origins of the psychology of advertising by john eighmey

Origins of Psychology of Advertising

Copyright 2013. John Eighmey. All rights reserved.

John Eighmey 211 Murphy Hall

eighmey@umn.edu

The Psychology of Advertising Presentation based upon: John Eighmey & Sela Sar (2007), “Harlow Gale and the Origins of The Psychology of Advertising,” Journal of Advertising, Vol 36, No. 4, pages 147-158.

What is psychology?

Who was the first person to study the psychology of advertising?

Call for a lifeline?

Who was the first person to study the psychology of advertising?

Sigmund�Freud?�

Who was the first person to study the psychology of advertising?

Harlow �Gale�

In 1895, a psychologist at the University of Minnesota, Harlow Gale, began to carry out laboratory experiments designed to assess the relative attention value of various characteristics of advertising.

Sidney Sherman (1900) “Advertising in the United States,” American Statistical Association, No.52.

Minneapolis Street Car Advertising in 1896!

Minneapolis street car advertising at time of Gale’s studies

Minneapolis Street Car Advertising in 1904!

Minneapolis street car advertising at time of Gale’s studies

Origins of advertising research: In the fall of 1895, Harlow Gale sent a questionnaire to 200 businesses in the Twin Cities. Twenty were 20 returned. Gale wanted to learn the practitioner’s perspective on the kinds of activities That encompass advertising. He asked practitioners to list and rank the activities in order of importance. The responses led Gale to expand his list of advertising media beyond traditional print media to include things such as: placards, signs, bulletin boards, store windows, novelties such as pencils and toys, clocks, rulers, directories, delivery wagons, samples, catalogs, banners, coupons, theater programs, and floats.

Origins of advertising research: On the basis of his survey results, Gale offered what may be the first conceptual definition of advertising:

“The direct kinds of advertising might be characterized as any intentional means used to associate in the buyer’s mind any article or group of articles of commerce with a particular make of that article or with a particular seller of it.”

Daniel Starch, writing in 1914:

“Commercial advertising, with which we are here concerned, is the offering of a commodity, usually through print, in such a manner that the public may be induced to buy it.”

During the 1896-97 academic year, Gale began a series of experiments about the effects of magazine advertising

Gale attempted to simulate the experience of seeing ads in magazines

Wundt’s “gravitiy controlled” tachistiscope from 1897 appears more complicated than Gale’s approach

58 ad pages from Century, Harpers and Cosmopolitan were rotated across the trials

Series A Magazine Ads

Imagine you are in a darkened laboratory room in 1895…

When the light flashes, please report the matter first seen.

Trial 1.

Trial 2.

Trial 3.

Trial 4.

Trial 5.

Association with ProductStimuli Relevant Irrelevant

Words 35.9% 5.9% 41.8%Cuts 32.2% 26.0% 58.2%

68% 32% 100%

Association with ProductStimuli Relevant Irrelevant

Words 51.6% 6.7% 58.3%Cuts 29.5% 12.2% 41.7%

81% 19% 100%

Association with ProductStimuli Relevant Irrelevant

Words 42.2% 7.9% 50.1%Cuts 26.6% 23.3% 49.9%

69% 31% 100%

Association with ProductStimuli Relevant Irrelevant

Words 34.2% 2.7% 37.0%Cuts 31.8% 31.2% 63.0%

66% 34% 100%

Series A Magazine Ad Pages

Series A Magazine Ad Pages

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400

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5

RWIWRCICO

Series B Special Sheets

Series B Special Sheets

Special Sheet #1

“Two relevant and two irrelevant sets of words, each a quarter page.”

Special Sheet #5

“Two relevant and two irrelevant quarter page cuts.”

0.00%

10.00%

20.00%

30.00%

40.00%

50.00%

60.00%

RW IW RC IC

SpecialHarpersCentury

Series B Special Sheets

Association with ProductStimuli Relevant Irrelevant

Words 35.9% 17.7% 53.6%Cuts 25.6% 20.8% 46.4%

61% 39% 100%

Association with ProductStimuli Relevant Irrelevant

Words 37.5% 10.4% 47.9%Cuts 30.0% 22.1% 52.1%

68% 33% 100%

Association with ProductStimuli Relevant Irrelevant

Words 53.7% 11.7% 65.4%Cuts 16.5% 18.1% 34.6%

70% 30% 100%

Association with ProductStimuli Relevant Irrelevant

Words 47.3% 10.4% 57.8%Cuts 21.3% 20.9% 42.2%

69% 31% 100%

Series B Special Sheets

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Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5

RWIWRCICO

Series B Special Sheets

Association with ProductStimuli Relevant Irrelevant

Words 46.8% 7.3% 54.1%Cuts 28.0% 17.9% 45.9%

75% 25% 100%

Stimuli Relevant IrrelevantWords 42.2% 7.9% 50.1%

Cuts 26.6% 23.3% 49.9%69% 31% 100%

Association with Product

Series A versus B •  Magazine Ad Pages •  Special Sheets

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Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5

RWIWRCICO

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Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5

