ph.d. thesis 15.1.15
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XI
CHAPTER I
1
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1. Introduction
1.2. Study Region
1.3. Aims and Objectives of the Research
1.4. Review of Literature
1.5. Methodology
1.6. Hypothesis
1.7. Importance of the Study
1.8. Design of Research Work
1.9. Limitation of Study
2
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1. Introduction
Sex ratio is an important social indicator to measure the extent of the
prevailingequity between males and females in a society at a given point of time.
Changes insex ratio largely reflect the underlying socio-economic and cultural
patternsof a society in different ways. Determinants of change in sex ratio vary
from sexdifferentials in mortality, sex selective migration, sex ratio at birth,
and sex differentials in population enumeration. India is one of the few
countries inthe world where males outnumber females. However, the high
incidence of induced abortions and sharp decline in the child sex ratio in the last
decade clearly proves the practice of female foeticide. According to the 2011
Census, the sex ratio in India is 940 females per 1000males. Although there is a
marginal improvement from the 1991 Census, where it was 927, it continues to be
significantly adverse towards women. India’s sex ratio of 940 is the lowest
amongst the most population countries in the world, namely China (944),
Bangladesh (953), Indonesia (1004), Nigeria (1016), Japan (1041), Brazil (1025),
USA (1029) and Russia (1140). Of these 8 countries, 6 have a sex ratio above
unity, meaning a population of 1000 females per 1000 males.
The sex ratio in India over the past 100 years has shown an alarming
decline. Maharashtra is one of the most progressive states in India in health,
literacy, urbanization and socio-culture and economic development. But there is
also declining trend of sex ratio. It has recorded a decline sex ratio by 49 from
1901 to 2011. It is predominantly because of the strongest male child preference
among the society and prenatal sex determination test.
Child Sex Ratio is a sensitive indicator that shows the status of women. The
sex ratio among children was 927: 1000 in 2001 census and is continuously
declining. Female foetuses are selectively aborted after illegal pre-natal sex
determination. Poverty and lack of education are often cited as reasons for this
3
discrimination in Maharashtra. However the data shows different aspect.
Discrimination against women seems more prevalent in educated and affluent
sections of the society. For example, Akole is the tribal area in Maharashtra where
the ratio of the girl's child is 940 to 1000. In Shrigonda, a well irrigated,
educationally sound and economically rich district child sex ratio is rapidly
declining below 800. Social discrimination against women, already entrenched in
Indian society, has been spurred on by technological developments that today
allow mobile sex selection clinics to drive into almost any village.
Child Sex Ratio is far more skewed in the Maharashtra. Bid, Jalgaon,
Ahmednagar, Buldhana and Kolhapur, these districts have recorded a more than
50 points decline in the child sex ratio in 20 years. As per the latest government
data CSR in Bid stood at a mere 801 females per 1000 males. In Ahmednagar
district of Maharashtra, which is progressing in education, economic and social
conditions, only 839 girl children are born against 1000 boys. Amidst uproars of
gender equality, female infants are still found dumped in trash, by the dozens each
day across the State.
One of the significant contributors to the adverse child sex ratio in India is
the practice of elimination of female foetus. In the context of fertility transition,
sex composition of the children in the family also depend on the perceived desire
for ideal number of children particularly the males due to strong son preference by
the society. The prevalence of patriarchy especially, in many district of
Maharashtra and huge dowry demand has negative influence on the desire for
daughters that leads to termination of female foetus and thus unfavorable sex ratio
for female. Empirical evidences indicated that the phenomenon of sex
determination and sex selective abortion is now concentrating not only in towns
and cities but also approaching in rural areas with the availability of better road
and transport facilities (Babita Sinha 2005)16.
4
A change in sex ratio largely reflects decline in 0 – 6 age group, sex ratio
has been a serious assuming that technically depends on determinant test. The sex
ratio at birth is slightly favorable to boys. This means that more boys are born
compared to girls. This is a natural phenomenon. The sex composition of
population is the basic demographic characteristics depending on directly
incidence of birth, death and marriages. Sex ratio is one of the important indexes
to comprehend women’s health and position in any society. Ahmednagar district
has fewer females, this ratio is in favor of men and proportion of women has
continuously been declining. Sex ratio is one of the significant demographic
development indexes, which can determine the status of women in a region. The
sex ratio consists of three factors viz; sex ratio at birth, differential in mortality of
two sexes and sex selectivity among migrants. It contrasts and plays role by two
sexes in economy and society, it is related with man power, ethnicity, standard of
living, social systems, religion, national income, education and housing etc. Many
socio-economic relationships are intimately related to the balance or disparity in
between them. The declining child sex ratio since 1991 as thousands of girls
children are killed before or at birth. Ahmednagar census handbook indicates
variation in female's population because of sex ratio and female mortality.
