psilocybe semilanceata

Psilocybesemilanceata

Scientificclassification

Kingdom: Fungi

Phylum: Basidiomycota

Class: Agaricomycetes

Order: Agaricales

Family: Hymenogastraceae

Genus: Psilocybe

Species: P.semilanceata

Binomialname

Psilocybesemilanceata(Fr.)P.Kumm.(1871)

Synonyms[1][2]

PsilocybesemilanceataFromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Psilocybesemilanceata,commonlyknownasthelibertycap,isapsychedelic(or"magic")mushroomthatcontainsthepsychoactivecompoundspsilocybinandbaeocystin.Oftheworld'spsilocybinmushrooms,itisthemostcommoninnature,andoneofthemostpotent.Themushroomshaveadistinctiveconicaltobellshapedcap,upto2.5cm(1.0in)indiameter,withasmallnipplelikeprotrusiononthetop.Theyareyellowtobrown,coveredwithradialgrooveswhenmoist,andfadetoalightercolorastheymature.Theirstipestendtobeslenderandlong,andthesamecolororslightlylighterthanthecap.Thegillattachmenttothestipeisadnexed(narrowlyattached),andtheyareinitiallycreamcoloredbeforetintingpurpleasthesporesmature.Thesporesaredarkpurplishbrowninmass,ellipsoidinshape,andmeasure10.515by6.58.5micrometers.

Themushroomgrowsinfields,grassymeadows,andsimilarhabitats,particularlyinwet,northfacingfields(southfacingforsouthernhemisphere)thatarewellfertilizedbysheepandcattledung.ButunlikeP.cubensis,thefungusdoesnotgrowdirectlyondungrather,itisasaprobicspeciesthatfeedsoffdecayinggrassroots.ItiswidelydistributedinthecooltemperateandsubarcticregionsoftheNorthernHemisphere,particularlyinEurope.However,ithasalsobeenreportedoccasionallyfromwarmerlocationssuchasIndia,SouthAmerica,andAustralasia.TheearliestreliablehistoryofP.semilanceataintoxicationdatesbackto1799inLondon,andinthe1960sthemushroomwasthefirstEuropeanspeciesconfirmedtocontainpsilocybin.Furtherinvestigationsintothechemicalmakeupofthefungusrevealedthepresenceofthesubstancesphenylethylamine,andthepsychotropictryptaminebaeocystin.Thepossessionorsaleofpsilocybinmushroomsisillegalinmanycountries.

Contents

1Taxonomyandnaming2Description

2.1Microscopiccharacteristics

AgaricussemilanceatusFr.(1838)Geophilasemilanceata(Fr.)Qul.(1886)Panaeolussemilanceatus(Fr.)J.E.Lange(1936)Panaeolussemilanceatus(Fr.)J.E.Lange(1939)

PsilocybesemilanceataMycologicalcharacteristics

gillsonhymenium

capisconical

orumbonate

hymeniumisadnate

oradnexed

stipeisbare

sporeprintisbrown

topurple

ecologyissaprotrophic

edibility:psychoactive

ThemushroomgetsitscommonnamefromitsresemblancetothePhrygiancap.

2.1Microscopiccharacteristics2.2Otherforms

3Similarspecies4Ecologyandhabitat5Distribution6Psychoactiveuse

6.1Properties6.2Legalstatus

7Seealso8References

8.1Citedtexts

Taxonomyandnaming

ThespecieswasfirstdescribedbyEliasMagnusFriesasAgaricussemilanceatusinhis1838EpicrisisSystematisMycologici.[3]PaulKummertransferredittoPsilocybein1871whenheraisedmanyofFries'ssubgroupingsofAgaricustothelevelofgenus.[4]Panaeolussemilanceatus,namedbyJakobEmanuelLangeinboth1936and1939publications,isasynonym.[5][6]AccordingtothetaxonomicaldatabaseMycoBank,severaltaxaonceconsideredvarietiesofP.semilanceataaresynonymouswiththespeciesnowknownasPsilocybestrictipes:[7]thecaerulescensvarietydescribedbyPierAndreaSaccardoin1887(originallynamedAgaricussemilanceatusvar.coerulescensbyMordecaiCubittCookein1881),[8]themicrosporavarietydescribedbyRolfSingerin1969,[9]andtheobtusatavarietydescribedbyMarcelBonin1985.[10]

