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VHF Omnidirectional Range
(VOR)Ground station oriented to magnetic
north, transmitting directional informationto aircraft
BenefitsMore accurate, precise flyingReliable
Not susceptible to interference
Voice Capable
Errors/NegativesCostly to maintain
Line-of-sight
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VOR
Omnidirectional
reference signal
Directional signal from
antenna rotating @1800 rpm
Receiver uses phase
discrimination
Navigation in polar
coordinates (rho-theta)
Distance Measuring
Equipment (DME) & often
Tacan are colocated with
VOR
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VOR Capabilities
VHF108.0-117.95mhz
Line of sight
1 LOP at a time
2 receivers give 2 LOPs (fix)
VOR + DME = LOP & Arc (fix)
Not sensitive to aircraft heading
Fly toor f roma VOR or intercept a radialRadialcourses oriented FROM the station
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VOR Types
High 1,00014,500; 40NM
14,50018,000; 100NM
18,00045,000; 130NM
45,00060,000; 100NM
Low 1,00018,000; 40NM
Terminal 1,00012,000; 25NM
* All altitudes AGL
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VOR Types
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090
045
135
180
225
270
315
360
VOR receiver gives 1 LOP called a Radial
The Principle of the VOR
Magnetic
North
135
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Parts of a VOR system
Receiver
Course
Deviation
Indicator
(CDI)
To/From ind.
Omni
bearing
selector
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VHF Omnirange
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VHF Omnirange
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VHF Omnirange
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Flying the VOR
Initial Tracking
Tune, Identify, Twist
Turn OBS to center needle and figure
out position (use FROM)
Note heading on top of card
If flying FROM station (radial), then turn to
that headingIf flying TO station, put reciprocal heading
on top and center, then turn to that heading
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Flying the VOR
Wind Correction
Further away, more correction is
needed to get back on track
At 60NM from station, 1= 1NM
Generally, when within 20NM, 20-30in
direction of needle works
Once needle centers, turn back towardsoriginal heading, but add wind
correction of 5
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Flying the VOR
Station Passage
CDI will become very sensitive, and
then begin to oscillate
Flag will switch from TO/OFF/FROM
Switching Radials
During station passage, turn OBS to
new course to fly
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Flying the VOR
Intercepting If needle is alive, then turn towards it as if you
were tracking it
If full deflection, first center needle to find what
radial you are on Twist OBS back to desired course
Parallel that course
Turn 30-60 in direction of needle, dependingon distance from station
Once needle is alive, turn back in direction ofdesired course
Follow tracking procedures
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Distance Measuring Equipment
(DME)Radio signal sent out from aircraft to ground
station. Ground station interprets this signal andsends back. Equipment in aircraft measures timeand converts to nautical miles.
Errors Diagonal (slant-line) distance from station to aircraft
not lateralBecomes greater the closer you get to the station
Greatest when directly over station at high altitudes
Limited number of queries
UsesIntersections/FixesIAP
Groundspeed
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Types of Navigation Systems
PilotageDead Reckoning
Radio Navigation
ADF
VOR/DME/RNAV
Electronic Navigat ion
Loran
GPS Inertial
Celestial
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Area Navigation (RNAV)
Generic name for a system that
permits point-to-point flight
Onboard computer that computes a
position, track, and groundspeed
VOR/DME
Loran
GPS
Inertial
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LOng RAnge Navigation
(LORAN)
Collection of antennas throughout
the United States transmit signals
Aircraft receiver calculates position
based on intersection of multiple
signals
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Global Positioning System
(GPS)
GPS = Global Positioning System
A space based, all-weather, jam
resistant, continuous operation,
worldwide radio navigation system.
Provides extremely accurate 3D
location data as well as velocity and
time.
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GPS
System of 24 satellites, 4/5 of which are in
view at all times
Receiver uses 4 of these to determine
position of aircraftEach satellite transmits code, which
contains satellite position and GPS time
Receiver, knowing how fast signal wassent and at what time, calculates position
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GPS Glossary
RAIMReceiver Autonomous IntegrityMonitoring Determines if satellites are providing correct data
WAASWide Area Augmentation System
Collection of ground receivers take satellite data andcorrect it for atmospheric conditions
Works based on known position of ground stations
LAASLocal Area Augmentation System Same as WAAS, but on a smaller, more precise scale
For terminal area around airport
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LOP1 Sphere
Single
range can
lie anywhere
on a sphere
R1
Courtesy of Leica Geosystems
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LOP2 Spheres
Two rangeswill intersect
on a line,
defined by the
intersection oftwo spheres
Courtesy of Leica Geosystems
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LOP3 Spheres
Three spheresintersect at a
point
Three ranges
needed to
resolve
lat/long/altitude
Courtesy of Leica Geosystems
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GPS Uses
Civilian Uses
Marine Navigation
Air Navigation
Surveying
Search and Rescue
Collision avoidance
Agriculture
Military Uses
Marine Navigation
Air Navigation
Rendezvous
Close Air Support
Mine Warfare
Unmanned Aerial
Vehicles (UAVs)
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Inertial Navigation System
Dead-Reckoning
Self-contained source of:
Position, groundspeed, & heading
Does not even need a receiver
Cannot be jammed
Gets better with useApplies a calibration correction
after each flight
Primitive Accelerometer
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Primitive Accelerometer
F = kx = ma a = kx/m
M
M
0No Acceleration
Acceleration from the right0 X
Acceleration
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Inertial Navigation Principles
Acceleration is vectorially summed in x, y, & z.
Output is compensated movement of the platform
& for curvature & rotation of the earth.
2)()( dttats
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Inertial Navigation Systems
Early systems required precise
mechanical parts
Bigger is more accurate
Modern systems can be:Mechanical (platform)
Simple gyros
Accurate
Electronic (strapdown)Few moving parts
Smaller
Cheaper
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Inertial Navigation SystemsAircraft systems use
Pendulum accelerometers or MEMSMicro-electromechanical sensors
Ring laser gyros
To measure angular changeINS complements GPS
Mechanical
Ring Laser Gyro
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Types of Navigation Systems
PilotageDead Reckoning
Radio Navigation
ADF
VOR/DME/RNAV
Electronic Navigation
Loran
GPS Inertial
Celestial
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Celestial Navigation
Advantages
No power required
Self contained
Cannot be jammed
Available everywhere
Disadvantages
Dusk & dawn only
Clear weather only
Slow for aircraft
Needs the art of nav.
Navigators skill
Requires computationAt least data entry
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Circle of Equal
Altitude
DeRemer & McLean Global Navigation
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Types of Errors
Error increases with distanceVOR/DME, ADF
Error increases with time
DR, InertialReliability ConcernsGPS, Loran, Celestial
Human error
Whi h T f N i ti
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Which Types of Navigation are
Important to a Student Pilot?
1. Pilotage
2. Dead Reckoning
3. Radio Navigation
ADF
VOR/DME/RNAV
4. Celestial
5. Electronic NavigationLoran
GPS
Inertial
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If Something Seems Wrong,
it Probably is!
Be suspicious.
Check and recheck.If you cannot tell your passengers
your ETA at the destination, you are
not navigating.
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What can you do if youre lost?
Assume youre near your DR position
Do not assume a huge wind just came up
Use your VOR/DME or 2 VORs
Look on the chart for landmarksEspecially those that are shown small
If you miss a checkpoint, hold your
heading & look for the next oneDo no t guess where you are! If al l else
fails , CALL ATC (after all, YOU are
paying for i t )
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