Ahmednagar district is in the third bottom of child sex 839, first is Bid district
801, and second is Jalgaon district 829.The Paper clearly shows a continuous
decline in sex ratio in considered age group of particularly in age group 0 – 6 of
Maharashtra and Ahmednagar district level at the last four Censuses. According to
census 2011, 154521 female are missing compared to male population, which
were 882 females per thousand males. In Ahmednagar district sex ratio is sharply
declining since 1991 it is continued up to 2011. This information is based on
primary and secondary data collected from census handbook, reports and other
documents.
A traditional nickname for a woman within her family is paraya dhan,
which means “somebody else’s property”. Understanding the rationale behind sex
5
selection is no doubt deciphering the dynamics of sex ratio. In India Parents may
wish for a male child because in many cultures only a male will carry on the
family name. The practice of female deselecting in India could be attributed to
socio-economic reasons. Ahmednagar district has an alarming gender imbalance
and population experts have revealed that female foeticide is being practiced at
alarmingly big numbers although selectiveabortions have been banned in the
district. The deficits of females were found in prosperous urban and prospering
rural areas applying that this phenomenon is being practiced by educated and
prosperous families. The top three reasons cited for abortion of a female foetus
includes “a male dominated society” 23 Percent , “social stigma attached to have a
daughter” 19Percent, and “difficult to afford a dowry” 17Percent.
In this chapter the location of the study area is given. The study area is
selected due to sharp declining sex ratio. In this chapter aims and objectives of the
study area are presented. In this chapter 41 scholars reviews are taken in to
consideration under different headings such as Status of Women, Legal
Awareness, Women’s Autonomy, Household Decision Making, Freedom of
Movement, Women and personal Choices, Perceptions on Domestic Violence,
Declining sex Ratio, Reasons for Wanting a Son, Reasons for not wanting
daughter, Birth Order of Girl child , Only one female child, Birth Registration,
Female Foeticide and Religion, The Social and Financial Aspects of Female
foeticide and Female Infanticide, Reasons for female foeticide, Incidence of
Abortions, Repercussions of female foeticide, Abortion, Reasons for Abortions,
Timing of Abortions, Facilities for sex determination tests, Opinion of sex
determination tests, Awareness about Methods of sex Determination, Decision
Making Regarding Sex Determination test, Child care practices, Socio-cultural
factors contributing to the Declining Sex Ratio, Pregnancy and contraceptive use,
Celebrations on the arrival of a baby and etc. For the research both quantitative
and qualitative methods have been applied. Questionnaires are used to collect
primary data. Personal interviewing, field visit have been conducted, Gazettes,
6
census handbooks, data from different government agencies are used as secondary
data.
SPSS-17 and the statistical tools and tests such as frequency, percentage
correlation and multiple regression analysis are used wherever found appropriate
and the data is analyzed systematically to draw valid inferences some of the data
are subjected to correlation and multiple regression analysis interpreted in terms of
frequencies and percentage. Software Erdas 9.2 and Arc GIS 9.3 have been used in
order to prepare various map of the study region.
Sex ratio of Ahmednagar district is declined. It is decreased by 110 points.
The study shows that, the life expectancy of total population, as well as male and
female life expectancy was lower in Ahmednagar. The socio-economic
development indicators given clearly shows that the progress in socio-economic
development in Ahmednagar district. Male and female Sex-ratio of population in a
region, i.e., the ratio of females to males in that region is a significant variable.
Generally, in a given region, the numbers of females per 1000 males are not equal.
1.2. Study Region
Ahmednagar district is located in the central west of Maharashtra (Map
No.2.1). The Geographical location of the district is between 180 2’ to 190 9’ N
latitude and from 730 9’ to 750 5’ E longitude with the total geographical area
(TGA) of 17,021 Sq. km. Ahmednagar is the largest district in the state. The
total numbers of the tahasils in the district are 14. According to the 2001
census the total population of the district is 4,088077 and in this population
male population is 2,106,501 and female population is 1,981576 this figure
shows decline in sex ratio of (females/ 1000 males) 941. It has recorded a
decline in child sex ratio by 110 points between 1991 to 2011.
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1.3. Aims And Objectives of The Research
The major objectives of the study are as follows,
1. To understand the trend in declining sex ratio of last 50 years (1971-2011) in
Ahmednagar district.
2. To identify and to investigate the effects of declining sex ratio in the socio-
cultural, economic conditions of Ahmednagar district.
3. To conduct a situational analysis of services available for abortion in the study
area.
4. To assess the various demographic, socio-cultural, economic and other factors
contributing to the declining sex ratio.
5. To identify strategies and to suggest different measures to control the
declining sex ratio and their impact on the adverse sex ratio.
6. To determine sex ratio of age group and to identify strategies and suggest
different measures to control the declining sex ratio.
7. Identify sex ratio of educated and uneducated people from urban rural area.
1.4. Review of Literature
The declining sex ratio in India is detrimental to society and country.