Severalmolecularstudiespublishedinthe2000sdemonstratedthatPsilocybe,asitwasdefinedthen,waspolyphyletic.[11][12][13]Thestudiessupportedtheideaofdividingthegenusintotwoclades,oneconsistingofthebluing,hallucinogenicspeciesinthefamilyHymenogastraceae,andtheotherthenonbluing,nonhallucinogenicspeciesinthefamilyStrophariaceae.However,thegenerallyacceptedlectotype(aspecimenlaterselectedwhentheoriginalauthorofataxonnamedidnotdesignateatype)ofthegenusasawholewasPsilocybemontana,whichisanonbluing,nonhallucinogenicspecies.Ifthenonbluing,nonhallucinogenicspeciesinthestudyweretobesegregated,itwouldhaveleftthehallucinogeniccladewithoutavalidname.Toresolvethisdilemma,severalmycologistsproposedina2005publicationtoconservethenamePsilocybe,withP.semilanceataasthetype.Astheyexplained,

conservingthenamePsilocybeinthiswaywouldpreventnomenclaturalchangestoawellknowngroupof

AcollectionfromTheNetherlands

fungi,manyspeciesofwhichare"linkedtoarchaeology,anthropology,religion,alternatelifestyles,forensicscience,lawenforcement,lawsandregulation".[14]Further,thenameP.semilanceatahadhistoricallybeenacceptedasthelectotypebymanyauthorsintheperiod193868.TheproposaltoconservethenamePsilocybe,withP.semilanceataasthetypewasacceptedunanimouslybytheNomenclatureCommitteeforFungiin2009.[15]

ThemushroomtakesitscommonnamefromthePhrygiancap,alsoknownasthe"libertycap",whichitresembles[16]P.semilanceatasharesitscommonnamewithP.pelliculosa,[17]aspeciesfromwhichitismoreorlessindistinguishableinappearance.[18]TheLatinwordforPhrygiancapispileus,nowadaysthetechnicalnameforwhatiscommonlyknownasthe"cap"ofafungalfruitbody.Inthe18thcenturyPhrygiancapswereplacedonLibertypoles,whichresemblethestipeofthemushroom.ThegenericnameisderivedfromtheAncientGreekpsilos()("smooth"or"bare")andtheByzantineGreekkub()("head").[19][20]ThespecificepithetcomesfromtheLatinsemi("half")andlanceata,fromlanceolatus,meaning"spearshaped".[21]

Description

ThecapofP.semilanceatais525mm(0.21.0in)indiameterand622mm(0.240.87in)tall.Itvariesinshapefromsharplyconicaltobellshaped,oftenwithaprominentpapilla(anippleshapedstructure),anddoesnotchangeshapeconsiderablyasitages.Thecapmarginisinitiallyrolledinwardbutunrollstobecomestraightorevencurledupwardsinmaturity.Thecapishygrophanous,meaningitassumesdifferentcolorsdependingonitsstateofhydration.Whenitismoist,thecapisochraceoustopalebrowntodarkchestnutbrown,butdarkerinthecenter,oftenwithagreenishbluetinge.Whenmoist,radialgrooves(striations)canbeseenonthecapthatcorrespondtothepositionsofthegillsunderneath.Whenthecapisdry,itbecomesmuchpaler,alightyellowbrown

color.[2]Moistmushroomshavestickysurfacesthatresultfromathingelatinousfilmcalledapellicle.[22]Thisfilmbecomesapparentifapieceofthecapisbrokenbybendingitbackandpeelingawaythepiece.Whenthecapdriesfromexposuretothesun,thefilmturnswhitishandisnolongerpeelable.[23]

