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Chapter IV
PARTICIPATION IN GRAMA SABHA
The democratisation of planning is reflected in the participation of people
in different stages of planning. Participation becomes effective only when the
participants have control over the decisions. Democratic decision-making requires
equal control over the decisions, in which all sections of the society participate.
The decisions shall reflect the views of all the sections. If the participants are a
few, then decisions reflect only the interests of a few. The number or rate of
participation is important; but Inore relevant is the quality of participation-
whether participation is active 01. passive. Genuine participation is empowered
participation in which the vitality, energy and commitment of the people have a
stamp on decisions. In such case there is a shift in power (Nelson and Wright
1995) in favour of the people. The number of participants, their occupation, age,
level of education, sex etc are important in influencing decisions.
An important dimension other than the rate of participation to be reckoned
is the trend of participation over the years, which reveals whether people show
increased or decreased interest towards the grama sabha. Equally important is to
know whether participation is inclusive or not. Therefore, the participation of the
marginalised sections of the society, especially that of the scheduled caste and
scheduled tribe population and women is important. The popularity for
participatory development is due to the shortcomings of past development
strategies, which did not make much difference in the lives of large segments of
the population especially the poor, women, tribes and the scheduled caste
population. Participatory approach is expected to reorient development in favour
of the vulnerable sections of the society (Mathur 1995). The participation rates of
the scheduled castes and women are important indicators of the 'inclusiveness'. It
is also interesting to examine whether the political affiliation of the ruling party in
the panchayat has any relation in terms of performance in participation.
In this chapter, we examine the participation of the people in grama sabhas
of sample panchayats in Thrissur district. The chapter has three sections. Section I
deals with the participation and its trend. In section 11, the characteristics of
participation are examined and section 111 analyses the quality of involvement of
the participants.
SECTION - I
Direct participation of the people in decision making is possible only in the
case of the lowest tier of the local bodies - grarna panchayat, municipality /
corporation - since there is a legal structure for participation in the form of grama
sabha 1 ward sabha 1 ward committee. In the case of block or district panchayat,
direct participation is difficult due to the absence of an institution with statutory
backing.
The grama sabha is the most important participatory space provided in the
Kerala experiment. The details of powers, functions and the rights of grama sabha
are listed in section 3A of KPA 1994. The right to formulate the proposals and
fixing the priority of schemes and development programmes to be implemented in
the village panchayat vests with tl~e grama sabha (Section 3 KPA 1994). The
beneficiary selection of all projects including centrally sponsored schemes (CSSs)
and state sponsored schemes (SSSs) is made at the grama sabha.
Participation rate is an indicat-or of the democratic involvement of people in
local development. Crook and Manor (1998) concluded that participation had
positive effect on performances of local government. But, some of the studies
reveal a dismal picture of grama sabha participation (Bandyopadhyay and
Mukherji 2004). The World Bank (2005) study on four South Indian states
revealed that only 20 per cent of the household respondents ever attended the
grama sabha. In Madhya Pradesh often the quorum was not reached and the
attendance of women and the poor was very low (Behar 2003). The grama sabhas
functioned just as a formality in Haryana and Rajastan and often the attendance
was below quorum. No important issues were discussed and the participation of
women and scheduled castes was very low (Nambiar 2001). Ghatak and Ghatak
2002) pointed out that the participation rate of the well-off sections in the society
in grama sabha, in West Bengal was higher than that of their population share. In
Kamataka, grama sabhas were not taking place or were delayed and the attendance
was very low. In Kerala, the participation in grama sabha is falling. (Chaudhari et
al. 2004; Narayana 2004).
The details of participation of people in grama sabhas were collected from
eleven grama panchayats in Thrissur district- Arimpur, Chelakkara, Kadappuram,
Kadavallur, Kuzhur Mulamkunnathukavu Mattathur, Nattika, Nenmanikkara,
Tholoor and Vallachira. The data have been collected from the grama sabha
minutes books for all the years available. Some of the panchayats have not kept
records of all grama sabhas. Moreover, there was no uniformity in the number of
grama sabhas convened by pancliayats; obviously; the number varies among
panchayats. There are variations in the number of grama sabhas called among
different wards in the same panchayat. The details of the development seminars,
task forces and beneficiary committees were collected from the panchayat records.
In order to supplement the secondary data, a primary survey was conducted among
elected members, panchayat officers and activists associated with decentralised
planning in Kerala in 2004. The people surveyed were those who were closely
involved in the process. This was done to get first-hand information from those
who were 'insiders' in the process so that informed details are available. The
survey has a bias since the views of beneficiaries or others who were not close to
the planning programme have not been included. The period of analysis of
participation in grama sabha is divided into two sub-periods - first and second (I
&II). The first sub-period is betwoen October 1995 and September 2000, the
period of the local bodies after the first election and second sub-period is from
October 2000, period after the second election. The period does not correspond
exactly to the ninth and tenth plat. There was an increase in the number of wards
in the sample panchayats from 1 I5 wards in the first sub-period to 143 wards in
the second sub-period. The wards in the same local body are not comparable
because of the altogether new delirnitation of wards.
The number of participants in the grama sabhas and its trends are examined
here by considering average participation, rate of participation and participation of
women and scheduled castes.