Poverty, customs, traditions and patriarchal set up of society is responsible for
declining sex ratio. In India, girls are not treated with care. There is discrimination
in nurturing girls and boys Parents do not worry about the girl's health so they
suffer from infections and diseases.
An attempt has been made to focus socio cultural demographic and other
factors related to these problems.
Status of Women – the status of women in India from ancient period to up to
present has witnessed many ups and down. In Vedic period (1500-1000 BC)
women were given status of goddess. In Muslim age 1026-1756 (AD) status of
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women was decreased. During British rule women were considered as slaves. In
present era women are getting education they are independent and are working in
different fields but ordinary women’s status is secondary one.
Legal Awareness –Nayar, U. (1995)113Awareness about different laws under
which violence against women and their harassment is very low among the
women. Govt. of India (2002)67found awareness about laws to be higher among
females. The level of awareness rose with increase in income level. Women who
have higher income are more aware of laws.
Women’s Autonomy - It make significant impact on the demographic and
health seeking behavior National family Health Survey 3, 2005-06 reported that 41
Percent of Women make their decision about utilization of earned money 30
Percent women reported decision is being taken by their male relatives. In urban
area women’s decision making proportion was 57 Percent while in rural it was 37
Percent as per recent survey of NFT employed women to make their decisions
about the use of cash. Its proportion is individual 24 Percent jointly with husband
57 Percent and husbands alone 15 Percent are other 3 Percent
Household Decision Making – As per NFHS 3 (2005-06)78 27 Percent of
married women make decisions about their own health. 9 Percent of women make
decision of household purchases. IIPS, (2007)78joint decision making is most
common for visits to the respondent's family or relatives followed by decision
about major household purchases.
Freedom of Movement – NFHS3 (2005-06)78 found that 33 Percent of
women were allowed to go out alone in market, hospital or places outside the
village.
Women and personal Choices – many women's are not allowed determining
the nature contraceptives. As per the report of NFHS3 (2005-06)78 decision about
how many children to have the majority of men (89 Percent) say that such decision
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should be made jointly. 2 Percent were of the opinion that the wife should be sole
decision maker.
Perceptions on Domestic Violence – as per the findings of NFHS378 women
justifies a husband's beating them for showing disrespect 41 Percent for neglecting
house or children (35 Percent) women disagreed beating for refusing sex (14
Percent) for not cooking food properly (20 Percent)
Declining sex Ratio – as per study conducted by Varghese (2005)146 in Delhi
during 2000-01. The sex ratio of hospitalized deliveries indicate that if the first
birth was of male the female to male sex ratio of the second birth was 959. If the
first birth is female, the sex ratio of the second birth is 542. Women who had
delivered two daughters the sex ratio of the third was 219.
Govt. of India (2002)67 on 530 responders, It revealed that there are an
average 115 male births to 100 female's birth. Sudha and Rajan (1999)136 founds
that there was increase in male sex ratio and worsening of female foeticide. Ghosh
Goel and Balda (2005)62 conducted study in Allahabad district on 100 couples out
of these 64Percent males and 74Percent as females had knowledge of sex ratio.
Factors Influencing Low sex ratio – Female foeticide, maternal death, dowry
death etc are main reasons for the decline in sex ratio. Poverty, strong preference
for son, secondary status of women is some of the factors that influence sex ratio.
Reasons for Wanting a Son – The middle income group has strong son
preference. The reasons are family name, heir to property providers and care taker
in old age for the parents etc are some reasons for wanting son.
Anandalakshmy (1994)7 conducted study on 100 girls between 7-18 age
group Majority of the mothers (64Percent) mentioned that they did not expect any
sex preference to the other. Half of them expect a boy. Only 2Percent expected
girl.
10
A reason for not wanting daughter – prenatal test is exercised to avoid
future problems related to girl such as dowry match making, or proper health and
education. Some parents feel that the girl is useless as far as their old age is
concerned. In a study conducted by Srivastava Dasgupta and Rai (2005)132, It is
found that reasons for not wanting girls are bringing up girls, arrangement of
dowry, their safety etc.
Fertility Behavior and family Composition – son preference affects fertility
behavior in India. As per the report of Nirbhawne (1996)107 about sex preference
and reproductive behavior among 2000 couples in Mumbai found that educated
women whose first born was not a male terminated the second pregnancy. It
means a woman want at least one son.
As per the study of LalDeepak (2006)97 in rural community development
block in Haryana found that 97Percent of sterilization was adopted by females.
99.36Percent cases of termination were adopted after giving birth to a son.
27Percent of women accepted sterilization after bearing two or three sons to avoid
girl issues.
Birth Order of Girl child – Anandalakshmy conducted a study in 1994 on
100 girls between age group of 7-18. 65 Percent of the girls were first born, 20.4
Percent were second born. The percentage of the third and fourth born were 8 and
3.3 percent Family Size and composition – as per study of Anandalakshny (1994)7
more families have two sons (38.5 Percent) than two daughters 32 Percent. In
report presented by Srivastava, Dasgupta and Rai, (2005)135. It is found that 5
Percent family desired one child and 68.5 Percent families wanted two, 13.5
Percent families desired three children. 3.5 Percent desired for larger families. In
study by Nayar, U. (1995) 113 found that many male and female desire at least one
son.