Ontheundersideofthemushroom'scap,therearebetween15and27individualnarrowgillsthataremoderatelycrowdedtogether,andtheyhaveanarrowlyadnexedtoalmostfreeattachmenttothestipe.Theircolorisinitiallypalebrown,butbecomesdarkgraytopurplebrownwithalighteredgeasthesporesmature.Theslenderyellowishbrownstipeis45140mm(1.85.5in)longby13.5mm(0.040.14in)thick,andusuallyslightlythickertowardsthebase.[2]Themushroomhasathincobweblikepartialveilthatdoesnotlastlongbeforedisappearingsometimes,thepartialveilleavesanannularzoneonthestipethatmaybedarkenedbyspores.[22]Thefleshisthinandmembranelike,androughlythesamecolorasthesurfacetissue.Ithasafarinaceous(similartofreshlygroundflour)odorandtaste.Allpartsofthemushroomwillstainabluishcolorifhandledorbruised,anditmaynaturallyturnbluewithage.[2]

Microscopiccharacteristics

Microscopiccharacteristics

Indeposit,thesporesareadeepreddishpurplebrowncolor.Theuseofalightmicroscopecanrevealfurtherdetails:thesporesareoblongwhenseeninsideview,andoblongtoovalinfrontalview,withdimensionsof10.515by6.58.5m.Thebasidia(sporebearingcellsofthehymenium),are2031by59m,fourspored,andhaveclampsattheirbasestherearenobasidiafoundonthesterilegilledge.Thecheilocystidia(cystidiaonthegilledge)measure1530by47m,andareflaskshapedwithlongthinnecksthatare13.5mwide.P.semilanceatadoesnothavepleurocystidia(cystidiaonthegillface).Thecapcuticleisupto90mthick,andismadeofatissuelayercalledanixocutisagelatinizedlayerofhyphaelyingparalleltothecapsurface.Thehyphaecomprisingtheixocutisarecylindrical,hyaline,and13.5mwide.Immediatelyunderthecapcuticleisthesubpellis,madeofhyphaethatare412mwidewithyellowishbrownencrustedwalls.Thereareclampconnectionspresentinthehyphaeofalltissues.[2]

Otherforms

TheanamorphicformofP.semilanceataisanasexualstageinthefungus'slifecycleinvolvedinthedevelopmentofmitoticdiaspores(conidia).Inculture,growninapetridish,thefungusformsawhitetopaleorangecottonyorfeltlikematofmycelia.Theconidiaformedarestraighttocurved,measuring2.08.0by1.12.0m,andmaycontainonetoseveralsmallintracellulardroplets.[24]AlthoughlittleisknownoftheanamorphicstageofP.semilanceatabeyondtheconfinesoflaboratoryculture,ingeneral,themorphologyoftheasexualstructuresmaybeusedasclassicalcharactersinphylogeneticanalysestohelpunderstandtheevolutionaryrelationshipsbetweenrelatedgroupsoffungi.[25]

ScottishmycologistRoyWatlingdescribedsequestrate(trufflelike)orsecotioidversionsofP.semilanceatahefoundgrowinginassociationwithregularfruitbodies.Theseversionshadelongatedcaps,2022cm(7.98.7in)longand0.81cm(0.30.4in)wideatthebase,withtheinwardcurvedmarginscloselyhuggingthestipefromthedevelopmentofmembranousflanges.Theirgillswerenarrow,closelycrowdedtogether,andanastomosed(fusedtogetherinaveinlikenetwork).Thecolorofthegillswassepiawithabrownishvinaceous(redwinecolored)cast,andawhitemargin.Thestipesofthefruitbodieswere56cm(2.02.4in)longby0.10.3cm(0.040.12in)thick,withabout2cm(0.8in)ofstipelengthcoveredbytheextendedcap.Thethickwalledellipsoidsporeswere12.513.5by6.57m.Despitethesignificantdifferencesinmorphology,molecularanalysisshowedthesecotioidversiontobethesamespeciesasthetypicalmorphotype.[26]

