self-directed learning with ict: theory, practice and assessment
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Copyright©2011MinistryofEducation,Singapore
visionMinistryofEducation
logyDiaDrive
EducationalTechnoNorthBuonaVistingapore1386751SFirstEdition
ICT:Theory,PracticeandAssessmentSelf‐DirectedLearningwith
SBN:978‐981‐08‐8300‐3I
ublishedinSingaporePAllrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem,ortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronic,mechanical,recordingorotherwise,withoutthepriorwrittenpermissionofthecopyrightowner.
Preface
This monograph about Self‐Directed Learning (SDL) is written with the
Singaporeeducationalcontextinmind,particularlywithinthecontextofformal
schooling. It also explores the use of information and communication
technologies (ICT) when promoting SDL in different learning scenarios. As
former teachers in Singapore, we are mindful of the teacher’s needs and
responsibilities.Hence,themainaudienceofthisbookisteachersfromprimary
schoolstojuniorcolleges.Aseducatorsinourdifferentcapacities,wehopethat
teachers inSingaporehaveabetter ideaofwhat itmeans topromoteSDLasa
21stcenturyskill inschools.Our intent istousethisbookasacatalysttomore
fruitfulconversationsonpromotingSDLamongourlearnersinSingapore.
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CONTENTS
Preface 1
TableofContents 2
ListofTables 3
ListofFigures 4
Introduction 5
Chapter1:Self‐DirectedLearning–ANaturalProcessofLearning 8
Chapter2:PrinciplesforDesigningSDL 19
Chapter3:WorkedexamplesofSDL 28
Chapter4:AssessmentandSDL 44
Concludingthoughts 59
References
60
3
LISTofTABLES
Table1 Possiblebehavioural indicatorsof thesalientaspectsof
SDL
16
Table2 Students’self‐assessmentofSDLbehaviours 48
Table3 Anexampleofanassessmentrubricforascienceproject 50
Table4 Assessingstudents’SDLbehaviours 54
Table5 Teachers’self‐assessmentofscaffoldingforSDL 56
4
LISTofFIGURES
Figure1 SDLspectrumandstudent’sreadiness 20
Figure2 DesignprinciplesforSDL 21
Figure3 Keyprocessesofalearningportfolio 53
5
Introduction
The world that we live in today is a knowledge society. According to United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (Bindé, 2005),
otherwiseknownasUNESCO,aknowledgesocietyvaluescreationandsharingof
newknowledge,sothatthenewknowledgecanbeappliedforthewell‐beingof
itspeopleandsolutions toglobalproblemssuchaspovertyandenvironmental
damage. The health and wealth of a nation are now dependent on what is
commonlyknownasknowledgeworkers,thatis,workerswhoareable,flexible,
creative, confident, good teamplayersandareable to solvenewproblems; the
mostefficientproductionworkerswhocanonlyfollowstandardproceduresdo
notfitthebillintoday’sworld.
Toputitdifferently,thesocialandculturalcharacteristicsofaknowledgesociety
require citizens to be highly adaptive. Our societies today are fast‐changing,
multi‐cultural,multi‐racial andmulti‐religious,which can be attributed to high
mobilityandconnectivityamongstpeople.Inaddition,therapiddevelopmentin
social media such as Facebook and blogs helps to promote social interactions
amongst people, breaking the boundaries of time and space. As a result,many
modern societies are becoming global villages. Constantly learning about the
diverse cultures, beliefs, languages, and customs of the people we meet is
essential. Interactive and social media are also empowering people towards
self‐actualisationthatischaracterisedbygreaterautonomyandlifelonglearning.
To develop our students as confident citizens in today’s knowledge society
means that access to education, the capacity to learn, a disposition for lifelong
learning, competencies in communication and collaboration in knowledge
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creation activities are becoming increasingly important for participation in a
sociallyandculturallydiverseworld.
Itcanbearguedthat thedemandsofglobalisationnecessitate theneed forour
studentstobecomemoreconscious,controlled, independentandactive intheir
learning.Thiswayoflearningenablesourstudentstoadapttotheever‐changing
situations in our work lives, personal lives and social lives in the knowledge
society.Itisthereforenolongersufficienttohelpourstudentsachieveonlythe
learningobjectivesspecifiedinthenationalsyllabi.Rather,learningneedstobe
broadenedtodevelopstudents’competenciesinlearninghowtolearn;thismay
include the ability to identify,manage andmobilise resources for learning and
theabilitytomonitortheirownprogressinlearning.Weneedtofosteramongst
ourstudentsanacutesenseofinquirysothattheyareintrinsicallymotivatedto
understandthingssurroundingthem.Inthisway,wewilldeveloplearnerswho
learn actively while they are studying in a formal institution, and seize every
opportunitytoengagethemselvesinlifelonglearning.
