research design for ssci papers in environmental … · 3. identify and specify your major concepts...

For PhD students, Masters Students, and some faculty members

RESEARCH DESIGN FOR SSCI PAPERS IN ENVIRONMENTAL WORK:

A PRACTICAL COURSE

What we will do in this course:

1. Overview of: 1. Social Science Practice2. Qualitative Paradigms3. Qualitative Methods

2. Specific practical use of one method: (interviewing) to understand Research Design by following the links between:

Theory – Methodology – analysis –- Concluding – Reporting

} DISTRIBUTION OF MARKS

} Attendance 10%

} (either 0% or 10% will be given: all lectures should be attended unless } out-of-class activities have been agreed, or student has obtained permission } to be absent.)}

} Homework on of Ch1, 2 5%

} Class ‘test’ on of Ch1, 2, one week after return of marked scripts: 15%}

} Homework on ch45%

} Class ‘test’ on of Ch4, one week after return of marked scripts: 15%}

} Homework: analysis of your own paper5%

} Class ‘test’ on analysis of your own paper 20%}

} Homework analysis of interviews 5%} Improved homework analysis of Interviews 20%} TOTAL 100%

Looking for Reality

“The Hardest Hit” from 1982 storm in California

} Marin Santa Cruz} People killed 5 22} People injured 379 50} Homes destroyed 28 135} Private damages $65M $50M} Public damages $15M $56M

} Q: Which county was hardest hit?} A: It cannot be determined by science until criteria

are agreed on.

The Purposes of Social Research} Exploratory

} What might the variables be? (don’t know them yet)} Conclusions: usually suggestive of future work and

methods

} Descriptive} Provides accurate description – scientific observation – to

improve on casual

} Explanatory} Usually specific investigations into pre-identified variables

Some Dialectics of Social Research} Idiographic and Nomothetic Explanation

} Idiographic – An approach to explanation in which we seek to exhaust the idiosyncratic causes of a particular condition of event.

} Nomothetic – An approach to explanation in which we seek to identify a few causal factors that generally impact a class of conditions of event.

Some vocabulary…} Paradigms – a model or frame of reference through

which to observe and understand.

} “Patterns happen.”

} Logical explanations are what theories seek to provide.1. Theories prevent our being taken in by flukes.2. Theories makes sense of observed patterns.3. Theories shape and direct research efforts.

Social Science Paradigms} Paradigms play a fundamental role in science.

} Paradigms are neither true nor false.

Scale:} Macrotheory –} Mesotheory -} Microtheory –

Elements of Social Theory} Observation – seeing, hearing, touching.} Fact – a phenomenon that has been observed.} Laws – universal generalization about classes of

facts.} Theory – a systematic explanation for observations

that relate to a particular aspect of life.} Concepts – abstract elements representing classes

of phenomena within the field of study.} Variable – a set of attributes.

Elements of Social Theory} Axioms or Postulates – fundamental assertions on

which a theory is grounded.} Propositions – specific conclusions, derived from the

axiomatic groundwork, about the relationships among concepts.

} Hypothesis – a specified, testable expectation about the empirical reality that follows from a more general proposition.

Two Logical Systems Revisited} The Traditional Model of Science

} Theory

} Operationalization – developing operational definitions, or specifying the exact operations involved in measuring a variable.

} Operational Definition – the concrete and specific definition of something in terms of the operations by which observations are to be categorized.

} Observation – specifying the exact operations involved in measuring a variable.

Deductive…..} The Traditional Image of

Science} The deductive model of scientific

inquiry begins with a sometimes vague or general question, which is subjected to a process of specification, resulting in hypotheses that can be tested through empirical observations.

Deductive Theory Construction1. Specify the topic.2. Specify the range of phenomena your theory

addresses.3. Identify and specify your major concepts and

variables.4. Find out what is known about the relationships

among those variables.5. Reason logically from those propositions to the

specific topic you are examining.

Inductive Theory Construction} Observe aspects of social life and seek to discover

patterns that may point to relatively universal principles.