Similarspecies

ThereareseveralotherPsilocybespeciesthatmaybeconfusedwithP.semilanceataduetosimilaritiesinphysicalappearance.P.strictipesisaslendergrasslandspeciesthatisdifferentiatedmacroscopicallyfromP.semilanceatabythelackofaprominentpapilla.P.mexicana,commonlyknownasthe"Mexicanlibertycap",isalsosimilarinappearance,butisfoundinmanurerichsoilinsubtropicalgrasslandsinMexico.IthassomewhatsmallersporesthanP.semilanceata,typically89.9by5.57.7m.[27]AnotherlookalikespeciesisP.samuiensis,foundinThailand,whereitgrowsinwellmanuredclaylikesoilsoramongrice

LookalikesincludeP.mexicana(left),P.pelliculosa(center),andP.strictipes(right).

Psilocybesemilanceataisasaprobicgrasslandspecies.

paddies.ThismushroomcanbedistinguishedfromP.semilanceatabyitssmallercap,upto1.5cm(0.6in)indiameter,anditsrhomboidshapedspores.[28]P.pelliculosaisphysicallysimilartosuchadegreethatitmaybeindistinguishableinthefield.ItdiffersfromP.semilanceatabyvirtueofitssmallerspores,measuring913by57m.[18]

ThetoxicspeciesCortinariusrubellus(formerlyknownasC.orellanoides)[29]hasbeenconfusedwithP.semilanceatabynovicecollectorslookingtoconsumethemushroomsforhallucinogeniceffects,sometimeswithdrasticconsequences.[30]TheexpandedandbluntlyumbonatecapofC.rubellusisorangebrownwithalargerdiameterthanP.semilanceata,typicallyrangingfrom26cm(0.82.4in).Thegillsareadnatetosinuateinattachmenttothestipe,andcinnamonbrownincolor(ratherthandarkgraytopurplebrown).Itsstipeisroughlythesamecolorasthecap,58cm(2.03.1in)longandmuchthickerthanP.semilanceatausually0.61cm(0.20.4in),andsometimesbearslemonyellowbands.Itisamycorrhizalspeciesthatgrowsonacidicsoilamongmosses,usuallyinwetconiferousforests.[31]

P.semilanceatahasalsobeenconfusedwiththetoxicmuscarinecontainingspeciesInocybegeophylla,[32]awhitishmushroomwithasilkycap,yellowishbrowntopalegrayishgills,andadullyellowishbrownsporeprint.[33]

Ecologyandhabitat

Psilocybesemilanceataisasaprobicfungus,meaningitobtainsnutrientsbybreakingdownorganicmatter.Themushroomgrowssolitarilyoringroupsontheground,typicallyinfieldsandpastures.Itisoftenfoundinfieldsthathavebeenfertilizedwithsheeporcowdung,althoughitdoesnottypicallygrowdirectlyonthedung.Themushroomisalsoassociatedwithsedgesinmoistareasoffields,[22]anditisthoughttoliveonthedecayingrootremains.[34][35]LikesomeothergrasslandspeciessuchasP.mexicana,P.tampanensisandConocybecyanopus,P.semilanceatamayformsclerotia,adormantformofthefungus,whichaffordsitsomeprotectionfromwildfiresandothernaturaldisasters.[36]

