nuclear weapons technology · technology of weapons of mass destruction january 30, 2013 ......

TECHNOLOGY OF WEAPONS OF MASS DESTRUCTION

January 30, 2013

The Johns Hopkins University

Zanvyl Krieger School of Arts and Sciences

Advanced Academic Programs

1. Definitions of Chemical Weapon

2. Types of CW (seven) (The typology of CW)

3. Properties of CW (eight salient

variables and their values) (The typology of CW)

Includes Dispersal Considerations

4. Specific CW Agents

Overview of Presentation

OVERALL GOAL OF PRESENTATION FOR CLASS TWO

Having done over 500 pages of reading on chemical weapons, warfare, etc., one must then categorize salient aspects of the literature into a useful typology. Thus, the overall goal of this presentation is to assist students in the class requirements of:

1) Defining chemical weapons;

2) Identifying the seven types of CW;

3) Explaining, comparing, and contrasting the seven properties that CW are typically broken down into;

4) Identifying and understanding the seven most important salient variables with regard to dispersing chemical agents; and

5) Investigating and the most important agents for each CW type and for CW writ large.

CW – Defining Chemical

Weapons

General Characterizing of CW

1. Lethality

2. Mode of Action

3. Speed of Action

4. Toxicity

5. Persistency

6. Agent Availability / Ease of

Fabrication

7. Weaponization

Dispersal Considerations

1. Availability of agent and/or

precursors

2. Temperatures

3. Wind

4. Altitude

5. Moisture

6. Sunlight

7. Time of Day (e.g., upcoming

sunlight/darkness, upcoming

temp, etc.)

SPECIFIC CW AGENTS 1. Choking Agents

o Chlorine (CI)

o Phosgene (CG)

o Diphosgene

o Chloropicrin (PS)

2. Blister Agents (vesicants)

o Mustard Sulfur (HD)

o Lewisite

o Phosgene Oxime

3. Blood Agents o Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN)

o Zyklon B

o Cyanogen Chloride (CK)

o Hydrogen Sulfur (“Sour Gas”)

4. Nerve Agents

G Series o Tabun – GA

o Sarin – GB

o Soman – GD

5. Incapacitating Agents BZ

6. Riot Control Agents

(RCAs) (LACRIMATOR OR EYE

IRRITANT)

CN : e. g., Mace

CS: Tear Gas

7. Herbicides

TERMS continued

Goal 1:

What is a Chemical Weapon?

The general and traditional definition of a chemical weapon is a toxic chemical contained in a delivery system, such as a bomb or shell.

The [Chemical Weapons] Convention defines chemical weapons much more generally. The term chemical weapon is applied to any toxic chemical or its precursor that can cause death, injury, temporary incapacitation or sensory irritation through its chemical action. Munitions or other delivery devices designed to deliver chemical weapons, whether filled or unfilled, are also considered weapons themselves.

Source: all text taken verbatim from the OPCW. Available at: http://www.opcw.org/about-chemical-

weapons/what-is-a-chemical-weapon/

What is a Chemical Weapon?

For now in class, this definition

best captures CW

“Deliver poisonous substances into a target population, with the purpose of causing injury, incapacity, or death.” … Delivery occurs “by inhalation, ingestion, contact with the skin, or a combination of all three.”

-- Croddy et al., p. 87 & 88 (emphasis added)

poisonous substances

inhalation ingestion contact with the skin

Matsumoto in 1994?

Tokyo in 1995?

Use of sarin (CB) and attempted use of a cyanide CW weapon

CW PRODUCTION by a VNSA AUM SHINRIKYŌ (AUM SUPREME TRUTH)

Late 1993 Manufactures Sarin and later VX

Successfully Tests sarin in Western Australia

Matsumoto, June 1994: Use of sarin in City of Matsumoto, Nagano (refrigerator truck with spray nozzle) Killing seven (7)

Injuring 144

Tokyo, March 1995: Use of sarin Against the Tokyo Subway Thirteen (13) killed*; 54 seriously injured; ~ 1,000 others

injured (primarily psychological)

Additionally, a notionally weaponized hydrogen cyanide (AC) device is placed in a parcel – fails to engage.

* Dr. Amy Smithson, private correspondence.

The 7 CW AGENTS – What two types did Aum

use or attempt to use?