} Grounded Theory} Field Research

The Links Between Theory and Research} Deductive Model – research is used to test theories.

} Inductive Model – theories are developed from analysis of data.

What we will do in this course:

1. Overview of: 1. Social Science Practice2. Qualitative Paradigms3. Qualitative Methods

2. Specific practical use of one method: (interviewing) to understand Research Design by following the links between:

Theory – Methodology – analysis –- Concluding – Reporting

PROF HARDER’S CLASS: TEST ON CHAPTERS 1 AND 2October 15th, 2013

Our class research question is:

} WHAT DO THE PEOPLE OF SHANGHAI THINK IS THE BIGGEST ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEM FOR SHANGHAI?

}

} Please answer ALL THREE questions below, in English OR in Chinese.

} 1. Give an example of an INDUCTIVE approach to investigate this question. Then, give an example of a DEDUCTIVE approach to investigate this question.

}

} 2. Give an example of a MICROTHEORY linked to this question and briefly explain why it is a microtheory. Give an example of a MACROTHEORY linked to this question and briefly explain why it is a macrotheory.

}

} 3.Give an example of EITHER a structural functionalist approach to the question, OR a CONFLICT PARADIGM approach.

The Practice of Social Research

Chapter 4 – Research Design

Chapter Outline} Three Purposes of Research} The Logic of Nomothetic Explanation} Necessary and Sufficient Causes} Units of Analysis} The Time Dimension} How to Design a Research Project} The Research Proposal} The Ethics of Research Design} Quick Quiz

Three Purposes of Research

1. Exploration2. Description3. Explanation

The Logic of Explanation} Goal: to find a few factors that can account for many

of the variations in a given phenomenon

Example: Legalization of Marijuana

Idiographic Approach Nomothetic Approach

} Information from parents, teachers, clergy

} Previous experiences

} Others?

} Political orientation

} Others?

The Logic of Explanation} Criteria for Causality

1. The variables must be correlated} Correlation – an empirical relationship between two variables

such that changes in one are associated with changes in the other, or particular attributes in one are associated with particular attributes in the other.

2. The cause takes place before the effect3. The variables are non-spurious

} Spurious Relationship – a coincidental statistical correlation between two variables shown to be caused by some third variable

The Logic of Explanation} Nomothetic Causal Analysis and Hypothesis Testing

} Hypotheses are not required in nomothetic research.} To test a hypothesis:

} Specify variables you think are related} Specify measurement of variables} Hypothesize correlation, strength of relationship, statistical

significance} Specify tests for spuriousness

Necessary and Sufficient Causes} A necessary cause represents a condition that must

be present for the effect to follow.

} A sufficient cause represents a condition that, if it is present, guarantees the effect in question.

Unit of Analysis} Unit of Analysis – the what or whom being studied

(most often this is individuals in social science research).

} Individuals versus Aggregates

Unit of Analysis} Individuals

} Most common unit of analysis for social research

} Groups

} Organizations

} Social Interactions

Unit of Analysis} Individuals

} Students, voters, parents, children, Catholics

} Groups} Gang members, families, married couples, friendship

groups

} Organizations} Corporations, social organizations, colleges

} Social Interactions} Telephone calls, dances, online chat rooms, fights

Unit of Analysis} Faulty Reasoning about Units of Analysis

} The Ecological Fallacy – erroneously drawing conclusions about individuals solely from the observations of groups.

} Reductionism – a strict limitation (reduction) of the kinds of concepts to be considered relevant to the phenomenon under study.} Sociobiology – a paradigm based on the view that social

behavior can be explained solely in terms of genetic characteristics and behavior.

The Time Dimension} Longitudinal Study – a study design involving the

collection of data at different points in time.

} Trend Study – a study in which a given characteristic of some population is monitored over time.

} Cohort Study – a study in which some specific subpopulation, or cohort, is studied over time.

} Panel Study – a study in which data are collected from the same set of people at several points in time.

The Time Dimension} Cross-Sectional Study – a study based on

observations representing a single point in time, a cross section of a population.