Average Participation in Grama Sabha
The average number of participants in the grama sabha gives us some idea
on the size of the assembly. Although averages across panchayats are not
meaningful because of variation in the number of voters, averages of each
panchayat over time is a useful indicator of the trend. In Table 4.1 the average
number of participants is depicted. Averages for the year is worked by taking the
total participants and the number of' grama sabhas in that particular year for each
panchayat. The average participation for all the panchayats in the first-sub period
was 116 members. The highest average was for Nattika (176) followed by
Mattathur (150). The lowest average was for Arimpoor (85). The average
attendance for the first plan grama sabha for the state as a whole was 159 and for
Thrissur district it was142 (Isaac and Franke 2000).
The details of only five pancllayats were available for 1996. But there was
increase in the average number in 1997 for these panchayats. In the case of
Arimpoor panchayat the average declined in 1998 compared to 1997. For
Chelakkara panchayat, the highest average was reached in 1998, thereafter, the
average participation fell. In the case of six panchayats, the highest average for the
first sub-period was in 1997, and for four panchayats it was in 1998, and for one
panchayat it was in 2000. Thus, generally the highest average participation in
numbers was attained in 1997-98 period and there aRer participation shows a
declining trend.
Table 4.1 Average Participation in Grama Sabhas
First Sub-period Second Sub-period
Note: Avg. -Average Source: Compiled from the grama sabha minutes books
But, higher averages were recorded in the second sub-period for all
panchayats, except Tholur. Some of the increase in average may be due to increase
in population, but the increase creates doubts regarding the veracity of grama
sabha documents. The increase in average in the second sub-period was sharp in
comparison to the trend in the first period, which was showing a decline. This
result is contrary to the observations and opinions of people that generally, there
was a fall in participation in period two compared to the first period. In 1999, with
the amendment of the KPA (1994). the quorum of the grama sabha was raised to
10 per cent of the voters. If the quorum is below 10 per cent, a fresh grama sabha
has to be called again, for which, the quorum is only 50 members. This stipulation
might have prompted some to show a higher participation in records to avoid
calling the grama sabha again'. Hence, in our analysis, primary focus is given to
the first sub-period for which the data is more reliable.
The Size of Grama Sabha
The participation of people in the grama sabha is recorded in different size
classes in Table 4.2. In the first sub-period, we have details of 81 1 grama sabhas.
There were 27 grama sabhas (3 per cent) with participation below 50 members i.e.,
below quorum in 9 panchayats. Nattika and Mattathur had no such grama sabhas.
But, Kadavalloor had the highest percentage (10.8 per cent) of such grama sabhas.
The model class of participation u as 50-100 with 42.7 per cent. In 28.1 per cent of
grama sabhas, participation was between 100-150 members. In the case of 17.3
per cent of grama sabhas, participation ranged between 150 and 200 members.
Only in 0.7 per cent of grama sabhas, the participation was over 300 persons.
For eight panchayats, the model class of participation was 50-100 voters,
and for the remaining the model class was 100-150 members. The number of
participation in grama sabha exceeded 200 in the case of three panchayats.
In the second sub-period, in 3.6 per cent of grama sabhas, participation was
below 50 persons, which was higher than the previous period. The model class of
participation was 100-150 members. In 1.5 per cent of grama sabhas participation
was over 300. Mattathur panchayat, in both periods, had a few grama sabhas with
participation of over 300 persons.
Table 4.2 Size of Grama Sabhas
Source : Compiled from the grama sabha minutes books
Participation Rate
Participation rate is the proportion of voters that participated in the grama
sabhas, which is a more reliable yardstick of participation. Here, the average
participation rate in each year is worked out, which is given in Table 4.3. The
average participation rate for all the panchayats for the first sub-period was 7.5 per
cent. The participation rate was only 5.1 per cent in 1996, which increased to 9 per
cent in 1997, and declined thereafter. In the study made by Isaac and Franke
(2000) the participation rate reported for Thrissur district was 8.4 per cent. But in
our study we do not have the details of all the panchayats.
Table 4.3 Rate of Participation in Grama Sabhas
Note: Avg.- Average Source : Compiled fiom the grama sabha minutes books
Among the panchayats, Nattika had the highest average percentage rate of
12.9 for the fvst period, followed by Tholoor with 11.8. Arimpur and Chelakkara
recorded the lowest rate in the first sub-period with 5.6 per cent each. The highest
participation rate recorded was 20.3 per cent in 1998 by Tholoor panchayat in the
first sub-period followed by Nattika with 15.9 per cent in 1997. The lowest per
cent was 4.2 by Chelakkara panchayat in 1996. Thus, the range of participation
rate was between 4.2 per cent and 20.3 per cent.
For Arimpoor panchayat, the highest rate of participation was reached in
1997 with 7.2 per cent. In the case of Chelakkara, the highest rate was 7.4 per cent
attained in 1998. Kadappuram had the highest participation rate of 9.1 per cent in
1997 and the lowest was 5.8 per cent. Kadavalloor had the highest per cent in
1997 and the lowest per cent of 4.2 in 1998. Kuzhoor had a different pattem with
the highest participation rate achievement of 8.6 per cent in 2000, and a lower rate
of 5.8 per cent in 1996. Mattathur had a relatively stable participation rate of
around 8 per cent. Mulamkunnathkavu showed a steadily declining participation
rate after 1998.The participation rate of Nenmanikkara panchayat was more stable
around 9 per cent.