In Walia study (2005)150 men felt that a family should have only one female
child -In Anand (1998)6 conducted a study in Haryana, Delhi, Rajasthan and
11
Punjab to study attitude of people. He studied 877 people majority of respondents
from above states had more than two children. Half of the respondents had only
one son in the family nearly one fourth had no son. It is also noticed that
percentage of more than two sons is very low excluding Haryana.
Birth Registration – Families with higher income group's respondent have
registered births and deaths of family members. It was 94 Percent in middle
income families and only 25 Percent in the lower income group. Perception about
female foeticide and Infanticide many respondents viewed that female foeticide
was good to control female population. Not only had this but they demanded
easier facilities for sex detection. A few people demanded legal actions against
female foeticide. 25 Percent of the respondents expressed their protest against
foeticide and sex detection tests. Parents who had more than two daughters
expresses positive attitude towards female foeticide and female infanticide. Anand
(1998)6.In study of Walia (2005)150 in Ludhiana, Bathinda and Ferozpur of Punjab,
on 240 respondents. Majority of participant had given their approval to such
practices.
Anand (1998)6 gave some reasons for female foeticide they are traditions, son
preference, responsibility after marriage feelings of insecurity, problems of dowry
and match making.
Female Foeticide and Religion – Anand (1998)6 reported that 72 Percent of
respondents expressed negative attitude towards female infant foeticide. It is much
higher to female foeticide. It means religions motivations could influence female
infanticide, as far as female foeticide, family planning decisions are motivating
factors. In many states of India there is existence of patriarchal family system. It
results in strong preference for sons. Religion, tradition and customs have pushed
female at secondary positions. Religious and traditional value system justifies
female foeticide.
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The Social and Financial Aspects of Female foeticide and Female
Infanticide-Social factors make greater impact on people's attitude to female
foeticide and female infanticide. Some people held negative attitude towards
daughters.
Reasons for female foeticide – the most important and major factor to
practice female foeticide is dowry system. Many parents also feel that daughters
are unable to look after parents in their old age.
Incidence of Abortions –Cases of abortions were much higher in the upper
and middle income groups. Govt. of India (2002)67
Repercussions of female foeticide – Female foeticide raises the problems like
non-availability of bride sexual violence against women, lack of women
workforce etc. Strategies to prevent female foeticide –The following could be
effective strategies (Anand, 1998)7
1) Higher education for girl.
2) Implementation of laws.
3) Ban on prenatal text.
4) Public awareness.
5) Economic empowerment of women
6) To change ill traditions and norms.
Abortion -Many couples use sonography, ultrasound and imaging techniques
to determine the sex of foetus. In-vitro fertilization clinic for assisted reproduction
are approached by infertile couples to product son. So the decline in the juvenile
sex ratio and 60 lakh missing girls in the 0 to 6 age group.
Reasons for Abortions –Empirical analyses Retherford and Roy, (2003)125
also indicated that in India sex selective abortion is higher among urban women,
middle and higher educated women and women living in households with high
standard of living. They attributed this phenomenon to more awareness and access
13
to sex determination and abortion services, birth planning and greater use of
contraception. This phenomenon found strong in North, West and East groups of
States than in South group of states. In fact, the mentality of sex selective abortion
is diffusing from higher socio-economic status group to lower socio-economic
status and if the stringent measures are not taken up it will diffuse in most part of
India leading to further imbalance in sex-ratio and thus lead to long term impact
on demographic imbalance. (Bhargave, Hiremath.)19
Ravindran (2000) 123he found the presented report on 79 studies following
three reasons.
1) To avoid an additional birth.
2) To ensure birth interval.
3) To parent birth of female child
Almost 62 Percent of women had undergone abortions for not wanting
another child.
Timing of Abortions-In a study conducted by Nayar in (1995)113 in some
villages of Punjab and Haryana found very low female sex ratio in childhood. A
parent who wants to control birth abortby 8 weeks, but those who want to find out
sex of foetus wait up to 16.6 weeks.
Facilities for sex determination tests –As per study of Prasad (2001)119 found
that 80 Percent of the diagnostic centers conducted sex determination tests.
