review session 5. attitude formation and change attitude- a set of beliefs and feelings evaluative-...
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Attitude Formation and Change Attitude- a set of beliefs and feelings
Evaluative- our feelings toward things are necessarily positive or negative
Mere Exposure Effect- the more one is exposed to something (or someone), the more one will come to like it
Attitude Formation and Change Persuasive Messages
Central route- deeply processing the content of the message
Peripheral route- involves other aspects of the message including the characteristics of the person giving the message
Attitudes and Behavior
The relationship between attitudes and behaviors in far from perfect.
Cognitive Dissonance Theory- people are motivated to have consistent attitudes and behaviors.When they do not, they experience
unpleasant mental tension or dissonance
Attitudes and BehaviorFestinger and Carlsmith
○ Participants performed a boring task and were asked to lie to a confederate to say they had enjoyed the task
○ Some paid $1, others paid $20○ Afterward, their attitudes toward the task were
measured○ Those who were paid $1 had more positive
attitudes
Compliance Strategies Used to get other people to comply with
our wishes Foot-in-the-door- get people to agree to a
small request and they will be more likely to agree to a larger follow-up request
Door-in-the-face- after people refuse a large request, they will look more favorably upon a favorable request that seems, in comparison, much more reasonable
Compliance Strategies
Norms of Reciprocity- people tend to think that when someone does something nice for them, they should do something nice in return
Attribution Theory How people determine the cause of what they
observeDispositional/Personal Attribution
○ “Evan is good at math.” “That salesperson is a total jerk.”Situational Attribution-
○ “It was an easy test.” “She must be having a stressful day.”Person-Stable Attribution
○ “He has always been so good at math.”Person-Unstable Attribution
○ “He must have studied really hard for this test”Situation-Stable Attribution
○ “His teacher always gives the easiest tests”Situation-Unstable Attribution
○ “This one test must have been very easy.”
Attribution Theory
People often have certain ideas of prejudices about people before they even meet them.These can affect the way someone acts
toward another person
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy- these expectations about others can influence the way those others behave
Self-Fulfilling Prophecies Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968)
Randomly selected a group of children Told their teachers that they were ripe for
intellectual progress and would “bloom” over the school year.
IQ scores of the identified children increased more than their classmates.
Attributional Bias
Fundamental Attribution Error- when looking at the behavior of others, we tend to overestimate the influence of dispositional factors and underestimate the role of situational factorsOpposite when we explain our own
behaviorsMay be far less likely to occur in
collectivist cultures
Attributional Bias
False-Consensus Effect- tendency to overestimate the number of people who agree with us
Self-Serving Bias- the tendency to take more credit for good outcomes than for bad ones
Just-World Bias- Bad things happen to bad people (tendency to blame victims)
Stereotypes
Ideas about what members of different groups are like These expectations may influence the way
we interact with members of these groupsCan be positive or negativeRigid and difficult to change
Prejudice
An underserved, usually negative, attitude toward a group of peopleStereotypes can lead to prejudice when
negative stereotypes are applied uncritically to all members of a group
Ethnocentrism- a specific kind of prejudice○ The belief that one’s culture is superior to
others
Discrimination Involves an action
“We all have prejudices, but it should be our goal to keep our prejudices from becoming discrimination.”
Out-Group Homogeneity- people tend to see members of their own group as more divers than members of other groups
In-Group Bias- a preference for members of one’s own group
Origins of Stereotypes/Prejudice Some say that people naturally and
inevitably form stereotypes (in-group bias)A function of the cognitive process of
categorization
Stereotypes and prejudice can be learned and unlearned by parents, etc. (Social Learning Theory)
Combating Prejudice
Contact Theory- contact between hostile groups will reduce animosity, but only if groups are made to work toward a goal that benefits all (superordinate goals)
Aggression
Instrumental Aggression- intended to secure a particular end
Hostile Aggression- has no clear purpose
Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis- feelings of frustration make aggression more likely
Exposure to aggressive model makes people aggressive (Bandura)
Prosocial Behavior Bystander Intervention- the conditions
under which people nearby are more and less likely to help someone in troubleDiffusion of responsibility- the larger the
number of people who witness an emergency situation, the less likely any one is to intervene
Pluralistic ignorance- people seem to decide what constitutes appropriate behavior in a situation by looking to others
Attraction Similarity- we like those who are similar
No evidence that opposites attract Proximity- we like those with whom we have
frequency contactMere-exposure effect
Reciprocal liking- we like those who return our positive feelings
Physical attractiveness matters!