1. BLOOD AGENTS

2. NERVE AGENTS

Goal 2: CW Types Identify the seven types of CW

The 7 CW AGENTS – What are the other five

types?

1. CHOKING AGENTS

2. BLISTER AGENTS

3. INCAPACITATING AGENTS

4. RIOT CONTROL AGENTS

5. HERBICIDES

BLOOD AGENTS

NERVE AGENTS

Goal 3: Properties of CW Explore the seven properties that CW are

typically broken down into;

CW agents are described according to the properties they

possess. Let’s consider the Aum attack using a typology

that answers key questions:

1. How likely is the CW agent to lead to death?

• LETHALITY 2. How will CW agent enter or attack a body?

• MODE OF ACTION 3. How fast will the CW agent act?

• SPEED OF ACTION 4. How much of the CW agent is needed to result in the desired effect?

• TOXICITY 5. How long will the CW agent last on the “battlefield”?

• PERSISTENCY 6. How difficult is it to acquire the CW agent(s)?

• AVAILABILITY OF AGENT AND/OR PRECURSORS 7. How challenging is it to manufacture / weaponize the CW agent?

• WEAPONIZATION

1. Lethality

Lethality

How likely will exposure to a chemical

weapon lead to death

An attacker may choose to administer a

sub-lethal dose: goal would be to

incapacitate not kill

Some chemical agent types are

designed to be non-lethal, e.g. riot

control agents (RCAs)

1: LETHALITY Answers the question:

How likely is the CW agent to lead to death?

LETHALITY of sarin (GB)?

• Very high

LETHALITY of hydrogen cyanide (AC)?

• Medium

• SPEED OF ACTION 4. How much of the CW agent is needed to result in the

desired effect?

• AVAILABILITY OF AGENT AND/OR PRECURSORS

7. How challenging is it to manufacture / weaponize the CW agent?

• WEAPONIZATION

2. MODE OF ACTION

Mode of Action

How can a

chemical agent

enter the body?

1. Inhalation

2. Ingestion

3. Percutaneous

(through the skin,

eyes, or mucus

membranes)

MODE OF ACTION

What is the mode of action for Sarin?

Potentially all three

INHALATION INGESTION SKIN / MUCUS MEMBRANE /or EYE CONTACT Ingestion is an uncommon route of exposure for Sarin. Sarin (GB) the Emergency Response Safety and Health Database, Center for Disease Control (DCD). Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/ershdb/EmergencyResponseCard_29750001.html

desired effect?

• WEAPONIZATION

3. Speed of Action

What is the delay between exposure

and effect

Instantaneous (seconds to minutes)

versus hours and days

Speed of Action

What was the Speed of Action for Aum’s

Sarin attack?

desired effect?

• WEAPONIZATION

4. Toxicity

Quantity of a chemical agent that is

required to produce a specific,

deleterious effect

Toxicity continued

Toxicity of CWAs Potential to cause injury in biologic systems

LD50 – single dose causing death in 50% of animals

ED50 – dose where 50% of exposed population will exhibit signs or symptoms

LD50 and ED50 limited use for toxicity of agents inhaled or absorbed across mucous membranes

Concentration-time (C-T) used for CWAs

○ Concentration in air x time exposed

○ Represented as milligrams/minute/cubic meter

Latency – time delay between exposure and clinical signs/symptoms (sulfur mustard and pulmonary have longest…nerve agents and cyanides shortest)

desired effect?

• WEAPONIZATION

5. Persistency

The terms persistent and non-persistent describe the time chemical agents remain in an area.

These terms do not classify chemical agents technically.

Persistency

Length of time a chemical agent remains hazardous after its release

Non-persistent agents last from a few minutes to about an hour, i.e., rapid evaporation.

Semi-persistent agents last from several hours to about a day

Persistent agents can last for several days to a few weeks. These tend to be thick and oily.

• LETHALITY

2. How will CW agent enter or attack a body?

• MODE OF ACTION

3. How fast will the CW agent act?

• SPEED OF ACTION

4. How much of the CW agent is needed to result in the desired effect?

• TOXICITY

5. How long will the CW agent last on the “battlefield”?

• PERSISTENCY

6. How difficult is it to acquire the CW agent(s)?

• WEAPONIZATION

6. Availability How did Aum acquire its sarin precursor?

Excerpt from Week 2

required reading: Marc

Sageman, Terrance Leighton,

Lloyd Hough, Hidemi Yuki,

Rui Kotani and Zachary M.