Doctors reported that they are pressurized from clients to conduct sex
determination tests. One of the significant contributors to the adverse child sex
ratio in India is the practice of elimination of female foetus. In the context of
fertility transition, sex composition of the children in the family also depend on the
perceived desire for ideal number of children particularly the males due to strong
son preference by the society. The prevalence of patriarchy especially, in many
district of Maharashtra and huge dowry demand has negative influence on the
14
desire for daughters that leads to termination of female foetus and thus
unfavorable sex ratio for female. Empirical evidences indicated that the
phenomenon of sex determination and sex selective abortion is now concentrating
not only in towns and cities but also approaching in rural areas with the
availability of better road and transport facilities (Sinha, Mari, Bhat and Gulati
2005)131. The development of science and technologies made available prenatal
diagnostic technology such as ultrasound imaging foetoscopy, alpha-fetoprotein
measurement and chronic villa sampling or biopsy for detecting the sex of the
foetus and termination of female foetus.
Opinion of sex determination tests – Some doctors expressed that it is parents
right to choose the sex of their child. Few doctors supported sex determination
tests. Source of Information about sex selection text – People get information from
friends media, dais, private practitioners, advertisements, billboards and hoardings
about abortion. Govt. of India (2002) 67 andNayar, U. (1995)113.found that some
doctors referred to other clinics. Relatives, friends or neighbors are some of the
sources of information about abortions (Prasad 2001)119
Awareness about Methods of sex Determination – As per study of Nayar, U.
(1995)113.The people from both Punjab and Haryana were aware of ultra
sonography technique of sex determination. They were unaware of any other the
techniques - Ultrasound facilities were made available to detect the sex of the
unborn child to control family size.
Decision Making Regarding Sex Determination text –Prasad (2001)119 found
that mothers are not forced to undergo sex determination test they too want to give
birth to child 83.5 percent responded decision should be taken by parents.
Child care practices – Causes of Infant and child deaths – In Nayar study
(1995)113 on declining sex ratio of Punjab and Haryana found that of the total
infant and child deaths reported by families in the age group of 0-5 years, two
thirds in Punjab and 73 Percent in Haryana were girls. In many families medical
15
attention was given to boys, while girls were provided with home remedies. Girls
were breathers for shorter period (Nayar 1995)113
Socio-cultural factors contributing to the Declining Sex Ratio-Dowry –It may
be given in form of money, jewellery, or goods. It is evil social system prevalent
in society. Many respondents agreed that “better to spend Rs. 1000 to save 10
Lakhs later.” Girls are to be married with dowry on the contrary boys bring dowry
so many families prefer boys. (Walia 2005)150, Dowry and female foeticide –
Dowry system has created many problems. In India an average five women a day
are burnt for dowry. Only legal action will not overcome dowry problems. It is
essential to end dowry system to save female.
Pregnancy and contraceptive use – In lower income group the incidence of
pregnancies were 55 Percent in teenage group, 23 Percent in middle income group
and 1.13 Percent in higher income groups.(Govt. of India 2002)67
Celebrations on the arrival of a baby – 17 Percent families organize special
celebration on the birth of male child. Only 2 Percent families celebrate the birth
of female child. (Anandalakshmy, 1994)7 the report by Srivastva, Dasgupt and Rai
(2005)135 found that 86 Percent celebrated the birth of a child 14 Percent total that
they did not have enough money to celebrate. Only 3 Percent welcome girls. 77
Percent welcomed birth of the baby without considering its sex. In report by Govt.
of India (2002)67found that the birth of son was celebrated by doing religious rites
(67 Percent) distribution of sweets (82 Percent) and only 11 Percent didn’t
celebrated birth of male child. Religious rituals like, feasting, Dancing, Singing,
that Bajanam Jagarata, Pujas, and distribution of money is done. The births of
girls are celebrated by religious rites (18 Percent) distribution of sweets (42
Percent). 42 Percent reported they had no celebration on the birth of girls. (Govt.
of India (2002)67
Arnold, Choe , Minija and Roy (1998)10, using NFHs-I and II data, indirectly
estimated more than 100,000 sex selective abortion annually that are followed by
16
ultrasound or amniocentesis in India. For curbing the menace of female foeticide,
the government foeticide, the government of India brought into force the pre-natal
Diagnostic Techniques (Regulation and Prevention of Misuse) Act on 20th
September 1994. The act comes into force with effect from 1.1.1996) Though,
Government of India has undertaken various steps to prevent the practices of
female infanticide and foeticide.
Dasgupta, (1987)48, Dasgupta and Bhat, (1997)49, Hatti (2004)74. In some of
the Indian states crimes against women are very common. Women more often
become victims of high degree of eve-teasing, rape, acid burn, gang-rape,
domestic violence and dowry related killings. The more appalling is that it takes
the pristine of victim’s family on stake. This also discourages parents to have a
daughter. There are certain religious and cultural reasons due to which son is
preferred. According to Hindu mythology, a son can only perform the rituals of
funeral of his parents. Doing so, it is believed that they acquire Moksha (relieve
from the pain of reincarnation. The practice of arrange marriage is almost
universal in Maharashtra. These marriages are finalized by the parents and elder
family members after matching appropriately on parameters, such as, caste,
region, age, education, family status and structure, history of the character of
prospective bride. The list also adds to the colour and complexion of prospective
bride and groom, their physical appearances (weight and height) and horoscopes.