Nattika and Tholoor panchayats had a relatively better performance in
participation rate, but with fluctuations. Vallachira attained a maximum of 9.1 per
cent in 1998 and then, declined. The participation rate was poor, below 10 per cent
on most occasions. Nattika crossed the 10 per cent mark thrice and Tholoor
crossed the mark twice. Moreover, there were sharp fluctuations in participation
rate.
The participation rate was falling in the first sub-period, on the average,
after 1997, although there was variation among the panchayats. This pattem is in
agreement with the findings of the study by Chaudhari et al. (2004) that there was
a secular decline in participation after the initial years of the campaign.
In the second sub-period, the participation rate recorded was, on the
average 8.7, higher than the average in the previous period. Five panchayats
recorded over 10 per cent of participation rate corresponding to the voters in 2000.
The rates of 2001, 2002 and 2003 were close to 10 per cent of the voters. All
panchayats, except Tholoor, recorded a higher participation rate compared to the
previous period. Tholoor recorded a lower participation rate than the previous
period, which also showed a falling trend. But, as noted earlier, the results of the
second sub-period strengthen the doubt regarding the genuiness of the records.
The average rate of participation in grama sabhas in West Bengal was reported as
12 per cent (Ghatak and Ghatak 2002) and most participants were the supporters
of political parties. Pande and Murthy (2002) showed that the participation rate in
grama sabhas was very poor in Karnataka.
In Table 4.4 the grama sabhas are classified according to the rate of
participation. About 27 per cent of the grama sabhas had participation below 5 per
cent in the first sub-period and in the case of 5 1 per cent of the grama sabhas, the
rate was between 5 and 10 per cent. In the case of 17 per cent of the grama sabhas
participation was between 10 and 15 per cent. Participation rate exceeded 20 per
cent only in the case of 1.2 per cent and was confined to three panchayats.
In the second sub-period the participation rate below 5 per cent was
recorded in 13 per cent of the grama sabhas, which is lower than the first sub-
period. In the 5-10 rate category there were 56 per cent of the grama sabhas, which
is higher than the previous period. The participation rate above 20 per cent was
recorded only in the case of less than one per cent of the grama sabhas. The
participation rate of the majority of grama sabhas was between 5 and 10 per cent
of the voters. Nonetheless, we reiterate the doubtful nature of the grama sabha data
for the second sub-period.
Participation of Women
There was a quantum jump in the representation of women in rural local
bodies after the 73d and 74th constitutional amendments (Sujaya and Jain 2000). It
is to be examined whether this has been reflected in participation in the grama
sabha. Plummer (1999) argued that the participation of women is low due to the
high opportunity cost of participation due to multiple roles played by them. The
participation of women in grama sabhas in Karnataka was 35.7 per cent of the
participants according to Crook and Manor (1998). Women participation in grama
sabhas was low since they were not informed or not encouraged to participate.
Unpleasant situations created by political opponents dissuade women from
participation (Nambiar2001).
One of the acclaimed advantages of the people's campaign was the
mobilisation of women into this process and hence to the public sphere. In order to
examine this, the proportion of women participation in total participation is
examined. Table 4.5 depicts the rates of women participation.
The proportion of women participation in the first sub-period was 37.1 per
cent. The proportion was only 26.2 per cent in 1996, which increased to 40.8 per
cent in 1997, which declined to 38.5 per cent in 1998, and then increased to 40.6
per cent in 2000. The women participation hovers around 40 per cent of total
participation in the first sub-period. In column 7, the average for each panchayat
for the period is given. In column 8, the proportion of women in total population
(1991 census) in each panchayat is given to facilitate comparison. All the
panchayats had a proportion of above 50 per cent for women in total population.
In two panchayats, women outnumber men in terms of participation, over the
period -Vallachira (51 per cent) and Arimpoor (50.5 per cent). In Vallachira
panchayat, in 2000, the proportion of women participation was 59.2 per cent. The
lowest proportion of participation had been recorded in the case of Chelakkara
panchayat, 28.6 per cent. The lowest participation share was also recorded in
Chelakkara panchayat in 1997 (20.1 per cent).
Table 4.5 Proportion of Women Participation
population of panchayais. Source : Compiled from the grama sabha minutes books
Second Sub-period I I 1 I I % of Women
The percentage of women in total participation in Thrissur district was 27.5
per cent in 1996 (Isaac and Franlie 2000). But there was an improvement after
that. The overall decline in participation and increase in the share of women
implies that there is a big decline in the participation of men. This is something
that needs to be underlined and probed into.
Among the panchayats, there was variation in average percentage share of
women. Arimpoor, Mulamkunnathukavu and Vallachira had a percentage share of
participation close to the share of women in population. Chelakkara, Kadappuram
and Kadavalloor panchayats had a participation below one third.
In the second sub-period, average women participation was higher (44.9
per cent) than the previous period. The participation recorded exceeded 40 per
cent in all years and in 2004, participation was close to sixty (data for two
panchayats only). Chelakkara panchayat, which had a very low participation share
of women in first sub-period, recorded over 50 per cent share in the second sub-
period. Those panchayats that had shown a lower participation share of women in
the first sub-period recorded a better performance in the second sub-period, the
contrary happened in the case of better performing panchayats.