Hosfor, “Aum Shinrikyo

Insights Into How Terrorists

Develop Biological and

Chemical Weapons,” Centers

for a New American Security,

July 2011, p. 52. Available at:

http://www.cnas.org/files/doc

uments/publications/CNAS_A

umShinrikyo_SecondEdition_

English.pdf

• LETHALITY

2. How will CW agent enter or attack a body?

• MODE OF ACTION

3. How fast will the CW agent act?

• SPEED OF ACTION

4. How much of the CW agent is needed to result in the desired effect?

• TOXICITY

5. How long will the CW agent last on the “battlefield”?

• PERSISTENCY

6. How difficult is it to acquire the CW agent(s)?

• WEAPONIZATION

7. Weaponization

Under normal atmospheric conditions, is

the chemical agent a solid, liquid, or

How does this state affect an agent’s

weaponizability?

How corrosive is the agent?

WEAPONIZATION: Aerosolization

The most efficient

method for

creating

casualties

Not too small; not

too big for lung

deposition

Aerosols

containing 0.5 to 3

micron sized

particles can

remain in lungs

SMALL MICRONS:

Evaporate at short distances Aerosolization

Aerosolization

This aspect of CW will emerge over the

course of the class…

Agent Availability / Ease of Fabrication

Goal 4: Dispersal Considerations Consider the seven most important

salient variables with regard to

dispersing chemical agents

DISPERSAL CONSIDERATIONS

AGAIN, MICRON SIZE IS PARAMOUNT

1. Temperatures

2. Wind

3. Altitude

4. Moisture

5. Sunlight

sunlight/darkness, upcoming temp, etc.)

ADVANTAGES TO CW Force an Enemy to “Suit Up”

Chem/bio protection

suits are difficult to work

in and take time to put on

Can be expensive for

defender

Potentially inexpensive

for attacker

Increases “fog of war”

Interlude: What are the advantages

and disadvantages to CW?

ADVANTAGES TO CW

Kill or Incapacitate an

“Poor Man’s Nuclear Weapon”

State actors may perceive that CW potential can act as a deterrent

Chemical weapons cost less to make than nuclear weapons

Relatively easy to acquire basic chemical agents to make chemical weapons

Easier to hide chemical weapons production than nuclear weapons production

Invisible Agents of War or Terrorism

Many people greatly fear weapons they

can’t see or hear

Chemical weapons may not require

explosives to disperse them

Chemical weapons can create certain

tactical advantages

Because they haven’t been used much,

people tend to fear them more (potential fear

is typically greater than the manifestation of the fear itself)

DISADVANTAGES TO CW?

Goal 5: Investigate the most important agents for

each CW type and for CW writ large.

CHEMICAL AGENTS / WEAPONS

CHOKING AGENTS

1. Chlorine (CI)

2. Phosgene (CG)

3. Diphosgene

4. Chloropicrin (PS)

Choking Agents (Asphyxiants)

Some of the first chemical agents used in modern warfare

Inhaled in sufficient quantities, they can cause pulmonary edema suffocating the victim (“dry-land drowning”)

Can irritate eyes, nose, and throat

Chlorine – abundant and relatively cheap

Cl2 gaseous at room temp. Heavier than air effective against trench

warfare

Pungent, green-yellow gas; can be liquefied under moderate pressure distinctive odor gave warning of its presence

Considered obsolete as weapon of war

But for VNSAs?

Most effective of all the choking agents

Phosgene – responsible for about 80% of those killed by chemicals during W.W. I

Gaseous state

Liquid at room

Similar to

phosgene

First used by Russians in

Useful commercial

chemical – pesticide

controls

Less lethal than chlorine,

phosgene, or diphosgene

“mask breaker” ○ Useful for simultaneous

attack

More persistent than

chlorine or phosgene.