This dramatically shrinks the probability of making an appropriate match,
specially, for less prospective brides. As a result, matched grooms have high price
that parents have to pay in terms of dowry in the name of gifts. The dowry is not
the end, but continuing unidirectional flow of resources from woman’s parental
household to her in-laws drain her parents and siblings by resources. This is again
seen as sacred practice in Indian society.
In general, girl’s family compromises on many of the above parameters
because parents want to perform a sacred duty of kanayadaan (‘kanaya’ means
17
girl and ‘daan’ means donation) as soon as possible. Another reason is that a
daughter by birth is treated as a member of other’s family. That is why many
families do not invest in their education and development, as its dividend will be
enjoyed by husband’s side family, Sheth (2006)132. These aspects force to parents
to eliminate the female foetus as it is much cheaper compared to the price they
have to pay in long run. Such practices are continued even after implementing the
pre-Natal Diagnostic Test (PNDT) Act, 1996 by the government. Under the act,
the use of medical techniques such as amniocentesis and ultrasound to detecting
the sex of foetus is prohibited. The medical personnel violating it can be
imprisoned up to five years and fined up to Rs.50,000/-. The offence under PNDT
Act is a cognizable, non-bail able and non-compoundable. Chander Shekhar and
Faujdar Ram (2003)38
Literature shows that there are even other factors affecting child sex ratio. It
is reported as a biological phenomenon that when the birth intervals are short;
there is a high probability of having a male baby, James W.H (1996) 86
It is a natural phenomenon that around 105 male babies are born for every
100 female babies without any human intervention a trend which is seen all over
the world dating back to 16th century with clear historical records. This would
translate to a child Sex Ratio of 952 female babies to 1000 male babies. A study
conducted in 24 countries during the period 1962 and 1980 showed a natural child
sex ratio of 934 to 952 female babies for every 1000 male babies as normal.
Chahnazarian A. (1988)36
Bhat, (2002)22, Bose, (2002)27, Dasgupta, (2005)51,Ganatra, (2001)58, George
(1997)61, Goodkind, (1999)64, and Mallik, (2003)101. The available literature in this
context suggests that a combination of factors namely; the urge to have a son,
acceptance of the small family norm as a result of the fertility transition, access to
pre-natal sex determination tests and abortion has worsened the situation relating
to the girl child. Studies show that more female babies are naturally lost through
18
miscarriages more trained birth attendance and Institutional delivery is available to
woman. There could be mined in erase in number male babies born as compared
to female babies.
Bhat P.N.(1995)21, Dyson (2001)53,Lal, (2006)97 the prevailing socio-
economic and cultural milieu including the impact of modernization has further
aggravated the situation with regard to these factors. At the household level or
micro level, the relationship of population to available resources, the nature of
localized risk, and headship strategies have been the main considerations. The
concept of the new household economy is widely emerging, which characterizes
fewer children; a small family of which one must be a boy
Arnold (1998)11, Bhat, (2002)22, Bora and Tyagi, (2007)25, Dyson (2001)55
The usually known explanations like sex differentials in mortality, under-
enumeration, sex selective migration, biologically determined sex ratio at birth
that would have caused imbalances in the sex ratios, have not been supported by
the expert findings. The deficit due to these has been negligible.
Robert, Retherford and Roy’s (2003)125 findings also reveal that if a son is
already present in the family the sex ratio has a tendency to become balanced. To
fulfill the desire of a son pre-birth interventions are being practiced, resulting in
reduced female births. The literature relates son preference to a variety of social
and economic factors in the northeastern states, which interact to make females
less valuable to their families. People are pressurized to bear sons while limiting
the number of daughters in order to conserve scarce household resources.
Coale, (1991)42,Dasgupta, (2005)51, Hsu (1948)77, Miller, (1981)105, Sen
(1990)130. A son is still the man who will carry on the family name and take care
of old parents. With such prejudices, the couples are forced to use sex selective
technology; there is a great deal of social demand for a son.
19
Bora (2013)26 , Impact of population policies on Child Sex Ratio.Up to the
recent past, our family planning programmer gave undue importance to accept the
small family norm. Media, especially radio, television and posters, convinced
people about government programmes and also to make use of advanced
technology so that choices in family size can be ensured. Worldwide acceptance of
the small family norm had an influence on our government. This made an impact
on the incidence of feoticide, a strong son preference and a targeted approach
together are dominant in the Bid, Jalana, Ahmednagar and Kolhapur districts.
Population stabilization for Maharashtra means having two sons per family. The
NFH127 data reveals that almost half (47percent) of ever married women in India
consider two to be the ideal number of children and 72 percent consider two or
three to be ideal. This shows that there is a widespread acceptance of a small
family norm with a strong son preference.