Needlesstosay,technologyisindispensibleinourglobalisedworld.Developing
students’ competencies in using information and communication technologies
(ICT) is vital to their participation in the knowledge society. Many education
departmentsorministries inmoredevelopedcountrieshavechartedroadmaps
that aim to develop ICT skills that prepare students with the necessary skills,
knowledgeanddispositionstobecomeconfidentcitizensintheglobalisedworld
(Plomp, Anderson, Law, & Quale, 2009). Countries like Finland, Hong Kong,
Singapore, theUnitedKingdom,and theUnitedStateshavebeen implementing
nation‐widepoliciesontheuseofICTineducation;infact,manyofthemareinto
their second or third nation‐wide ICTmaster plans. This concern is shared by
Singapore,whichanchorsitsICTmasterplansinthephilosophythat“education
should continually anticipate the future needs of society and work towards
fulfillingtheseneeds”(MinistryofEducation,2002,p.1).InthecurrentthirdICT
masterplaninSingapore,itisstatedthattheEducationMinistryaimstodevelop
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each of our Singapore students into “a self‐directed learner who takes
responsibilityforhisownlearning,whoquestions,reflectsandperseveresinthe
pursuitoflearning”throughtheuseofICT(MinistryofEducation,2009,p.1).
Bearinginmindthedemandsofglobalisationintheknowledgesocietyandwith
the aim to support the Singapore Education Ministry’s goal of developing
self‐directedlearnersthroughtheuseofICT,wepurporttounpackthenotionof
self‐directed learning (SDL) that is culturally appropriate for our Singapore
context.Inchapter1,wefirstpresentanoverviewofthedifferingnotionsofSDL
in literature from various disciplines and examine the processes that are
commonlyentailedinthiswayoflearning.Wethenmoveontochapter2where
weaimtopresenttheextentSDLcantakeplaceineducationalscenariosthatare
familiar to our local teachers. In the same chapter, we also make explicit the
principlesthatarenecessaryconsiderations forclassroomteacherswho intend
to design SDL in their instructional approaches. In chapter 3, we succinctly
present examples to illuminate our ideas of how SDL can be actualised in our
Singapore context. In this chapter,we also emphasise the affordances of some
technological tools that can possibly support SDL. Through the examples, we
hopethatteacherscanenvisionhowtheycansupportSDLastheyimplementthe
third ICT Masterplan in their teaching and learning. We move on to discuss
assessmentissuespertainingtoSDLinchapter4.Weexaminewaysofassessing
SDL with examples of rubrics that teachers will appreciate when considering
ways of developing students’ capacity in self‐assessment and guiding students
when they self‐direct their learning. Chapter 5 summarises our concluding
thoughtsonfosteringSDLinthecontextofourformalschoolinginSingapore.
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1 Self‐DirectedLearning(SDL)–
ANaturalProcessofLearning
Introduction
Inourintroduction,westresstheurgencyinlookingbeyondimmediatelearning
goalsinschoolstoprepareourstudentstothriveinaknowledgesocietythatis
globalisedanddiversesociallyandculturally. Ithasbeenwidelyacknowledged
thatthepurposeofeducationisnolongersimplyproducingmanpowertofillthe
existingjobvacancies,butanticipatingtheneedsoffutureandpreparingforjobs
thatareyettobecreatedintheneweconomy(Koh&Lee,2008).Inthischapter,
we explore the differing notions of SDL and identify a feasible notion that is
relevanttoSingapore.WecontendthatSDLisacriticallifeskillfortoday’syoung
people. It enables a person to be highly adaptive to new situations and
environments,togatherresourcesandlearnquicklysoastosolvenewproblems
orhandlenewjobsorsituationstheyencounter.
SDL is a process that occurs naturally for everyone (Gibbons, 2002). Take the
studyconductedbyMdNorandSaeednia(2009)asanexample.Theyarguethat
childrenasyoungasnineyearsofagearecapableofself‐directingtheirlearning.
Intheirstudy,theyreportedthatthechildrenwereabletodemonstratediffering
extents of self‐discipline, curiosity, independence, persistence, goal orientation,
responsibility,andenjoyment in their learning.Drawingonourdaily lives, it is
common to observe someof these traits in young children. Children canbe so
curiousintheirworldthatitisnotsurprisingtoseehowtheyfindwaystolearn
somethingnewtothem,beitafallenleafonaroadorarubberdoorwedge;they
willusealltheirsensestoexplorethenewobject.Takethefollowingvignettefor
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anexample.Itillustrateshowaone‐year‐oldbabylearnttouseastrawtodrink
waterfromacup.