There is no doubt that the PPC had helped in mobilising women into this
process as reflected in a relatively higher participation of women in grama sabhas.
The results of our study confirm the conclusions made by Chaudhari et a1 (2004)
that woman participation improved after the first year of the campaign. The
participation of women is relatively better than in other states. Women
participation rate was reported as very low in Karnataka (Pande and Murthy 2002)
and Madhya Pradesh (Behar 2003).
Participation of Scheduled Castes
In the Plan Campaign special attention was given to address the issues of
the scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes. The campaign instilled a sense of
pride in the hitherto marginalised sections like dalits and adivasis (Kunhaman
2000). The participation of scheduled caste people in grama sabhas is shown in
Table 4.6'. As in the case of women participation, the proportion of scheduled
caste participation in total participation is depicted. The last column shows the
proportion of scheduled castes in total population according to the 1991 census
and 2001 census to facilitate comparison.
Table 4.6 Proportion of SC in Grama Sabhas
Note: Avg.- Average; @-Column 8 shows the proportion of SC in total population of the panchayatsin 1991 and2001
Source: Compiled from the grama sabha minutes books
The average participation of scheduled castes in the total participation was
17.2 per cent, higher than the over all share of scheduled castes in the total
population (13.5 per cent) in the first sub-period. The participation share of
scheduled caste people was high in 1997 (18.7 per cent) when the overall
participation was high. The range of participation for all the panchayats taken
together was between 15.9 per cent and 18.7 per cent. Isaac and Franke (2000)
concluded that the participation of the scheduled castes in the first plan grama
sabha was less than their share of population for the state as a whole, but in
Thrissur district it was higher. The study made by Chaudhari et a1 (2004)
concluded that the participation oi'dalits was higher than their population share.
Among the panchayats, the highest proportion in the first sub-period was
attained by Nattika with 28.5 per cent, which is also the panchayat having the
highest share of scheduled caste population. The lowest share was recorded in the
case of Kadappuram panchayat, 7.3 per cent. Eight panchayats had a participation
share higher than the population share of the scheduled castes. Kadavallur
panchayat had recorded a scheduled caste participation share of 31.9 per cent in
1997, but had only a share of 17.4 per cent in 2000.
The second sub-period recorded a lower participation share for scheduled
castes at 12.7 per cent. Six panchayats recorded a lower participation share in the
second sub-period in comparison to the first. Highest share of 24.3 per cent was
recorded in the case of Nattika panchayat, which had the highest share in the
previous period too. We have 110 details of participation in the case of two
panchayats - Mattathur and Vallachira.
During the first sub-period, the participation rate of the scheduled caste
population was higher than the~r population share and there was only small
variation in shares in different years. But this result is contrary to that observed in
West Bengal (Ghatak and Ghatak 2002) where the participation of the scheduled
castes was less than their population share. The World Bank study (2005)
concluded that scheduled castes and scheduled tribes are more likely to attend the
grama sabhas. We cannot, however, read much meaning in to the data for the
second sub-period on account of the doubts already raised on data quality.
SECTION - I1
The Characteristics of Participation
In this section, we take up for analysis a different set of characteristics of
the participants such as age composition, level of education and occupation. This
will help us to understand certain new dimensions of participatory space opened
by the decentralisation process. In addition to this, variation in participation with
the purpose of grama sabha is examined as well as the political dimensions of
participation. The participation rate can vary with the political party in control of
panchayats.
The data for this has been collected from the minutes books of grama
sabhas of the panchayats. Only one point in 1998 has been selected for the study,
which is in the second year of the plan campaign, where the participation rate was
relatively good.
The Age of Participants
The participants are grouped into six categories based on age, viz, below 20
(The minimum age of the voter is eighteen); 20-29; 30-39; 40-49; 50-59 and above
60. It can be seen from Table 4.7 that the participation of the younger generation is
relatively poor compared to the middle aged and the old.
The highest level of participation was in the age group of 30-49 (category 3
and 4), which comprised 51.6 per cent of participants whereas their share in
population was only 24.1 per cent. The 20-29 category which constituted 19.6 per
cent of the population had only a share of participation of 14.7 per cent which was
even lower than that of group of the aged i.e., above 60 years. Crook and Manor
(1998) in their study in Karnataka showed that the participation of the age group
30-44 was high compared to other groups. It is important to find out as to why the
youth keep away from the participatory planning process. An answer to this
question is important because it is up to them to sustain the process of
decentralised governance and planning.
Table 4.7 Age-wise Distribution of Participants
(in percentage)
Source: Compiled kom the grama sabha minutes books
The age-wise percentage distribution of population at the state level is
given in Table 4.8 (1991 Censes). Among different grama panchayats, there was
variation in the share of different age groups. But, in no case was the participation
of category two greater than category three. In only one panchayat - Kadavallor -
the category 2 was greater than category 4. Category 5 was less than 4 in all
panchayats. In some Panchayats, the participation of category 5 was higher than
that of category 2.
Table 4.8 The Age-wise Percentage Distribution of People in
Kerala - 199 1 I I I
Source: Statistics for Planning 2001, GoK
A.ge
0-19
20-29 -
30-39
40-49 -
50-59 -
It must also be remembered that, although age wise education level data is
Percentage
40.46
19.58
14.22
9.84
7.09
not available, it can be safely concluded that the younger people are more
educated than the old. Linking rhis with education, it can be presumed that the
young and the educated people are relatively reluctant to participate. This is not a
firm conclusion, since one can argue that only by knowing the education level of
the actual participants and their level of education, we can make firm conclusions.