The missing Issues-There has been a great deal of hue and cry over the
declining child sex ratio, but the actual issues are grossly missing with the missing
girls, no one seems to be serious about recognizing issues of the increasing deficit
of female children. What are the actual reasons for trends indicating a declining
child sex ratio? Why do couples choose a child of a particular sex over that of the
other sex? The simple answer is that in our society, the socio-economic and
cultural fundamentals have been always against our female population. Now the
time has come that the state needs to facilitate a change in fundamentals, directing
programmers in the spirit that the woman brings human life up so we all should
bring her up. Actually too much legislations and Acts are not needed, what is
needed is to change social behaviors. Shifting behavior is a lot tougher than
passing Laws. As the list of various Laws and Acts are increasing, the evidences
of inequalities and vulnerabilities of women are on the rise. Bora (2013) 26
Increase in Daughters’ value to Her Parents - It seems that if the large
majority of the women get paid employment, as paid employment is valued much
20
more, even then son preference will hardly get reduced. The reason is that
women’s contribution to their parent’s family is negligible; therefore investing in
daughters will continue to be perceived as investing in another family’s daughter
in-law. Dasgupta (2003)50. In view of the increasing paid employment
opportunities for women, the respective governments as well as community should
make sincere efforts to make it acceptable the women too contribute to the well-
being of their parents. To reduce son preference, it is essential to have policies that
raise the value of girls to their parents relative to boys.
As long as daughters continue to be a totally absorbed in their husband’s
home and cannot contribute to their parent’s economy and welfare, son preference
will continue to persist even though adult women are integrated into education and
formal occupations. At the policy level there emphasis has been laid on gender
equality, but nothing has been done to alter the fundamentals of the family system
in order to make daughters and sons equally valuable to their parents
1.5. Methodology
Both quantitative and qualitative research method have been used in study.
Since the overall objectives of the present study is to evaluate the availability of
primary and secondary data of the study area and then to consider the optimum
utilization. The research methodology has been formulated to serve this main
objective.
The principal objective of the present study is to understand the trend in
declining sex ratio in the Ahmednagar district. The study is based on primary and
secondary data. Primary data is collected by questionnaires and personal
interviews and field visit.
The secondary data is taken from the gazetteers of Ahmednagar district,
Handbooks, census, and data from other institutions. Both qualitative and
quantitative techniques are used to analyze the data collected and generated.
21
Standard quantitative methodologies like qualitative method of interview and
group discussion and respondents interview are used.
Quantitative data has been collected from a sample of questionnaires for
social and economical survey each drawn from rural area of fourteen tahasil
namely Akole, Sangamner, Kopargaon, Shrirampur, Rahata, Shrigonda, Nagar,
Rahuri, Newasa, Shevgaon , Pathardi, Parner, Karjat and Jamkhed. The type of
respondents covered under this study includes students, Social workers, Teachers,
Journalists, Doctors, Advocates, Police, and Others. Data is classified and
tabulated as per requirement of study. Some fieldwork and quantitative analysis,
statistical analysis, Cartographic representation generated or collected. e.g. maps,
Graphs, and computer software Excel tabulation, SPSS, Erdas 9.2 and Arc GIS 9.3
programmed etc.
1.6. Hypothesis
1. Sex determination tests are responsible for decline in the sex ratio of
Ahmednagar District from 1971 to 2011.
2. Due to decline in the sex ratio of females socio-economic problems are
increasing.
3. As population increases sex ratio inversely decreases in Ahmednagar
district.
1.7. Importance of The Study
The female population has been declining sharply in India. Maharashtra is
also facing this problem. Bid, Jalgaon and Ahmednagar these are three districts
having less number females compare to the males. Ahmednagar has 839 females
to 1000 males This imbalance of sex ratio is going to create a lot of problems such
as social, political and economical. It will also increase crimes against female.
The study region has been selected for present study due to rapidly
declining sex ratio. Ahmednagar census handbook indicates variation in female's
population because of sex ratio and female mortality. The declining child sex ratio
22
since 1991 thousand of girls are killed before or at birth. Ahmednagar district is in
the third bottom of child sex 839, first is Bid district 801, and second is Jalgaon
district 829. The Paper clearly shows a continuous decline in sex ratio in
considered age group particularly in age group 0 – 6 of Maharashtra and
Ahmednagar district of the last four Censuses. According to census 2011 there are
154521 female are missing compared to male population, which was 88283 female
per thousand male. In Ahmednagar district sex ratio is sharply declining since
1991 it continued up to 2011.
In order to understand causes of imbalance in population in different
tahasils of the Ahmednagar district, its consequences, portion of female in the
district, it is important to undertake study of the Ahmednagar district. Besides this
Ahmednagar is the largest district in Maharashtra. The study of this district may
reflect the state of sex ratio of Maharashtra. The less number of female is national
problem. So it is essential to study this problem at the district level.