Vignette:SDLisanaturalprocessoflearningdevelopedfromayoungage
Gracejustturnedone.Hermotherboughtheracutelittlebabycupwhichcamewith
astrawthatwasattachedtothelid.Priortothis,shehadbeendrinkingfrommilk
bottleswithsiliconeteats.Shewascuriousaboutthecup;sheshookitandchuckled
atthenoisethewatermade.At first,sheusedthesamemethodofdrinking froma
milkbottle‐bitingthestraw,treatingitlikeateatandtiltingthecupuptodrinkthe
water.Failing todrink thewater, sheplayedwith it likea toy.Oneday,Grace sat
next to a girlwho used a similar cup to drink somewater. She observed the girl
intensively forawhile.Shemusthaverealizedthatshecoulddrinkwater fromthe
cup,butnotinthesamewayasdrinkingitfromamilkbottle.Laterthatdaywhen
shewasathome,shewasobservedsuckingthestrawfromhercupinthesameway
astheoldergirlsheobserved.Ittookherafewattemptsbeforeshegotitright.She
wassothrilledthatshedrankupallthewaterinthecup.
Thepointwearemakinghereisthis:Welearnnotjustinschoolsbutalsoinour
everyday lives and our learning endeavours develop naturally from the
experience that we draw on. Amongst young people and adults, SDL is also
prevalent.Take for an example, after buying anynew technological gadget,we
learnhowtousethegadgetanditsapplicationsinmultipleways.Somepreferto
learnbyexploringtheapplicationsthroughtrialanderrorswhileothersprefer
toreadthemanualorsearchfortipsontheYouTubeandotherwebsites.Other
examples of SDL in our everyday lives that are familiar tomany of us include
fillinginaweb‐basedtaxreturnform,drivingtoanewshoppingmall,knowing
thebestspottoparkatthenewshoppingmall,orlearninghowtooperateanew
camera.
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If SDL is intuitive and natural as somehave argued (Gibbons, 2002),why is it
worthy to study it as a special field of work on its own? What can a deeper
understanding of SDL offer teachers who are interested in improving their
practices in the context of formal schooling? We begin addressing these
questionsbyfirstreviewingthehistoricaldevelopmentofSDLthathasitsroots
inadulteducation.
HistoricalDevelopmentofSDL
Itwasintheearly20thcenturythatSDLwassystematicallystudied,partlydue
tothedevelopmentinthefieldofadultlearning.Adulteducationwasrecognised
asaprofessionalfieldofpracticeinthe1920s.Priortothis,muchoftheresearch
on adult learning in this period was modelled after how children learnt. The
researchersandpractitioners feltaneed todifferentiate thewayschildrenand
adultslearnt.Thisquestfordifferentiationthusgaverisetothedevelopmentof
two theories (Merriam, 2001) ‐ andragogy andSDL ‐whichwe shall elaborate
below.
Theories of adult learning as a distinctive field has been widely developed in
EuropetoidentifyeducationalneedsforadultsbeforeMalcolmKnowles(1980)
popularisedtheterm,andragogy,intheUnitedStatesinthe1960s.Accordingto
Knowles(1980),andragogyis“theartandscienceofhelpingadultslearn”(p.43)
anditisdistinctivefrompre‐adultschooling.AccordingtoMerriam,MottandLee
(1996), there are some salient assumptions about the learner pertaining to
andragogy,namely,thelearner
isaccountableforhisorherlearning
hasaccumulatedvastexperiencesthatprovidethefoundationforlearning
has learningneedsthatarerelatedtosocialchangesandthe learningneeds
areproblem‐centredandcreateopportunitiesforimmediateapplication
engagesinlearningthatisinternallymotivated
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Laterinthe20thcentury,researchersbegantoquestionwhetherandragogy,as
described by Knowles (1980), was truly unique to the adult learners. For
example,Hanson(1996)arguedthatthecharacteristicsofanadultlearnerwere
also found amongst children. Like adults, children could possess intrinsic
motivationtolearn.Iftheproblemwasofinteresttothechild,heorshewould
makeattemptstoaddresstheneedforknowledgeinordertosolvetheproblem.