LaboratorytestshaveshownP.semilanceatatosuppressthegrowthofthesoilbornewatermoldPhytophthoracinnamomi,avirulentplantpathogenthatcausesthediseaserootrot.[37]Whengrownindualculturewithothersaprobicfungiisolatedfromtherhizosphereofgrassesfromitshabitat,P.semilanceatasignificantlysuppressestheirgrowth.Thisantifungal

activity,whichcanbetracedatleastpartlytotwophenoliccompoundsitsecretes,helpsitcompete

successfullywithotherfungalspeciesintheintensecompetitionfornutrientsprovidedbydecayingplantmatter.[38]Usingstandardantimicrobialsusceptibilitytests,PsilocybesemilanceatawasshowntostronglyinhibitthegrowthofthehumanpathogenmethicillinresistantStaphylococcusaureus(MRSA).Thesourceoftheantimicrobialactivityisunknown.[39]

Distribution

Psilocybesemilanceataisconsideredthemostcommonpsilocybincontainingmushroom.[32]InEurope,P.semilanceatahasawidespreaddistribution,andisfoundinAustria,Belarus,Belgium,Bulgaria,theChannelIslands,Czechrepublic,Denmark,Estonia,theFaroeIslands,Finland,France,Germany,Georgia,Hungary,Iceland,Ireland,Italy,Latvia,Lithuania,theNetherlands,Norway,Poland,Romania,Russia,Slovakia,Spain,Sweden,SwitzerlandandtheUnitedKingdom.[40]ItisgenerallyagreedthatthespeciesisnativetoEurope[41]WatlinghasdemonstratedthatthereexistslittledifferencebetweenspecimenscollectedfromSpainandScotland,atboththemorphologicalandgeneticlevel.[26]

ThemushroomalsohasawidespreaddistributioninNorthAmerica.InCanadaithasbeencollectedfromBritishColumbia,NewBrunswick,Newfoundland,NovaScotia,PrinceEdwardIslandandQuebec.[40]IntheUnitedStates,itismostcommoninthePacificNorthwest,westoftheCascadeMountains,whereitfruitsabundantlyinautumnandearlywinterfruitinghasalsobeenreportedtooccurinfrequentlyduringspringmonths.[22]CharlesHortonPeckreportedthemushroomtooccurinNewYorkintheearly20thcentury,andconsequently,muchliteraturepublishedsincethenhasreportedthespeciestobepresentintheeasternUnitedStates.GastonGuzmanlaterexaminedPeck'sherbariumspecimen,andinhiscomprehensive1983monographonPsilocybe,concludedthatPeckhadmisidentifieditwiththespeciesnowknownasPanaeolinafoenisecii.[41][42]P.semilanceataismuchlesscommoninSouthAmerica,[41]

whereithasbeenrecordedfromsouthernBrazil,Argentina,UruguayandChile.[40]ItisalsoknowninAustralia(whereitmaybeanintroducedspecies)[26]andNewZealand,whereitgrowsinhighaltitudegrasslands.[43]In2000,itwasreportedfromGolaghat,intheIndianstateofAssam.[44]

Psychoactiveuse

ThefirstreliablydocumentedreportofPsilocybesemilanceataintoxicationinvolvedaBritishfamilyin1799,whopreparedamealwithmushroomstheyhadpickedinLondon'sGreenPark.AccordingtothechemistAugustusEverardBrande,thefatherandhisfourchildrenexperiencedtypicalsymptomsassociatedwithingestion,includingpupildilation,spontaneouslaughteranddelirium.[45]TheidentificationofthespeciesresponsiblewasmadepossiblebyJamesSowerby's1803bookColouredFiguresofEnglishFungiorMushrooms,[46]whichincludedadescriptionofthefungus,thenknownasAgaricusglutinosus(originallydescribedbyMosesAshleyCurtisin1780).AccordingtoGermanmycologistJochenGartz,thedescriptionofthespeciesis"fullycompatiblewithcurrentknowledgeaboutPsilocybesemilanceata."[47]

Intheearly1960s,theSwissscientistAlbertHofmannknownforthesynthesisofthepsychedelicdrugLSDchemicallyanalyzedP.semilanceatafruitbodiescollectedinSwitzerlandandFrancebythebotanistRogerHeim.Usingthetechniqueofpaperchromatography,Hofmannconfirmedthepresenceof0.25%(byweight)psilocybinindriedsamples.Their1963publicationwasthefirstreportofpsilocybininaEuropeanmushroomspeciespreviously,ithadbeenknownonlyinPsilocybespeciesnativetoMexico,Asiaand

1,2&3inthefigurearePsilocybesemilanceata,whichSowerbywronglythoughtwasthesameasStrophariasemiglobata.