1.8. Design of Research Work
Chapter I- In this chapter the location of the study area is given. The study
area is selected due to sharp declining sex ratio. In this chapter aims and objectives
of the study area are presented. In this chapter 41 scholars reviews are taken in to
consideration under different headings such as Status of Women, Legal
Awareness, Women’s Autonomy, Household Decision Making, Freedom of
Movement, Women and personal Choices, Perceptions on Domestic Violence,
Declining sex Ratio, Reasons for Wanting a Son, Reasons for not wanting
daughter, Birth Order of Girl child , Only one female child, Birth Registration,
Female Foeticide and Religion, The Social and Financial Aspects of Female
foeticide and Female Infanticide, Reasons for female foeticide, Incidence of
Abortions, Repercussions of female foeticide, Abortion, Reasons for Abortions,
Timing of Abortions, Facilities for sex determination tests, Opinion of sex
determination tests, Awareness about Methods of sex Determination, Decision
23
Making Regarding Sex Determination test, Child care practices, Socio-cultural
factors contributing to the Declining Sex Ratio, Pregnancy and contraceptive use,
Celebrations on the arrival of a baby and etc. For the research both quantitative
and qualitative method has been applied. Questionnaires are used to collect
primary data. Personal interviewing, field visit has been conducted Gazettes,
census handbooks, data from different government agencies are used as secondary
data.
In the present report three hypotheses has been given i.e.
1. Sex determination tests are responsible for decline in the sex ratio of
Ahmednagar District from 1971 to 2011.
2. Due to declining the sex ratio of females socio-economic problems are
increasing.
3. As population increasing sex ratio inversely decreasing in Ahmednagar
district.
Chapter II. - The brief history of Ahmednagar has been presented from its
foundation i.e. 1490 to 1960. It is hilly and central plateau region. To its north and
south have plain regions. It consists of fourteen tahsil. Godavari and Bhima River
of the district, tributary are Mula, Adula, Sina, Pravara and etc. The research
reports above include information about natural soil .Agriculture of the district
largely depend on rain. The type of irrigation has been focused in the research.
The Ahmednagar district has hot summer and dryness, southwest monsoon give
rain to the district. Declining sex ratio has become national problem. In the present
research an attempt has been made to study impact of imbalance of population on
society's economic condition and domestic life. In this study report the scenario of
world population, Indian population, the population of Maharashtra has been
presented. The focus of the study is imbalance of population and its consequence
in Ahmednagar district. The sex ratio of the female has been declining rapidly in
the Ahmednagar district.
24
Chapter III - In the present chapter the growth of the population of Maharashtra
and Ahmednagr district has been presented from 1951 to 2011. It also includes
decadal growth in population.This chapter the study deals with population
distribution and sex ratio .In this chapter an attempt has been made to present the
status of women in different ages.
It is present from Early Vedic period to twentieth century. This helped to
understand status of women both economically and socially.Chapter also includes
the female socio-economic, educational and health status in India. In this chapter
the ratio of population growth of India, Maharashtra and Ahmednagar district has
been presented in detail. It highlights SC, ST, and rural -urban population of study
area.
Chapter IV -Chapter is related to composition of sex ratio of India, Maharashtra
and Ahmednagar from 1971 to 2011. In this chapter spacial distribution of sex
ratio in Maharashtra top ten and bottom ten district as per general sex ratio, district
wise sex ratio of Maharashtra from 1991 to 2011 and their changes in same period,
0 to 6 age group ratio have been presented in detail. In this an attempt chapter has
been made to present child sex ratio of Maharashtra in terms of bottom ten and top
ten districts from 1991 to 2011.
District wise child sex ratio has been presented of rural and urban area of
the age group of 0 to 6. The sex ratio of the study area is given from 1951 to 2011.
Tahasil wise sex ratio of the Ahmednagar district is presented in terms of SC, ST
population. The child sex ratio is also presented from 1991 to 2011. In the present
chapter education, employment, change in literacy rate, occupational structure of
rural and urban area, proportion of crime etc are given in detail. Area of female
foeticide from study area is highlighted.
In the present chapter reason responsible for decline of female population
are presented. Chapter also touches legal aspects related with crimes, for these
newspapers are used as a source.
25
Chapter V. -Chapter is the final chapter of the thesis. Chapter includes summary
conclusion, suggestions, photographs and newspaper article. In this chapter an
attempt has been made to provide different measures and suggestions to stop
female foeticide. It includes questionnaires and appendixes.
1.9. Limitation of Study
The census data of child sex ratio from 1971 to 1991 is not available. Data
of crimes against women is not provided by some police stations. Information of
women who are admitted in hospitals for delivery and who actually delivered child
in hospital are not matching. This study is focused on changing sex ratio in
Ahmednagar district. Lack of proper data in present study age composition was
not available at tahasil wise for purpose of comparison. Rahata tahasili is formed
in 2001. The data of new tahasil was not readily available for study. The present
study has shown these changes in maps. Some maps contain thirteen and some
map contain is fourteen tahasil for study region.
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