectiveness principles in proposing amelioration
measures. Estimation of costs of those measures shall be made. The assessment will provide a
detailed plan to monitor the implementation of the mitigation measures and impacts of the
project during project operation.
Task 12: Public consultations:
The assessment shall establish the level of consultation of the affected stakeholders
throughout the project life span, level of involvement in implementing project activities as
this is an important aspect for both environmental and project sustainability. The assessment
will provide a framework for obtaining the views of affected groups, and in keeping records
(with evidence) of meeting and other activities, communication, and comments and their
disposition.
In addition, the Consultant shall conduct a formal public consultation on the draft
Environmental Impact Assessment, after it has been approved by the Client and the World
Bank, but prior to the document’s finalization. Such a consultation should be conducted only
after the draft EIA has been made publically available, in the project area, through NEMC’s
website, and through the World Bank’s InfoShop.
For each consultation event conducted, the Consultant shall provide record of the names of
organisations, government and departments and individuals whose views will be obtained. It
should also include a list of issues raised by those consulted, and explain if and how the
project design was adjusted to respond to their concerns. This summary should be included as
an Annex to the EIS.
Task 13: Reporting and submission
Notwithstanding the above requirements, the contents and the structure of the report should
be in accordance with Regulations 18 and 19 respectively of the EIA and Audit Regulations
of 2005. The report should be concise and limited to significant environmental issues.
Kihansi Catchment Conservation and Management Project Process Framework
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The Executive Summary and the ESIA Main Report should be submitted according to the
requirements of Regulations 19 to 21 of the EIA and Audit Regulations, GN No. 349/2005 for
simplifying the review process.
4.2 Outputs
a) The Consultant shall submit to the Client, three original bound hard and electronic copies
each of the scoping report, the Environmental and Social Impact Statement (ESIA);
Integrated Pest Management Plan (IPMP) and Process Framework.
b) The Consultant shall also make 15 copies for the review process as stipulated in the EMA
2004; and work to ensure sufficient copies are available in the project area, through
NEMC and published through the World Bank’s InfoShop.
c) After the review process, the Consultant shall submit five hard copies and an electronic
copy of the final reports, with all comments arising from the technical review
incorporated into the reports.
4.3 Reference
The Consultant shall provide a list of all information sources used, including unpublished
documents and sources.
5. Consulting Team
Team composition: The core team must be multi-disciplinary, with expertise in Hydrology,
Ecology, Social Science and familiar with World Bank safeguard policies.
To undertake the ESIA and their profiles. One of the team members will be the team
leader.
For each specialist proposed, curriculum vitae will be provided, setting out their relevant
qualifications and experiences.
Key qualifications: The Lead Consultant must be in possession of a post graduate degree
(MSc or PhD) in Ecology, Wildlife or related fields.
The Consultant must be a registered EIA Expert with a minimum of three years working
experience in environmental assessment.
Experience in carrying out environmental assessments and related assignment(s) in
Tanzania or outside the country.
6. Mode of Payment
Payment will be effected as follows:
a) 50% upon submission and acceptance of the technical and financial proposal and
signing of the contract;
b) 50% upon submission and acceptance of the final ESIA report acceptable at the
Client.
7. Timeframe
The Consultancy is expected to take a maximum of six weeks from the date of the signing
of the contract to the submission of the final report.
8. Client Contribution
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a) NEMC will cover all costs associated with the field work that will be carried out by
the Consultant (travel and daily subsistence allowance according to Government
rates).
b) Costs associated with printing, binding and distribution of the report will be covered
by the Consultant.
a) Costs that will cover travel and DSA for the two assistants from NEMC, and Costs
associated with organizing and conducting site visits review meetings by the
reviewing board (in this case NEMC).
Kihansi Catchment Conservation and Management Project Process Framework
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Maps of Project Area
Figure 1. Rivers and streams in the Kihansi Catchment. (Source: SMEC International (2005) Landscape Wide
Conservation Plan for the Upstream Kihansi Catchment).
5 0 5 Kilometers
N
Streams and Sub Catchment
Kihansi
Conservation Area
Sub CatchmentsIlogombe
Kihansi FallsLower RuahaMapanda
MhalalaMkalasi
MnyazungwaMuhu
RuvalaUpper Ruaha
Village Boundary
Kihansi Conservation Area
Dam
StreamRiver
Kihansi Catchment Conservation and Management Project Process Framework
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Figure 2. Land cover types as of 2005 in the Kihansi Catchment. (Source: SMEC International (2005)
Landscape Wide Conservation Plan for the Upstream Kihansi Catchment).
#
Mapa nda
#
Ig ele ke
#
Ilo go mbe
#
Kib eng u
#
Mwa tasi
#
Bom ala ng'o mbe
# Ng'ing ula
#
Masisiwe
#
Nya wege te
#
Mbawi
#
Kip ang a
#
Ih imbo
#
Uhafiwa
#Uka mi
5 0 5 Kilometers
N
Generalized Land Cover 2005
Grouped Land Cover 2005
Forest
Grass/Bush
Grass/Bush/S cultivation
Intensive cultivation
Semi intensive cultivation
Kihansi Conservation Area
Catchment
Dam
Village
Road
River
Kihansi Catchment Conservation and Management Project Process Framework
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Figure 3. Human population density as of 2005 in the Kihansi Catchment. (Source: SMEC
International (2005) Landscape Wide Conservation Plan for the Upstream Kihansi Catchment).
3952
2810
4730
2864
2374
1911
1909
3786
1605
2317
2210
1231
1789
378 6
#
Bomalang'ombe
#
Ng'ingula
#
Masisiwe
# Nyawegete
#
Mbawi
#
Kipanga
#
Mwatasi
#
Kibengu
#
Igeleke
#
Ilogombe
#
Mapanda #
Ih imbo
#
Uhafiwa
#
Ukami
Kihansi Conservation
Area
5 0 5 Kilometers
N
Population Density 2002 - Population per Square KM
Population Density 2002
25 - 30
31 - 39
40 - 59
60 - 92
93 - 112
Population 2002
Pop_2002
Kihansi Conservation Area
Catchment
Dam
Road
Kihansi Catchment Conservation and Management Project Process Framework
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Figure 4. Land use adjacent to the Kihansi Gorge. (Source: Mwansasu, S. 2007. Ecological Monitoring Report:
Land Cover.)
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