In fact, incertainsituations,children’sexperienceswerericher thanadultsand
these experiences provided the relevant foundation to their learning (Hanson,
1996).This thenalertsustothe fact that learningshouldnotonly focusonthe
maturity of the learner but also on the situation inwhich learning occurs. For
example, some adult learners may require their teachers to structure their
learningwhilesomechildrenfarebetteriftheyaregivenopportunitiestodirect
theirlearning.WhatthesestudiespointtoistheargumentthatSDLseemstobe
dependentonthereadinessofalearner,thecontentandthecontextoflearning,
ratherthanontheageofthelearner.
ParalleltothedevelopmentofandragogyintheEuropeancontinentsinthe20th
century, SDL emerged in the United States as a formal field of study to help
comprehend how adults learnt. Tough (1967,1971) conducted the pioneering
workonSDLandfoundthattypicallyanadultspentaround500hoursayearon
intentional learning projects outside formal education. Since then, researchers
have focused on the instructional design for adult learners by analysing the
learner, identifying relevant resources, selecting instructional formats and
evaluatinglearningoutcomes.
Starting fromthe1980s,researchershavebegunto focusmoreonthe learning
processes,namelythelearnercharacteristics,thelearningcontextandthenature
of learning itself. A well‐known example is Grow’s (1991, 1994) Staged
Self‐DirectedLearningmodel(SSDL).Thematrixpresentedinthismodelenables
learners to identify their stageof readiness forSDL.The teachers thenprovide
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theappropriatescaffoldsandlearningguidancebasedonthelearner’sneedsto
helpthemtolearneffectively.
SDLasa21stCenturySkill
Interestingly, aswe crossed into the newmillennium, a number of reports on
K‐12education– suchas “enGauge®21stCenturySkills: Literacy in theDigital
Age” (North Central Regional Educational Laboratory, 2003) and “Results that
matter:21stCenturyskillsandhighschoolreform”(Partnershipfor21stCentury
Skills,2006)–begantoquestiontheadequacyofschooleducationinpreparing
students for new challenges in the twenty‐first century,which culminated into
recommendationsfor21stCenturyskillsamongstourstudents.SDLislistedasa
keycomponentofthe21stCenturyskills.SDLisalsointricatelylinkedtolifelong
learning,whichhasbeenlistedasademandformodernsocietybyinternational
organizations such as UNESCO and OECD. Concomitantly, there is increased
researchactivityonself‐directionamongstK‐12students.Inshort,self‐direction
isnowrecognisedasanimportant21stCenturyskillforourlearners.
Amongst thesediverseperspectivesof SDL,we find thedefinitionprofferedby
Gibbons(2002)mostusefulforourformaleducationinSingapore.Accordingto
Gibbons (2002), SDL is “any increase in knowledge, skill, accomplishment, or
personaldevelopment thatan individualselectsandbringsaboutbyhisorher
owneffortsusinganymethodinanycircumstancesatanytime”(p.2).Gibbons’
(2002) notion of SDL stresses the importance of developing ownership of
learningasitwillmotivatealearnertopursuealearninggoalandpersistinthe
learning process. Based on his perspective, SDL involves initiating personally
challenging activities and developing personal knowledge and skills to pursue
the challenges successfully. This notion of SDL resonates with what our
SingaporeEducationMinistryaimstoachievethroughthethirdICTmasterplan.
Specifically,wethinkitleadstothreeimportantaspectsentailedinself‐directed
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learning:(a)ownershipoflearning;(b)self‐managementandself‐monitoring;as
wellas(c)extensionoflearning.
Ownershipoflearning
The learner’s characteristics or personal attributes are important to SDL,
particularly possessing personal responsibility in learning. Brockett and
Hiemstra (1991) argue that personal responsibility is the “cornerstone of
self‐direction in learning” (p.27). Learnerswho takepersonal responsibility in
learning have ownership of their learning, set learning goals, and accept the
consequences of their thoughts and actions. Candy (1991) suggests that
developingpersonalresponsibility inSDLcantakeplacewithinan institutional
settingsuchasaschool; learnersarecapableofdevelopingpersonalautonomy
orcertainamountofcontrolinmakingdecisionsabouttheirownlearning.
Developingasenseofownershipoflearningiscloselyrelatedtothemotivation
to learn. According to Garrison (1997), there is a difference between entering
motivation and task motivation. Entering motivation refers to how much the
learner is attracted and committed to the learning goal. This is affected by
various factors, forexample,whether the learninggoalswillmeet the learners’
needs, whether they perceive the goals as achievable, and how they perceive
their own self‐efficacy in relation to the goals. Providing opportunities and
control for learners to set their learning goals can enhance their entering
motivation.Whileenteringmotivationaffectsalearner’schoiceoflearninggoals,
taskmotivationaffectsthelearner’ssustainingefforttowardsthelearninggoal.It
isaffectedbyextrinsicrewardsandmoreimportantly,theintrinsicmotivationto
work on a task. Thus, it is important to provide opportunities for learner’s
control in managing and monitoring their learning, and help develop their
capacityinthisaspect.