Remains Liquid Over A

Wide Variety of Temps

(Think Russian Winters)

Description of Chloropicrin by the U.S. Army : PS is a pungent, colorless, oily liquid. It is very volatile and is usable

during any season to produce incapacitating or lethal concentrations. PS … is a powerful irritant whose vapors cause nose and throat irritation, coughing, and vomiting. As an eye irritant, it produces immediate burning, pain, and tearing. Even in very limited concentrations PS causes the eyelids to close. In high concentrations PS damages the lungs, causing pulmonary edema. It is very soluble in fats and oils, and different organs absorb it. In the liquid form it causes severe burns on the skin that generally result in blisters and lesions. Chloropicrin was used in large quantities by “all the warring countries” during World War I. Chloropicrin was used alone; more often it was mixed with chlorine, phosgene, diphosgene and tin chloride. It was stockpiled during World War II, generally in concentrations or mixtures to produce tearing. It is more toxic than chlorine but less toxic than phosgene (CG). Chloropicrin decomposes into, chlorine gas and nitrogen oxide near open fires, producing toxic fumes. The protective mask protects against vapors; protective clothing protects against the liquid agent.

Source : Potential Military Chemical/ Biological Agents and Compounds, Headquarters

Department of the Army. Department of the Navy, Department of the Air Force, Washington, DC, 12 December 1990 PCN 320 008457 00, p. 61. Available at: http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/library/policy/army/fm/3-9/fm3-9.pdf

1. Sulfur Mustard (HD)

2. Lewisite

3. Phosgene oxime

2. Blister Agents

Serious skin irritation

Damage to (primarily

upper) respiratory

system

Blister Agents (Vesicants) Temporary or

sometimes

permanent

blindness

VESICANT SPEED

OF ACTION

Could penetrate clothing,

rubber, leather

Persistent chemical

Multiple routes of attack

Sulfur Mustard: Lethality*

* Medical Aspects of Chemical and Biological Warfare. (Washington, D.C., Department of Defense, Office of The Surgeon

General, US Army, Borden Institute,2007, 266. Available at:

http://www.bordeninstitute.army.mil/published_volumes/chemwarfare/CH8_Pgs259-310.pdf

Sulfur Mustard:

Sulfur mustard (HD): quite stable due to having very low vapor

pressures. Sulfur mustard also has a freezing point, usually, of 14.5 °C

(although “freezing point depressants” can be added to make it freeze

only at lower temperatures). To increase the shelf life and stability of

the ultimate mustard agent, some states have made it a binary

munition (see below). Separated, no reactions take place and things

are peaceful. Reportedly, “if not distilled to a high purity, mustard tends

to polymerize when stored for long periods, forming solids that

precipitate out of solution and reduce the efficacy of the

dissemination.”Things just get worse from there.

Mauroni, Albert J. Chemical Demilitarization: Public Policy Aspects,

Greenwood Publishing Group, 2003, p. 19,

OTA, Technologies Underlying Weapons of Mass Destruction, p. 21.

Sulfur Mustard: Speed of Action*

* Medical Aspects

of Chemical and

Biological Warfare.

(Washington, D.C.,

Department of

Defense, Office of

The Surgeon

General, US Army,

Borden

Institute,2007, 266.

Available at:

http://www.bordenin

stitute.army.mil/pub

lished_volumes/che

mwarfare/CH8_Pgs

259-310.pdf

Sulfur Mustard: Weaponization*

“The toxic and physico-

chemical properties of

mustard gas allow it to be

used in all types of

munitions.”

Source: The Riegle Report, U.S. Chemical and Biological Warfare-Related Dual

Use Exports to Iraq and their Possible Impact on the Health Consequences of the

Gulf War, A Report of Chairman Donald W. Riegle, Jr. and Ranking Member

Alfonse M., D'Amato of the Committee on Banking, Housing and Urban Affairs with

Respect to Export Administration, United States Senate, 103d Congress, 2d

Session, May 25, 1994 Available at:

http://www.gulfweb.org/bigdoc/report/r_1_2.html

“Dew of Death” – intended for spraying from aircraft

Less persistent than mustard

Non-flammable

Phosgene Oxime (“Nettle Gas”)

Can be weaponized into an aerosolized or powdered form

Causes painful sores that harden like bee stings

Long lasting systemic poison as well as fast acting

Simple barriers can prevent exposure

“The systemic toxic agents are those compounds which, instead of confining their dominant action to some particular organ or part of the body, usually near the point of impact, have the power to penetrate the epithelial [the “covering”] of the lungs without causing local damage. They then pass into the bloodstream, whence they are diffused throughout the whole interior economy of the body and exercise a general systemic poisoning action which finally results in death from paralysis of the central nervous system”

Augustin M. Prentiss, Chemicals in War: A Treatise on Chemical

Warfare (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1937), p. 170.