NorthAmerica.[48]Thisfindingwasconfirmedinthelate1960swithspecimensfromScotlandandEngland,[49][50]Czechoslovakia(1973),[51]Germany(1977),[52]Norway(1978),[34]andBelgiumandFinland(1984).[53][54]In1965,forensiccharacterizationofpsilocybincontainingmushroomsseizedfromcollegestudentsinBritishColumbiaidentifiedP.semilanceata[55]thefirstrecordedcaseofintentionalrecreationaluseofthemushroominCanada.[56]Thepresenceofthepsilocybinanalogbaeocystinwasconfirmedin1977.[52]SeveralstudiespublishedsincethensupporttheideathatthevariabilityofpsilocybincontentinP.semilanceataislow,regardlessofcountryoforigin.[47][57]

Properties

SeveralstudieshavequantifiedtheamountsofhallucinogeniccompoundsfoundinthefruitbodiesofPsilocybesemilanceata.In1993,Gartzreportedanaverageof1%psilocybin(expressedasapercentageofthedryweightofthefruitbodies),rangingfromaminimumof0.2%toamaximumof2.37%,whichisthehighestpsilocybinconcentrationreportedforamushroom.[58]Inanearlieranalysis,TjakkoStijveandThomKuyper(1985)foundahighconcentrationinasinglespecimen(1.7%)inadditiontoarelativelyhighconcentrationofbaeocystin(0.36%).[59]Smallerspecimenstendtohavethehighestpercentconcentrationsofpsilocybin,buttheabsoluteamountishighestinlargermushrooms.[60]AFinnishstudyassayedpsilocybinconcentrationsinoldherbariumspecimens,andconcludedthatalthoughpsilocybinconcentrationdecreasedlinearlyovertime,itwasrelativelystable.Theywereabletodetectthechemicalinspecimensthatwere115yearsold.[61]MichaelBeugandJeremyBigwood,analyzingspecimensfromthePacificNorthwestregionoftheUnitedStates,reportedpsilocybinconcentrationsrangingfrom0.62%to1.28%,averaging1.00.2%.Theyconcludedthatthespecieswasoneofthemostpotent,aswellasthemostconstantinpsilocybinlevels.[62]Ina1996publication,PaulStametsdefineda"potencyratingscale"basedonthetotalcontentofpsychoactivecompounds(includingpsilocybin,psilocin,andbaeocystin)in12speciesofPsilocybemushrooms.Althoughtherearecertaincaveatswiththistechniquesuchastheunconfirmedassumptionthatthesecompoundscontributeequallytopsychoactivepropertiesitservesasaroughcomparisonofpotencybetweenspecies.Despiteitssmallsize,Psilocybesemilanceataisconsidereda"moderatelyactivetoextremelypotent"hallucinogenicmushroom(meaningthecombinedpercentageofpsychoactivecompoundsistypicallybetween0.25%togreaterthan2%),[22]andofthe12mushroomscompared,only3weremorepotent:P.azurescens,P.baeocystis,andP.bohemica.[63]AccordingtoGartz(1995),P.semilanceataisEurope'smostpopularpsychoactivespecies,[47]andPsilocybeauthorityGastnGuzmn,inhis1983monographonpsilocybinmushrooms,claimeditistheworld'smostcommonpsychoactivemushroom.[42]