RWIWRCICO

Series B Selected Special Sheets

Selected Special Ad Sheets

#1. 2 relevant and 2 irrelevant sets of words, each a quarter page #3. 2 quarter page sets of words, one relevant and one irrelevant; two quarter page cuts, one relevant and one irrelevant #5. 2 relevant and two irrelevant cuts of different shapes #10 Two relevant and two irrelevant quarter page sets of words

Association with ProductStimuli Relevant Irrelevant

Words 45.2% 26.0% 71.2%Cuts 13.3% 15.5% 28.8%

59% 41% 100%

Association with ProductStimuli Relevant Irrelevant

Words 51.6% 21.0% 72.7%Cuts 12.9% 14.4% 27.3%

65% 35% 100%

Association with ProductStimuli Relevant Irrelevant

Words 51.3% 22.3% 73.6%Cuts 12.3% 14.1% 26.4%

64% 36% 100%

Series B Selected Special Sheets

Series B Selected Special Sheets

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160

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5

RWIWRCIC

Association with ProductStimuli Relevant Irrelevant

Words 46.8% 7.3% 54.1%Cuts 28.0% 17.9% 45.9%

75% 25% 100%

Stimuli Relevant IrrelevantWords 42.2% 7.9% 50.1%

Cuts 26.6% 23.3% 49.9%69% 31% 100%

Association with Product

Association with ProductStimuli Relevant Irrelevant

Words 51.3% 22.3% 73.6%Cuts 12.3% 14.1% 26.4%

64% 36% 100%

Comparison of Table Totals •  Magazine Ad Pages •  Special Sheets •  Selected Special Sheets

Association with ProductStimuli Relevant Irrelevant

Words 35.9% 5.9% 41.8%Cuts 32.2% 26.0% 58.2%

68% 32% 100%

Association with ProductStimuli Relevant Irrelevant

Words 35.0% 4.3% 39.3%Cuts 32.0% 28.7% 60.7%

67% 33% 100%

Association with ProductStimuli Relevant Irrelevant

Words 35.9% 17.7% 53.6%Cuts 25.6% 20.8% 46.4%

61% 39% 100%

Association with ProductStimuli Relevant Irrelevant

Words 37.5% 10.4% 47.9%Cuts 30.0% 22.1% 52.1%

68% 33% 100%

Men Women Total

Association with ProductStimuli Relevant Irrelevant

Words 22.7% 37.8% 60.5%Cuts 18.5% 21.0% 39.5%

41% 59% 100%

Association with ProductStimuli Relevant Irrelevant

Words 33.8% 22.5% 56.3%Cuts 22.5% 21.3% 43.8%

56% 44% 100%

Association with ProductStimuli Relevant Irrelevant

Words 27.1% 31.7% 58.8%Cuts 20.1% 21.1% 41.2%

47% 53% 100%

Comparison of First Exposures •  Gale then focused on the initial exposure to Series A and B •  Magazine Ad Pages •  Special Sheets •  Selected Special Sheets

Association with ProductStimuli Relevant Irrelevant

Words 35.0% 4.3% 39.3%Cuts 32.0% 28.7% 60.7%

67% 33% 100%

Association with ProductStimuli Relevant Irrelevant

Words 37.7% 15.4% 53.1%Cuts 24.9% 22.0% 46.9%

63% 37% 100%

Comparison of First Exposures •  Magazine Ad Pages - Series A •  Special Sheets - Series B •  Selected Special Sheets - Series B(S) •  Results for Series B(S) led Gale to speculate attention may be due to chance

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RW IW RC IC

Series ASeries BSeries B(S)

Series C •  Test of 13 sheets consisting of items clipped from ads •  Combinations of RW, IW, RC and IC •  Each item said to have 32 chances to be noticed on one of 13 sheets

Series C •  Test of 13 sheets consisting of items clipped from ads •  Combinations of RW, IW, RC and IC •  Each item said to have 32 chances to be noticed on one of 13 sheets

Series C •  Test of 13 sheets consisting of items clipped from ads •  Combinations of RW, IW, RC and IC •  Each item said to have 32 chances to be noticed on one of 13 sheets •  Gale described results as “startling in comparison with the old ones”

Series C •  Test of 13 sheets consisting of items clipped from ads •  Combinations of RW, IW, RC and IC •  Each item said to have 32 chances to be noticed on one of 13 sheets •  Gale described results as “startling in comparison with the old ones” •  Results said to be confounded by

•  Lack of precision in defining relevant and irrelevant cuts •  Varying sizes for the type and cuts

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RW IW RC IC

Trial 1-MAll Trials -MTrial 1-FAll Trials-F

Series D •  Test of six sheets of clippings from ads with cuts linked to article advertised •  Relevancy and irrelevancy of items said to be more precisely determined

•  Each article was represented by words and a cut •  Words and cuts equally divided between relevant and irrelevant

•  Outcome showed gain for relevant cuts

Series E •  “To obviate this disturbing element of varying size another series E was prepared” •  Gale’s first test of single page mock-up ads •  10 mock-up ad sheets with two items (words or cuts) per page •  The 10 pages were the permutations of 4 items (RW,IW,RC,IC), 2 at a time •  The two combinations of irrelevant words and cuts were not tested