Block use or uptake of oxygen in the

blood asphyxiation

Highly volatile less useful for

chemical warfare

But persistency has an advantage

can clear the battlefield of agent quickly

Cyanide easy to produce could be

attractive for terrorists

Hydrogen cyanide (HCN)

Not very useful on battlefield but used as tool of genocide

Barely liquid at room temp

Active ingredient in Zyklon-B

( ) cont.

Difficult to weaponize (very unstable)

Aum created (but did not successfully

employ) an HCN device (Tokyo 1995)

AQ experimented with it

With medical treatment it is non-lethal

Cyanide-based

Zyklon-B

Active ingredient is HCN

Used by Germany during World War II to massacre millions of Jews and some non-Jews

(BUT WON’T BE TESTED ON)

Cyanogen Chloride (CK)

Hydrogen Sulfur (“Sour Gas”)

4. Nerve Agents (Toxic Organophosphates)

G – Series (“G” is short for “German”)

1. Tabun – GA

2. Sarin – GB

3. Soman – GD

V – Series (“V” is short for “venomous”)

5. “Soviet VX” (also called “VR”)

NERVE AGENTS

Toxic effects via inhalation and contact

Paralyze respiratory musculature

Can cause death in a few minutes – basically immediate

Vary in persistence

Chemical composition related to insecticides

G-series: GA – tabun, GB – sarin, GD – soman

V-series: VE, VG, VM, and VX – similar to G-series but more lethal

NERVE AGENTS

Developed and stockpiled by the

Germans in W.W.II

Did not see battlefield use until 50 years

later: Iran – Iraq war.

PERSISTENCY OF NERVE AGENTS

Medical Aspects of Chemical and Biological Warfare. (Washington, D.C., Department of Defense, Office of The Surgeon General, US Army,

Borden Institute,2007, 167. Available at: http://www.bordeninstitute.army.mil/published_volumes/chemwarfare/Ch5_pg155-220.pdf

G-SERIES NERVE AGENTS

TABUN-GA

Tabun – GA

Discovered in 1936 by German chemists

Less toxic than other G-agents

Only four (4) precursors Sodium cyanide

Dimethylmine

Phosphorus oxychloride

Ethyl alcohol

Sarin (GB)

5 minute video http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ks2qYc

qRIYg&feature=related

Used by Aum Shinrikyō in 1994 (Matsumoto) and 1995 (Tokyo)

Soman (GD

Developed in German in 1944

More lethal than GA or GB

Precursors can be difficult to obtain

Less stable than GA or GB (e.g., harder to weaponize and deliver

“Binary soman (also referred to as “GD binary” and “GD2”). “With binary soman (GD binary, GD2): DF [methylphosphonic difluoride] is located in [one] canister, while a mixture of pinacolyl alcohol and an amine is in a second canister. After deployment of the weapon, the two canisters rupture and the chemical mixture produces binary soman.”*

*Source: Velez-Daubon and Darling, “CBRNE - Nerve Agents, Binary - GB2, VX2.”

V - Agents

Similar in structural and toxic properties those

of the G-nerve agents but possess even

higher toxicity.

Only VX and the Soviet version of VX have

been weaponized.

VX is 100-400 times more toxic than sarin

(GB) when inhaled.

Nerve Agents: VX

7 minute video http://www.youtube.com/watch

?v=mkbBnvz0rw0&feature=related

10 to 15 mg can kill an average-sized man

High persistence – can “slime” surfaces

Ceteris Paribus, your best choice in CW agents

5. Incapacitants: Psychoactive

Chemicals

Should not endanger life

Should not cause permanent injury

Recovery should not require medical

attention

Agent should be deliverable, potent, and

easy to store

REMINDER: How do We

Characterize a Chemical

Weapon? 1. Lethality

2. Mode of Action

3. Speed of Action

4. Toxicity

5. Persistency

6. Weaponization

7. Availability of agent and/or precursors

8. Dispersal considerations

REMINDER: Dispersal

Considerations

AGAIN, MICRON SIZE IS PARAMOUNT

1. Temperatures

2. Wind

3. Altitude

4. Moisture

5. Sunlight

sunlight/darkness, upcoming temp, etc.)