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Learner’s motivation is jointly shaped by personal attributes and external
contextual factors surrounding the learners. For example, a learner who
experiences supportive learning environment that leads to their success in the
past is likely to expect similar success in future, andwill have higher entering
motivationtowardssimilarlearninggoals.Thisinteractionbetweeninternaland
external factors is even more evident in the management and monitoring of
learningprocess.
Self‐managementandself‐monitoring
BrockettandHiemstra(1991)viewSDLasaninstructionalprocessofassessing
learners’needs, identifying learningresources, implementing learningactivities
andevaluatinglearningoutcomes.Itfocusesonteaching‐learningtransactionin
an institutional setting that is almost akin to individualised instruction. It
involves negotiation between the learners and the teacher about the learning
goals, methods of learning, use of resources, and assessment of outcomes.
Candy (1991) and Garrison (1997) use the term self‐management to describe
this aspect of behavioural task control relating to management of learning
activities. Inaddition,theyproposeaninternalcognitivedimensionthatrelates
tolearner’sthinkingandmonitoringoflearning,whichistermedself‐monitoring
by Garrison. It is important to note that self‐management is characterised by
managementof external tasksand resources,whereas self‐monitoring involves
internalprocessofthinking,reflection,andmakingimprovementonthelearning
process.
Self‐monitoringfocusesonbothcognitiveandmetacognitiveaspectsoflearning,
which are internal to the learners. Cognitive processes (e.g., thinking, making
meaning of the information, and integrating new knowledge into existing
knowledge structure) are necessary in all learning processes. Metacognition
referstothinkingaboutthinkingorlearningtolearn,whichisrelatedtolearner’s
ability to reflect on their learning. This aspect of SDL is close to self‐regulated
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learning (Bandura, 1986; Zimmerman, 1989). For example, Bandura (1986)
suggests regulating one’s learning by self‐observing, self‐judging and
self‐reactingtothelearningtasksandperformance.Eventhoughself‐monitoring
involvesinternalcognitiveprocesses,externalfactorssuchasfeedbackfromthe
teacherorotherscaninfluencealearner’sreflection.
Extensionoflearning
While Brockett and Hiemstra (1991) focus on SDL in institutional setting and
acknowledgethe influenceofexternalcontextual factors(e.g. thestructuringof
learningactivities andavailabilityof resources) in this learningprocess,Candy
(1991) extends the idea of SDL from an instructional setting to an informal,
non‐institutional, everyday setting, which he called the autodidactic domain.
Autodidaxyliterallymeansself‐teaching,wherealearnerhastotalcontrolabout
the choiceofwhat to learn,where to learn, how to learn, andhow to evaluate
learning. An example is to learn about iPhone applications by reading the
manual or searching for online instructions, which we described in our
introductionofthismonograph.
BehaviouralIndicatorsforSDL
ItisimportantforteacherstorecognisewhatSDLlookslikeinorderforteachers
toencourageSDLamongsttheirstudents.Thetheoreticalideasontheownership
oflearning,self‐managementandself‐monitoringandextensionsoflearningare
more useful when they are translated into possible observable indicators for
classroom uses, even though we acknowledge that SDL cannot be naively
narroweddowntoalaundrylist.Withtheuseofbehaviouralindicators,teachers
canmonitorwhether their students are engaged in SDL and thismay serve as
usefulinformationwhenplanninginstructionalstrategies.Itisimportanttonote
that behavioural indicators are never exhaustive and they are not capable of
capturing the internal (meta)cognitive processes of the learners. To probe
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deeper into students’ thinking, teachershave to relyonothermethods suchas
think‐aloud protocols or reflection logs. Table 1 below shows some possible
behaviouralindicatorsofthethreesalientaspectsofSDL.