Sheet #1

RC - Quaker Oats Man RW - “Quaker Oats”

Association with ProductStimuli Relevant Irrelevant

Words 30.7% 25.3% 56.0%Cuts 18.4% 25.6% 44.0%

49.1% 50.9% 100.0%

Series E •  Test of 10 mock-up ad sheets with two items (words or cuts) per page •  The 10 pages were all permutations of 4 items (RW,IW,RC,IC), 2 at a time •  The two combinations of irrelevant words and cuts were not tested •  This series is said to confirm relevant words as gaining greatest attention

Series E •  Test of 10 mock-up ad sheets with two items (words or cuts) per page •  The 10 pages were all permutations of 4 items (RW,IW,RC,IC), 2 at a time •  This series is said to confirm relevant words as gaining greatest attention •  Further analysis of Gale’s data shows challenges of isolating variables

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Relevant WordsIrrelevant WordsRelevant CutsIrrelevant Cuts

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Relevant WordsIrrelevant WordsRelevant CutsIrrelevant Cuts

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Relevant WordsIrrelevant WordsRelevant CutsIrrelevant Cuts

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Tables 1 & 2 - Men Table 3 - Men

Table 3 - Women Tables 1 & 2 - Women

Effects of Repetition •  Gale combined the data from Tables I, II and III •  Simulation of repeated exposures to an ad

Gender and Attention to Advertising •  Gale examined data from Series A, B and C (Tables I, II, III & V) •  Men appear to focus on literal interpretations (words, relevancy) •  Women appear to notice a balanced range of stimuli

Effects of Page Position on Attention •  Gale examined attention to single words in horizontal quartiles •  The quartile above the middle was favored

Effects of Type Size and Page Position on Attention •  Gale examined four varieties of type size placed in horizontal quartiles •  Again, the quartile above the middle was favored

Effects of Type Size, Style and Page Position on Attention •  Four varieties of type size, and two type faces were placed in horizontal quartiles •  Study participants viewed pages through a 2 inch camera shutter •  The left side of the page was favored •  Women favored the quarter above the middle, men the quarter below the middle

Cards rotated for each of 50 trials for each participant, nine men and seven women

Effects of Color on Attention •  Gale tested the colors red, orange, yellow, green, blue, black and white •  Colors were placed in one-inch squares on a nine-inch square card •  Cards were viewed using is first apparatus (darkend room, light, table) •  Cards were rotated during the trials

Effects Color on Attention •  Against black, green and red tied as the most attention getter colors for women •  Green was the most attention getting color for men

Effects Color on Attention •  Against white, red was the most attention getter color for women •  Black was the most attention getting color for men

Survey of the Effects Advertising on Purchasing Behavior •  Gale conducted surveys of students in his junior-level classes •  Students were asked “why” they made certain purchases •  Four response categories

- Own experience - Recommendation of friends

- Advertising for the item - ‘No reason’ given

•  Own and other’s experiences grouped, advertising grouped with ‘no reason’ •  Gale concluded, “Tho the actual classification was rather uncertain, the rough results of all these tests together on seventy-nine males and fifty-eight females was 31% due to advertising with the males and 35% with the females.”

Experiment on the Effects Advertising Claims on Intentions •  Six mock-up ads were constructed in four different product categories •  Study participants were asked to rank the six ads and to give a reason for each •  Here, Gale can be seen as attempting to link specific beliefs to attitudes

Effects Advertising Claims on Intentions to Buy Soap •  22 men and 15 women chose the soap ad #2 as their first choice •  18 men and 6 women gave age of the firm as their first reason why

Effects Advertising Claims on Intentions to Buy Soap •  Age - a signal of reliability - was the most frequent rationale for brand choice •  Government approval was the second most frequent rationale •  Low price was third •  Notice the category ‘attractive ad’ that presages ‘attitude toward the ad’

Summary of Effects Advertising Claims on Intentions to Buy •  Age (along with reliability) was the most frequent rationale for brand choice •  Notice the importance of ‘attractive ad’ •  Price, or getting a good deal, was the fourth most utilized rationale •  Gale indicated men may be more influenced by age and bargains •  Gale indicated women may be more influenced by ad attractiveness and reliability

The concept of “attitude toward the ad” •  To understand the concept, Gale looked for correlating reasons why •  Gale saw this as evidence for unconscious reasoning •  Gales language - this category of the “good ad” - suggests use of Gestalt Theory

Gale speculated about the role of interpersonal influence •  Reputation for reliability was a key reason-why •  Age of firm is a signal of public acceptance -- reliability •  Survey participants voiced interest in consulting others before buying •  Gale related these findings to his earlier survey estimate of advertising influence

Gale’s Summary

Starch Test of Magazine Ad Readership

Daniel Starch (1923, page 501) made a graph of the data Gale presented on page 50 (Figure 2) of his 1900 monograph.

Psychology of Advertising

For more information see: John Eighmey & Sela Sar (2007), “Harlow Gale and the Origins of The Psychology of Advertising,” Journal of Advertising, Vol 36, No. 4, pages 147-158.