Close relationships are built through a process of self-disclosure
The Influence of Others
Social Facilitation- the presence of others improves task performance
Social Impairment- when the task being observed was a difficult one rather than a simple, well-practiced skill, it actually hurt performance
The Influence of Others
Conformity- the tendency to go along with the actions of othersSolomon Asch- vertical lines test; in about
1/3 of the cases participants conformed to the incorrect answer
Most likely to conform when the group opinion is unanimous
The Influence of Others Obedience Studies
Milgram- 60% of participants obeyed and delivered all the possible shocks○ Participants who could see the learners gave
fewer shocks that those who only could hear the learners
○ When it was the assistant of the experimenter giving the orders, obedience decreased
○ When other confederates in the room disagreed, obedience decreased
Group Dynamics
Norms- rules about how group members should act
Roles- exist within groups Social Loafing- individuals do not put in
as much effort when acting as part of the group as they do when acting alone
Group Dynamics
Group polarization- the tendency of a group to make more extreme decisions than the group members would make individuallyDiscussion matters- exposed to new
persuasive arguments
Groupthink- the tendency for some groups to make bad decisionsGroup members suppress their resignations
Group Dynamics
Deindividuation- the loss of restrain that occurs when group members feel anonymous and arousedLooting, riotingZimbardo’s Prison Study- students took to
their assigned roles so well that the study had to be ended early
Practice Questions 1) Which of the following suggestions is
most likely to reduce the hostility felt between antagonistic groups?Force the groups to spend a lot of time togetherEncourage the groups to avoid each other as
much as possibleGive the groups a task that cannot be solved
unless they work togetherSet up a program in which speakers attempt to
persuade the groups to get alongPunish the groups whenever they treat each
other badly
2) On Monday, Tanya asked her teacher to postpone Tuesday’s test until Friday. After her teacher flatly refused, Tanya asked the teacher to push the task back one day, to Wednesday. Tanya is using the compliance strategy ofFoot in the doorNorms of reciprocityCompromiseStrategic bargainingDoor in the face
3) In the Milgram studies, the dependant measure wasThe highest level of shock supposedly
administeredThe location of the learnerThe length of timeThe number of people in the groupThe instructions given by the experimenter
4) Your new neighbor seems to know everything about ancient Greece that your social studies teacher says during the first week of school. You conclude that she is brilliant. You do not consider that she might already have learned about ancient Greece in her old school. You are evidencingThe self-fulfilling prophecy effectPluralistic ignoranceConfirmation biasThe fundamental attribution errorCognitive dissonance
5) Janine has always hated the color orange. However, once she became a student at Princeton, she began to wear a lot or orange Princeton tiger clothing. The discomfort caused by her long-standing dislike of the color orange and the current ownership of so much orange and black striped clothing is known asCognitive dissonanceContradictory conceptsConflicting motivesOpposing cognitionsInconsistent ideas
6) When Pasquale had his first oboe solo in the orchestra concert, his performance was far worse than it was when he rehearsed it at home. A phenomenon that helps explain Pasquale’s poor performance is known asSocial loafingGroupthinkDeindividuationSocial impairmentDiffusion of responsibity
7) After your school’s football team has a big win, students in the halls can be heard saying, “We are awesome.” The next week, after the team loses to the last place team I the league, the same students lament that “THEY were terrible”. The differences in these comments illustratesThe fundamental attribution errorSelf-serving biasThe self-fulfilling prophecy effectThe false consensus effectConformity
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