Psilocybin

Baeocystin

Phenethylamine

SeveralreportshavebeenpublishedintheliteraturedocumentingtheeffectsofconsumptionofP.semilanceata.Typicalsymptomsincludevisualdistortionsofcolor,depthandform,progressingtovisualhallucinations.TheeffectsaresimilartotheexperiencefollowingconsumptionofLSD,althoughmilder.[64]Commonsideeffectsofmushroomingestionincludepupildilation,increasedheartrate,unpleasantmood,andoverresponsivereflexes.Asistypicalofthesymptomsassociatedwithpsilocybinmushroomingestion,"theeffectonmoodinparticularisdependentonthesubject'spreexposurepersonalitytraits",and"identicaldosesofpsilocybinmayhavewidelydifferingeffectsindifferentindividuals."[65]Althoughmostcasesofintoxicationresolvewithoutincident,therehavebeenisolatedcaseswithsevereconsequences,especiallyafterhigherdosagesorpersistentuse.InonecasereportedinPolandin1998,an18yearoldmandevelopedWolffParkinsonWhitesyndrome,arrhythmia,andsufferedmyocardialinfarctionafteringestingP.semilanceatafrequentlyovertheperiodofamonth.Thecardiacdamageandmyocardialinfarctionwassuggestedtobearesultofeithercoronaryvasoconstriction,orbecauseofplatelethyperaggregationandocclusionofsmallcoronaryarteries.[66]

In1998,astudyreportedthepresenceofthepharmacologicallyactivedrugphenethylaminefromsamplescollectedinSweden.Theconcentrationofthecompoundwashighlyvariableinthesamplestested,butinonecasewasashighas146microgramspergramofmushroom(wetweight).[67]Thiscompound,adecarboxylatedproductoftheaminoacidphenylalanine,hasreceivedconsiderableinterestinpsychiatricresearch,asitmaybea

neuromodulatorofaminergicsynapses(neuronsthatusemonoaminesasaneurotransmitter)andithasbeensuggestedtoenhanceenergy,elevatemood,andpromoteaggression.[68]Theauthorsproposethattheremaybeaninteractionbetweenphenylethylamineandpsilocin(themetabolicbreakdownproductofpsilocybin)throughcompetitiveinhibitionofmonoamineoxidaseenzymes.[67]

Onedangerofattemptingtoconsumehallucinogenicorotherwildmushrooms,especiallyfornovicemushroomhunters,isthepossibilityofmisidentificationwithtoxicspecies.Inonenotedcase,anotherwisehealthyyoungAustrianmanmistookthepoisonousCortinariusrubellusforP.semilanceata.Asaresult,hesufferedendstagerenalfailure,andrequiredakidneytransplant.[30]Inanotherinstance,ayoungmandevelopedcardiacabnormalitiessimilartothoseseeninTakotsubocardiomyopathy,characterizedbyasuddentemporaryweakeningofthemyocardium.[69]ApolymerasechainreactionbasedtesttospecificallyidentityP.semilanceatawasreportedbyPolishscientistsin2007.[70]

Legalstatus

Thelegalstatusofpsilocybinmushroomsvariesworldwide.PsilocybinandpsilocinarelistedasClassA(UnitedKingdom)orScheduleI(US)drugsundertheUnitedNations1971ConventiononPsychotropicSubstances.[71]Thepossessionanduseofpsilocybinmushrooms,includingP.semilanceata,isthereforeprohibitedbyextension.AlthoughmanyEuropeancountriesremainedopentotheuseandpossessionofhallucinogenicmushroomsaftertheUSban,startinginthe2000s(decade)therehasbeenatighteningof

WikimediaCommonshasmediarelatedtoPsilocybesemilanceata.

Wikispecieshasinformationrelatedto:Psilocybesemilanceata

lawsandenforcements.InTheNetherlands,wherethedrugwasonceroutinelysoldinlicensedcannabiscoffeeshopsandsmartshops,lawswereinstitutedinOctober2008toprohibitthepossessionorsaleofpsychedelicmushroomsthefinalEuropeancountrytodoso.[72]

Seealso

ListofPsilocybespeciesMushroomhunting

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