Table1:PossiblebehaviouralindicatorsofthesalientaspectsofSDL
SalientaspectsofSDL Somepossiblebehaviouralindicators
Ownershipoflearning
Studentsidentify,determineandarticulatetheirownlearninggoals
Studentsidentifylearningtaskstoachievethegoals
Studentscharttheirlearningprocesses
Studentschallenge themselvesandset thestandardsfortheachievementoftheirlearninggoals
Managementandmonitoringofownlearning
Students formulate questions and generate relevantinquiries
Students explore a range of possibilities and makesounddecisions
Studentsself‐planandself‐managetheirtime
Students critically reflect on their learning andinitiategatheringoffeedbackfromteachersandpeerstoachievetheirlearninggoal
Extensionofownlearning
Studentsapplywhattheyhavelearnttonewcontexts
Students utilise the skills that theyhave acquired tolearnbeyondthecurriculumcontents
Inshort, thesebehavioural indicatorspoint tostudents’maximumcontrolover
their own learning experience. As they chart their own learning, skills are
inevitablydevelopedastheyrisetomeetthechallengestheysetforthemselves.
Needlesstosay,theextentsofsuchbehavioursdifferaccordingtotheextentsof
participationinSDL.
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AdditionalNotesaboutSDL
SDLmayappearantitheticaltocollaborativelearninganditseemsparadoxicalto
relatethetwo.However, it isevidentthatevenwhen learnersexercise internal
metacognitiveprocess,externalfactorsliketeacher’sandpeers’feedbackcanbe
used as a resource for the reflective self‐regulating process. In a collaborative
learningsetting, learner‐learner interactionprovidesopportunities for learners
tosubjecttheirviewtopublicscrutinyandquery,andtheyengageinprocesses
of negotiation or debate, and acquire deeper understanding of the topic being
studied.
Infact,theprinciplesofcollaborativelearning(Johnson&Johnson,2000)include
bothpositiveinterdependenceamongstthegroupmembers,andalsoindividual
accountabilityandresponsibility toachieve thegroupgoals.Agoodexample is
HoraceMannMagnetMiddleSchool inArkansas in theUnitedStates thatused
environmentalandspatialtechnologiestoengagetheirstudentsinSDLthatnot
onlydevelopedthesestudentscollaborativeandother21stcenturyskillsintheir
servicelearningprojects(eduTopia,2007).
While the ultimate goal of SDL is autodidaxy (self‐teaching), teachers play the
critical role of motivating students to initiate learning challenges and helping
themtodeveloptheircompetencyinmanagingandmonitoringtheirlearning.To
fosterSDL,itmaynotbeappropriatetosetahighlystructuredlearningtaskand
askstudentstofaithfullyexecutethetask.Conversely,settingatopicforstudents
to conduct their independent research or to do a project work may not be
appropriate for students who are not ready. On one hand, when there is too
muchcontrol,itwilltakemuchefforttodevelopsenseofownershipoflearning.
Ontheotherhand,thestudentsmaynotbereadyforindependentlearning.They
may resort to various coping mechanisms to complete the assignment rather
thanengaging inSDL. In the formativeyearsofeducation,designing forSDL is
like flying a kite. The teacher needs to leverage thewind speed to fly the kite
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high, yet maintain just sufficient pull and tug to steer the kite in the right
direction.Student’sreadinessisanimportantfactortoconsider.Inthenextfew
chapters, we will discuss roles of teachers in fostering SDL amongst their
students.
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2 PrinciplesforDesigningSDL
SDLasaSpectrum
In Chapter 1, we pointed out that in today’s globalised world, SDL is widely
recognisedasanessential21stcenturyskill. Wealsodebunkedthemyththat
SDLcanonlytakeplaceamongsttheadults.Italsodoesnotnecessarilyhaveto
takeplace in formal educational institutions. For instance, literature in literacy
researchincreasinglyhasprovidedethnographicaccountsofhowyoungpeople
have been participating in SDL in technology‐mediated environments outside
schools (Ito, et al., 2008;Sefton‐Green,2004). In this chapter,we stresson the
importance of teachers’ capability of providing opportunities for SDL to be
fostered amongst their students, especially in the context of formal schooling.
WithrelevancetoSingaporecontext,theparamountquestiontoaskisthis:How
can the principles of SDL be implemented in Singapore classrooms when the
skillsandknowledgetobelearntarehighlystructuredinthenationalcurricula?
Gibbons(2002)believesthatSDLtakeplaceasaspectrum.AccordingtoGibbons
(2002),therearevariousphasesinSDLandthesephasesstartasalowdegreeof
self‐directiontothehighestdegreeofSDL:
1. Incidentalself‐directedlearning:TheoccasionalintroductionofSDLactivities
intocoursesorprogramsthatareotherwiseteacher‐directed.
2. Teaching students to think independently: Courses or programs that
emphasise the personal pursuit of meaning through exploration, inquiry,
problemsolvingandcreativeactivity.