Yet, it is disturbing that the inference may not be off the mark entirely.
It appears that participacion of the younger generation is low in grama
sabhas. It can be argued that generally only one member from a family may be
participating, and the older person represents the family. This argument holds
good only when the participatioil rate is high. The lack of interest of the younger
generation in political and social issues is not a favourable development.
Education Level and Participation
The level of education is assumed to have a positive effect on participation
since the awareness and social consciousness are supposed to increase with the
level of education. The details of education were not available from one of the
panchayats selected for the study. The participants are classified into six
categories-. Category I -illiterate; category 11- primary (1-7 standards), category 111
- High school; category IV- pre-degree 1 higher secondary; category V - degree;
category VI - post-graduates. Meaningful comparison of participation rate in
relation to education may not be possible, since we do not have data regarding the
distribution of population according to the level of education at grama panchayat
level. But useful inferences can be made from this. The participation rate of the
primary educated category (I-7classes) was the highest (45.5 per cent) compared
to others, followed by the high school educated (34.2 per cent), of the total
participants. The share of graduates was only 3.1 and that of post-graduates only
0.7 per cent. Illiterates constitute 9.4 per cent (see Table 4.9).
Table 4.9 Level of Education of Participants
Source: Compiled from the grama sabha minutes books
There is much discrepancy in the proportion of participants in each
category. The proportion of illiterates in total population of the sample panchayats
was 12.2 per cent according to 1991 census, but the participation share in the
panchayats was 9.4 per cent. Participation of illiterates was as high as 19.0 per
cent in Nenmanikkara panchayat against the percentage of illiterates of 11.2 per
cent (1991 Census). In Kuzhur panchayat, the share of illiterates in total
participants was only 2.8 per cent whereas the rate of illiteracy was 9.0 per cent
(1991 Census). In five Panchayats - Mattathw, Nattika, Nenmanikkara, Tholur,
Vallachira- the share of the participation of illiterates was higher than that of their
share in population.
Primary level of education (1-7) was reported for 45.5 per cent of the
participants and 34.2 per cent had high school education. For three panchayats-
Kadavallor, Nenmanikkara and Kuzhw- the majority of the participants had only
primary education. Except Mulamkunnathkavu panchayat, the share of
participation of people with primuy level of education was higher than those with
high school education. The percentage of participation of people with higher
education was very low. In the category of pre-degreehigher secondary education,
the share of participation was only 7 per cent and the share declined with increase
in the level of education. In the degree category, the highest share of participation
was recorded in the case of Nattika (5.4 per cent) and lowest for Arimpoor (1.9 per
cent).
About 90 per cent of the participants were either illiterates or having
education level of SSLC or below. Higher education category constituted only 10
per cent. Crook and Manor (1998:) in their study also reported that the participation
of the educated classes was low. 'The lower participation rate of the educated may
be due to the fact that they can manage their requirements even without attending
the grama sabhas through other ways. Another reason may be their higher
opportunity cost of participation. Although, we may not be able to make precise
conclusions as regards the participation rate and the education level due to the
absence of data, the inference is that as the level of education increases,
participation in grama sabha declines. In the earlier discussion we observed that
the participation of the younger generation was low. The younger generation is
more educated than the old. This adds more strength to our inference.
Occupation of Participants
The participants are broadly classified into five groups - farmers, casual
labourers, government employees, other employees and the unemployed. The
occupational classification recorded in the grama sabha minutes is not in
conformity with the census classification; hence, a meaningful comparison with
population in general is not possible.
Table 4.10 shows the occupation of the participants. Of the participants the
largest share is unemployed- 38.4 per cent. Then comes casual labourers with 29.7
per cent. Traders and other self-employed categories comprise the third position
with 15.6 per cent. Farmers constitute 15.5 per cent. Government employees
constitute less than one per cent.
Table 4.10 Occupation of Participants
Source : Compiled from the grama sabha minutes books
The data reveal the fact that the majority of the participants are the poor,
the unemployed and casual labourers, who constitute 68 per cent of the
participants. The result is comparable with the conclusions of Narayana (2004)
that, in Kerala, participation of the poor is higher than the rich in grama sabhas.
One possible reason for the higher participation of the poor is due to the belief that
it is a forum to select the beneficiaries. Another reason may be the low opportunity
cost of participation of the poor. h West Bengal agricultural labourers were the
largest group participating, followed by farmers (Ghatak and Ghatak 2002) and the
affluent sections were not participating since they were not getting any immediate
benefits.
There is much variation in the percentage of participants in various
occupation categories. Farmers were absent in Kadappuram panchayat; whereas in
the Mulamkunnathukavu panchayat, 25.3 per cent of participants were farmers. In
Chelakkara, 63.3 per cent were casual labourers, and in Kadappuram casual
labourers constituted 42 per cenr. Government servants' participation was very
low and the highest was recorded in Chelakkara with 1.95 per cent of the
participants. In Kadappuram, there was no participation of government servants3.
In Arimpoor panchayat, 55 per cent of the participants were unemployed followed
by casual labourers (22.3 per cent).