NOTE: CW AGENTS – MAJOR TYPES NOT

COVERED SUBSTANTIVELY IN THIS COURSE

1. CHOKING AGENTS

2. BLISTER AGENTS

3. BLOOD AGENTS

4. NERVE AGENTS

5. INCAPACITATING AGENTS

6. RIOT CONTROL AGENTS

7. HERBICIDES

Incapacitants: Psychoactive

Chemicals: “Harassing Agents”

Theoretically should not endanger life

Theoretically should not cause

permanent injury

Theoretically recovery should not

require medical attention

Theoretically agent should be

deliverable, potent, and easy to store

INCAPACITANTS: TYPES During the 1950s and 1960s several

pharmacological substances were explored for

use as incapacitants. These included:

Depressants

Belladonna drugs (scopolamine, BZ)

Hallucinogens (e.g., LSD)

Opiate Derivatives (fentalyl and its derivatives*)

For the purposes of this class, we explore BZ and LSD

*Fenatyl (or a related derivative were used by Russian security forces during

the Moscow Music Theatre siege of October 23, 2002. The agent – put into

use with the intention of incapacitating the Chechen rebels conducting the

siege - killed 129 civilians. The Chechens were organized under the Special

Purpose Islamic Regiment (SPIR).

Incapacitants: Belladonna Drugs

3-Quinuclidinyl Benzilate (BZ) Belladonna-based (poisonous nightshade plant)

Very unpredictable

Eventually phased out of the U.S. CW stockpile

____________________________________

Acts on the central nervous system

Can cause: Unconsciousness

“Altered States of Situational Awareness”* Hallucinations

Overall, BZ can disrupt key mental functions like: Memory

Problem solving

Attention/focus

Comprehension

* Eric Croddy, Weapons of Mass Destruction Encyclopedia, Volume 1 (Santa Barbara: ABC Clio, 2005), 90.

Incapacitants: Hallucinogens Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD)

Researched for potential to gather intelligence, e.g. CIA’s MKULTRA program

Highly potent

LSD can cause:

Unconsciousness

Hallucinations

Interesting Music

Disruption of key mental functions like: Memory

Problem solving

Attention/focus

Comprehension

Riot Control Agents

Prohibited by

Chemical Weapons

Convention when

used as a form of

warfare

Lawful for use by

police to control unruly

crowds

Could be deadly if

used in tunnels or

other enclosed spaces

Two criteria:

Must be able to irritate and disable their

human target

Must inflict only temporary effects that will

not require medical treatment

GENERAL RCA CHARACTERISICS:

Not Persistent

Low Toxicity

Rapid Speed Of Action

Overall, Easy To Produce

What are the main agents? Mace (CN) (chloroacetophenon) Largely phased by CS

CNB - (CN in Benzene and Carbon Tetrachloride) CNC - (CN in Chloroform) CNS - (CN and Chloropicrin in Chloroform)

Tear Gas (CS) Used for confidence building and law enforcement

Much more intense that CN but less toxic

Wears off in 5-10 minutes

Can be highly flammable (Waco assault)

Pepper Spray (OC) oleoresin capsicum “Natural”

Not as intense as CN or CS

Wears off in ~ 30 minutes

Adamsite (DM) diphenylaminochlorarsine – among other things, a vomiting agent Unlike other RCAs, its speed of action is delayed by several minutes

Far more toxic than other RCAs

Reportedly a “mask breaker”* – more persistent than other RCAs

* Eric Croddy, Weapons of Mass Destruction Encyclopedia, Volume 1 (Santa Barbara: ABC Clio, 2005), 3.

Herbicides

A. Defoliants

These compounds cause trees, shrubs, and other plants to shed their leaves prematurely

B. Plant Growth Regulators

These compounds regulate (stimulate or inhibit) plant growth

C. Desiccants

These compounds remove water from plant tissues, causing the plants to dry and shrivel.

D. Soil Sterilants

These compounds make a soil incapable of supporting higher plant life.

1) Define chemical weapons?

2) List the seven types of CW?

3) Understand, compare, and contrast the seven properties that CW are typically broken down into?

4) Understand and explain the seven salient? variables with regard to dispersing chemical agents (and why they are salient)?

5) Demonstrate familiarity with the most important agents for each CW type and for CW writ large?

6) List the three most dangerous CW agents, explaining how you define “dangerous” and why your selections meet this criterion while others don’t?

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