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3. Self‐managed learning: Courses or programs presented through learning
guidesthatstudentscompleteindependently.
4. Self‐plannedlearning:Coursesorprogramsinwhichstudentspursuecourse
outcomesthroughactivitiestheydesignthemselves.
5. Self‐directed learning: Courses or programs in which students choose the
outcomes,designtheirownactivitiesandpursuethemintheirownway.
Nonetheless, we do not think that these phases necessarily take place in a
hierarchicalandneatorderinpractice.Figure1summarisesGibbon’sspectrum
thatismatchedwiththethreeaspectsofSDLdiscussedinChapter1.
PhasesofSDL(Gibbons,2002)
Student’sreadiness
Student’sSDLcharacteristics
Ownership MonitoringandManagement
Extensionoflearning
Self‐directedlearning
High Highownership,identifyandcommitto
learninggoals
Skilfulinmanagingandmonitoringownprogressoflearning
Extendlearningbeyondschool’scurriculum
Self‐plannedlearningSelf‐managedlearningTeachingstudentstothinkindependently Incidentalself‐directedlearning
Low
Lowownership,dependentonteachersto
directlearning
Unabletomanageandmonitorlearning
Learningislimitedtoresourcesprovidedinclassrooms
Figure1:SDLspectrumandstudent’sreadiness
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WhereDoesaTeacherBegin?
BeforeateacherconsidersthechangesneededinorderforSDLtotakeplacein
hisorherclassroom, the first thingheorshehas todo is tomakeaconscious
decision that he or she indeed wants SDL for his or her students. Once the
teacherhasmadeupthatdecision,itisadvisablefortheteachertoaskhimselfor
herselfthefollowingquestions:
WhichphaseofSDLamIreadytoimplement?
WhichphaseofSDLaremystudentsreadyfor?
ThefollowingaresomeassumptionsmadebeforeimplementingSDL:
1. Studentsarecapableofbeingself‐directedlearners.
2. SDLisbothanoutcomeandaprocess.
3. TechnologybyitselfdoesnotpromoteSDL;ratheritsupportsorenhancesthe
learningprocess.
Figure2:DesignprinciplesforSDL
Which phase ofSDLissuitable?
Puttingthelessontogether
Incidentalself‐directedlearning
Teachingstudentstothinkindependently
Self‐managedlearning
Self‐plannedlearning
Self‐directedlearning
Decidedbyteacher
Articulatedbystudents
Learningoutcomes
Low degree of self direction
High degree of self direction
Instructionalstrategies
Resourceselection
Technologyintegrationtoenhancestudents’learning
Intendedoutcomeofthelesson
SDLasalearningprocess
SDLasalearningoutcome
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HavingmadethedecisiontoimplementSDL,therearesomedesignprinciplesfor
the teacher’sconsideration.Figure2givesanoverviewof thedesignprinciples
thatateacherwouldhavetothinkthrough.
Learningoutcomes
From the diagram above, the first important aspect in planning an SDL lesson
(forthematter,anylesson) istodecidewhatthelearningoutcomeis.Learning
outcomes can be either decided by the teacher or articulated by the students.
This depends on the students’ readiness level and the teacher’s ability to
facilitatetheSDLactivity,whichinevitablyistiedtothephasesofself‐direction.
For example, at lower degrees of self‐direction, the teacher makes decisions
about the learning outcomes of the lesson. At a pointwhen the teacher feels
thatstudentsmaybeabletoarticulatetheirindividuallearningoutcomes,heor
shecanprovidesupportinhelpingthestudentstosharpenornarrowdowntheir
desiredlearningoutcomes.
At higher degrees of self‐direction, the teacher allows his or her students to
articulatetheirlearningoutcomesbasedonatopic,conceptortaskthatneedsto
be completed (these may be dictated by the teacher, the students or both,
dependingonthereadinessforself‐directionexhibitedbythestudents).Atthis
phaseofreadiness,studentsandteacherswilldiscussandnegotiatethelearning
outcomes.Thestudents’roleistoidentifywhattheywanttolearn.Theteachers’
role is to validate the students’ learning goals or stretch their potential by
guidingthemtowardswhattheyshouldbelearning.Teachersandstudentsmay
wanttoself‐assesstheirreadinesslevelpriortothelesson(seeChapter4).
Some of possible questions that a teacher can ask himself or herselfwhen the
studentsareatalowdegreeofself‐directioninclude:
Whatisthelearningoutcomeofthisactivity?
23
What is the specific instructional objective for this activity? ( ‘instructional
objective’herereferstocontentrelatedobjective,e.gconceptsthatstudents
havetolearn,knowledgetheyhavetoacquire)
WhatdoIwantmystudentstoachieveorexhibit?