The range of the 'unemployed' was between 13.8 per cent (Chelakkara)
and 55.4 per cent (Arimpoor). [n the case of casual labourers, the range was
between 21.6 per cent and 63.3 per cent. Thus, there is much variation in the share
of different occupational groups among panchayats. But on the whole, casual
labourers and unemployed constitute the overwhelming proportion of participants.
Other Determinants of Participation
Participation is influenced by many factors - socio-economic, historical,
geographical, political and demographic. The purpose for which the grama sabha
has been called is an important factor influencing participation. The grama sabha
is called for planning, beneficiary selection and other routine activities. Yet
another important factor is the political control of the local body. In Kerala, almost
all the local bodies are ruled either by the LDF, dominated by the Communist
Party of India (Marxist)-(CPI-M), or by the UDF, controlled by the Indian
National Congress (I)-(INC-I). Socio-economic factors like literacy rate,
percentage of workers in the prim:uy sector, work participation rate, percentage of
scheduled caste population in total population etc. might also have a bearing on
participation. The geographical regions might also influence participation. The
geographical area of the state may be broadly classified into coastal, midland and
highland. Demographic factors like density of population, voters in a ward etc also
might influence participation. The management of the grama sabha is another
important factor. The way it is convened, its location and timing, the publicity
given to it and the initiative made by the ward member in moblising people etc are
important influencing factors.
Purpose and Participation
Grama sabhas may be broadly classified into three, based on purpose- a)
planning b) beneficiary selection c) others. It is in the planning grama sabha that
the local priorities are determined. The beneficiary selection grama sabha is part of
the implementation stage of planning, which is usually called after the plan is
approved by the DPC. In the beneficiary selection grama sabha, other normal
activities also take place. If there is an agenda for beneficiary selection, we include
it in beneficiary selection grama sabha. The grama sabhas are also called for other
routine functions. The average participation in grama sabhas is given in Table
4.1 1. The average participation in grama sabhas for beneficiary selection was
higher at 134; whereas for planning, it was only 94, which was even lower than for
grama sabhas convened for other purposes. Higher participation for beneficiary
selection was observed in the case of all panchayats. In five panchayats -
Chelakkara, Kadappuram, Kwhoor, Nattika and Nenmanikkara average
participation in planning grama sabhas was higher than in grama sabhas convened
for other purposes.
The higher participation in grama sabhas for beneficiary selection has got
very significant implication. Purpose is an important determinant of participation.
Many participate in grama sabhas due to the expectation of getting some personal
benefits. In some panchayats, participation for other purposes is higher than
planning. In the planning grama sabha, planning is the only agenda. But in grama
sabhas for other purposes, other decisions are also made. Hence, more interest is
shown in participation for other purposes, than for planning.
Table 4.1 1 Average Participation by Purpose of Grarna Sabha
Note: BS- beneficiary selection Source : Compiled from the grama sabha minutes books
In the second period, we get a different picture. Only for two panchayats,
Chelakkara and Vallachira, average participation in beneficiary selection grama
sabha was higher than others.
The Political Dimension of Participation
The political scene in Kerala is bi-polar with two fronts dominating-United
Democratic Front and Left Democratic Front. The People's Plan Campaign
was launched by the LDF. Therefore, LDF led panchayats might have shown more
enthusiasm in implementing the plan and thus attracting more people into the
campaign. The UDF panchayats might have seen it, as a programme of their
political opponents and hence might have been less enthusiastic towards it.
Table 4.12 Rate of Participation in UDF and LDF Panchayats-Percentages
Source : Compiled from the grama sabha minutes books
In our sample, six panchayats were ruled by LDF and the remaining by
UDF. In 2000 election, there was a change in the ruling party in four panchayats
between these two fronts. Table 4.12 shows the participation in panchayats of both
fronts.
The average participation rate of LDF panchayats was higher (9.2 per cent)
than that of UDF panchayats (6.3 per cent) in the first sub-period. The highest rate
of participation for UDF panchayats was 7.7 per cent for Kadappuram for the first
sub-period followed by Kuzhoor (7.1 per cent). The lowest participation rate
revealed was 4.2 per cent for Chelakkara and the highest rate was 9.1 per cent in
1997 for Kadavalloor panchayat
Among LDF panchayats, Nattika had the highest rate of participation in the
first sub-period. The highest partxipation rate recorded was 20.3 per cent for
Tholoor panchayat in 1998, followcd by Nattika panchayat (1 5.9 per cent) in1 997.
The participation rate of Nattika was more consistent than that of Tholoor.
Mulamkunnathukavu panchayat had the lowest average for the period with 6.4 per
cent and it also recorded the lowest participation rate of 4.5 per cent in 2000. LDF
Panchayats, on the average, attained their peak participation rate in 1998 (10.5 per
cent) whereas; UDF panchayats attained the highest rate in 1997 (7.6 per cent).
Some of the LDF panchayats had a lower participation rate than some of the UDF
panchayats.
In the second sub-period, the rate of participation recorded by panchayats
of both fronts increased, in almost equal terms. There was some change in the
composition of panchayats in both f?onts in the second sub-period.
There appears to be no correlation between the mobilisation of people in
the grama sabhas and electoral outcomes. Nattika panchayat (LDF) had the
highest participation rate, but in the 2000 election the LDF lost power there,
whereas, in the Tholoor panchayat (LDF), where there was a higher participation
rate, the LDF retained control in the next election. Mulamkunnathukavu, which
had the lowest participation rate among LDF panchayats, saw the LDF retain
power in the next election. Kadappuram and Kuzhoor were the panchayats that
had higher participation rates anlong UDF panchayats and both witnessed the
UDF retain their control in the next election. Ariipoor and Chelakkara, both UDF
controlled panchayats, had the lowest participation rates, of which the UDF could
retain power in the Chelakkara panchayat, but Arimpoor panchayat was lost to
the LDF. Thus, mobilisation of people into the grama sabha does not appear to be
a relevant variable in determining electoral outcome.
Ordinary least square regression analysis for the rate of participation in
1997 (dependent variable) was done taking literacy rate, employment in primary
sector, work participation rate, SC population, density of population, area of the
panchayat, political front in administration, non-coastal region as independent
variables. However, the results did not exhibit any statistically significant
relationship4.
SECTION - 111
Assessment of Trend and Quality of Participation in Grama Sabha
The quality of participation is equally important as quantity. The grama
sabha is supposed to undertake meaningful dialogue on developmental priorities
(GoK 2001). Therefore, the assessment of the quality of deliberations is important
and for that a survey was conducted among 300 individuals. The 300 respondents
consisted of panchayat members (loo), officers in the panchayat offices (100) and
activists (100) involved in the plan campaign. The 100 panchayat members as well
as officers were from the sample panchayats. The activists were from different
parts of the district who were involved in the panchayat planning process as key
resource persons W s ) , district resource persons (DRPs), local resource persons
(LRPs), task force I working group members, and expert committee
membersltechnical advisory committee members. Questions of the survey were
framed to bring out their perceptions regarding trend and quality of participation in
different stages of planning.
The trend in participation in grama sabhas was assessed for the first sub-
period by asking whether participation was increasing, decreasing or remaining
constant during the period. For the second sub-period the respondents were to
report their opinion regarding trend in participation in comparison to the previous
period. The results are given in Table 4.13.
In the general category, 98 per cent of the respondents reported that
participation was increasing in the first sub-period. Regarding women's
participation, 98 per cent of responses were that there was a decrease in
participation trend but in the case of scheduled caste participation, 96 per cent
reported that the trend was increasing. The empirical data collected do not agree
with the perceptions revealed in the survey. The participation was showing a
falling trend even in the first period
In the second sub-period, compared to the first, participation declined
according to 85 per cent of the respondents, but 9 per cent reported that the trend
was almost same and 6 per cent opined that there was an increase in overall
participation. Increase in participation was reported in the case of women by 17
per cent of respondents and 40 per cent had the opinion that the participation trend
remained constant.
Table 4.13 Trend of Participation
Note: 1. increasing 2. decreasing 3. constant Source: Primary Survey 2004
Majority of the respondelits agreed that there was a decline in the
participation trend of scheduled castes in the second sub-period compared to the
first.
Thus, the overall assessment of respondents was that there was a decline in
the participation trend in grama sabhas in the second sub-period compared to the
first. The primary survey confirms our doubts regarding the reliability of the data
on participation reported in the minutes books of grama sabhas.
Perceptions of Rate of Participation
We used our primary survey to get some idea of the perception levels on
trends of participation. A family 011 the average consists of three voters. Normally
participation from a family is limited to one. Then, 113~ participation of voters is
an excellent level having the representation of all the families. For assessing this,
ten per cent participation of voters in a grama sabha was considered as the
'average' level. Participation above 20 per cent of voters was 'very good' and a
participation rate between 15 to 20 per cent was considered 'good'. A participation
rate below 5 per cent was treated as 'very low' and a rate between 5 per cent to 10
per cent was treated as 'low'.
Table 4.14 depicts the perceptions on rate of participation of the
respondents. The table has two parts, A and B. Part A depicts the perceptions for
the first sub-period and part B shows the same for the second sub-period.
As regards participation of the general category, women and scheduled
castes, the majority reported that the participation rate was 'average' in the first
sub-period. But for the second sub-period, the response of 'average' rate had
declined. Regarding the participation of the general category of voters, 47 per cent
reported that the participation rate was 'low' and in the case of women, 35 per cent
reported that participation rate as 'low'. A majority agreed on the point that the
participation rate of scheduled castes was 'average'. In the first sub-period, there
was no response for rate of participation reported as 'low', but in the second sub-
period, there were many such reports.
Table 4.14 Percevtion of Rate of Participation
Second Sub-period: Percentage reported as:
Source: PrimiSurvey 2004
Thus, the overall perception is that, there was a decline in participation in
the grama sabhas in the second sub-period compared to the first period.
Quality of Involvement in the Grama Sabha
Mere attendance is not enough; active participation requires involvement in
discussion and decision-making in prioritisation, beneficiary selection and social
auditing. It is very difficult to quantify this. Hence, we have attempted to
understand the quality of invol\rement in various functions of grama sabha. The
results are presented in Table 4.15.
Table 4.15 Quality of Involvement in Grama Sabha
Source: Primary Survey 2004
The results present a picture of general deterioration in the quality of
participation. The proportion of our respondents marking 'high' for involvement
in discussion was 53 per cent for the first sub-period. The proportion of
respondents who considered involvement as 'low' was nil in the first sub-period.
The proportion of respondents marking 'low' increased to 30 per cent in the
second sub-period. The same pattern of deterioration can be seen in the case of
quality of discussion, prioritising local needs, beneficiary selection and social
audit. The proportion of respondents marking 'low' increased substantially for the
second sub-period.
There is another interesting dimension on quality of participation emerging
from Table 4.15. According to our respondents, quality of participation was
generally better when involvement in discussion and beneficiary selection were
considered. The ranking given by the respondents is generally lower for quality of
discussion, prioritisation and social audit. This is on expected lines because
increasing the quality of discussion, prioritisation and social auditing is more
demanding.
The Reasons of Low Participation
The respondents were asked to report the reasons for low participation
according to their perceptions. The reason cited by most members in a particular
category is ranked first and the second highest response is ranked as second and so
on. The reasons cited by them by each category are presented in Table 4.16. All
categories of respondents opined that the grama sabha is seen as a forum for
beneficiary selection. As a corollary to this, most participants expect some benefit
from participation. There were divergent views among the three categories of
respondents as regards the third important reason. The ward members cited the
third reason related to the first and second, as once a benefit is received, helshe is
less likely to get the benefit the next time. So hetshe may not report for the next
meeting. Similarly, if a collective want such as a road is met, then those
beneficiaries are less likely to come for the next meeting. Activists opined that the
third major reason was lack of information regarding the convening of the grama
sabha. The ward members may not give enough publicity for grama sabha, so that
many voters are unaware of it. Many ward members may also like to have less
members of his choice to avoid many uncomfortable situations. The fall in the
number of projects with individud beneficiary oriented distributive projects have
contributed to the fall in participation, according to the officers. The activists were
of the opinion that the inconvenient timing, lack of interest of the ward members
etc were other important reasons. According to activists, political bias in decision-
making restrains many voters from participation. The ward members or the
officers did not raise such an issue.
Table 4.16 Ranking of Reasons of Low Participation
Reasons Rank Members ( Officials I Activists
Grama sabha is seen as a fomn of 1 1 1
Source- Primary Survey 2004
Moreover, there is an opportunity cost for participation. The opportunity
cost of employed persons is high Therefore, their participation is low. Another
reason is the feeling of the people that the scene is dominated by the political
activists and that the opinions of '2thers are not counted. Dissatisfaction with the
grama sabha, since many of the issues raised there are not addressed, makes
people disinterested in participation.
Conclusion
Grama sabha is the important space in the planning process, which
provides opportunities for participation of all the voters. The number of
participants, their socio-economic characteristics and their involvement in the
decision-making process are important factors influencing the outcome. Studies on
the participation of people in g rma sabhas in different states in India show a
dismal picture. The participation of the selected grama panchayats in Thrissur
district is examined, dividing the period in to two sub-periods - 1995-2000 and
after 2000. The average participation of the voters increased in 1997, which is the
first year of the People's Plan Campaign compared to the previous year. There was
a decline in average participation after 1997.The average participation rate of the
voters in the first sub-period was only 7.5 per cent and the highest rate recorded
was 9 per cent in 1997.A noteworthy feature of grama sabha participation in
Kerala was the proportionately higher level of participation of the scheduled
castes. Another feature is the increased participation of women, which was around
40 per cent of the total and in some of the panchayats it was over 50 per cent.
The education level of the participants showed that around 90 per cent of
the participants are either illitcaates or having education below SSLC. The
educated class is less keen in attending the grama sabhas. The younger generation
is also less interested as compared to higher age groups in local planning. The
average participation in grama sabhas convened for beneficiary selection is higher
than those for planning or other purposes. The political dimension of participation
is important and we could find that the participation rate in the LDF panchayats
was higher than in UDF panchayats. The primary survey showed that there was
deterioration in the 'quantity' as well as in the 'quality' of participation in the
second sub-period, although data show a higher participation, which we suspect is
due to data manipulation. There was deterioration in the quality of discussion,
prioritising local needs and beneficiary selection. Some of the reasons cited for
low participation are: a) grama sabha is seen as a forum for beneficiary selection;
b) participation is with the expectation of benefit; c) fall in projects with individual
beneficiaries; d) political domination in grama sabha; e) lack of information
regarding grama sabha and inconvcnient timing; f) absence of the initiative of the
ward member in mobilising the people. But, there are divergent views as regards
the relative importance of the reasons among the panchayat members, officers and
activists.
Notes
' This is a secret that almost everybody knows. Manipulation of grama sabha records has become quite widespread. This general observation is hue in the case of most panchayats selected for our study as well. The focus group discussions also confirmed this proposition.
2 The participation of scheduled tribes is not available 'om the minutes books; hence the study does not consider their participation. The total number of ST population in sample panchayats was only 381 (1991Census). Of this 315 was in Matlathur panchayat.
The officers of the village panchayat shall attend the meeting of the grama sabha as may be required by the president (section3A KPA 1994). But the participation of the officers is very poor.
The regression analysis was constrained by some important data limitations. For instance, we do not have data on apparently important independent variables at the ward level. But there is considerable variability in participation across wards. The limitation of the analysis points towards the need to have more systematic efforts to unravel the underlying relationships.
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