DoIwantmystudentstobeabletoworkingroups?
DoIwantthemtobeabletobeaccountablefortheirwork?
DoIwantthemtobeabletosearchforinformation?
Should they learn how to be discerning when they are sourcing for
information?
ShouldtheybelearninganewICTtoolsothattheycandecidehowtheywant
todemonstratetheirlearning?
Theabovearesomequestionsthatteachersmaywanttoconsiderwhendeciding
onthelearningoutcome(bothknowledgeandprocesses)whichtheyhopetheir
studentswillachievewhenengagedinSDLactivities.
PhasesofSDL
FromFigure2, itcanbeseenthattheteacherhastomakeadecisionaboutthe
phaseofSDL(refertoFigure1)theywanttoimplementaspartoftheirstudents’
learning.Again,basedonthereadinessleveloftheteacherandstudents,thelevel
of self‐directionwill vary. The teacherneedsnot only implement onephase of
SDL. Itcanbeacombinationofoneormorephases,dependingonthelearning
outcomeintendedfortheactivity.Somequestionstheteachermayaskhimselfor
herselfinclude:
Whichphase(s)ofSDLdoIwanttoimplement?
WhatextentofSDLissuitableformystudents?
WhatarrayofactivitiescanIconducttoachievethedesiredlevelofSDLfor
mystudents?
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Onceateacherhasdecidedonthedegreeofself‐direction,theteachernowwill
have to design the lesson so that opportunities are created for students to
achievetheintendedlearningoutcomes.
Instructionalstrategiesandresources
Thedesignofthelessonisofutmostimportanceinorderforthestudentstobe
provided with opportunities to learn and experience various degrees of
self‐direction.Theteacherwillhavetothinkthroughthelessondesign,andmake
variousdecisions,suchas:
(a) Instructionalstrategies
o HowmuchofdirectiondoIprovidemystudents?
o Should I let themdiscoveron their ownor should I provide themwith
some direction? Do I need to provide them with scaffolds which are
highlystructured?
o Should I give themspecific instructionsonhowmuch time they should
spendorshouldIguidemystudentsbutletthemdecidehowmuchtime
theyneedor should I allowmy students tomanage their timeon their
own?
o Should I manage my students’ learning content or should I allow my
studentstomanagetheirlearningandmonitorthemregularly?
o What taskscan Idesign toenable thestudents toapplywhat theyhave
learntoutsideschooltoschoolworkandviceversa?
(b) Resources
o What current resources can I utilise, including resources from the
students?
o WhatchangesdoIhavetomaketomycurrentlessonideas? CanIadapt
my current lesson to include opportunities for my students to be
self‐directedlearners?
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o Aremystudentscapableofsourcingforinformationandotherresources
independently? Do I give them total independence? Do they need a
learningguideorsomeresourcestostartthemoff?
o Howmuch timedo I have to conduct this lesson?Which aspects of the
lessondoIwanttodoinclass? Whichpartsofthe lessoncanbedone
bymystudentsintheirpersonaltime?
o What resourcesdomy studentsneed thatmayenable them tomonitor
theirownlearningwhilecompletingtheidentifiedtasks?
Whendesigningtheinstructionalstrategiesandaccessingtheresourcesrequired
for the SDL activity, the teachermay need to consider issues related to group
formation,suchas:
Shouldmystudentsworkingroupsorindividually?
DotheydecidethegroupformationordoI?
Dotheyworkinclass(face‐to‐face)ordotheyworkonline?
Technologyintegration
Onceteachershavedecidedonthelessondesign,theymaywanttoconsiderthe
integration of technological tools to enhance students’ learning and to assist
theminmonitoringtheirstudents’learning.Keyconsiderationsinclude:
Isthereaplacefortechnologytosupportmystudents’SDL?Howwillitlend
support to my students? How can I utilise the technology to scaffold my
students’learning?
o Do I want to implement technology to support my students’
brainstormingactivity?
o Do Iwant to implement technology to supportmy students’ discussion
andnegotiationprocesses?
o Should it be technology that canprovide a platform formy students to
builduptheirknowledgeasacollaborativegroup?
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o Should it be technology thatwill providemy students opportunities to
demonstratetheirlearning?
HowcanItakeadvantageoftechnologytomonitormystudents’learning?
WhattypeoftechnologydoIwanttointegrate?DoIwanttointegratewhat
mystudentshavealreadylearnt?DoIwanttointegratetechnologywhichmy
studentsareunfamiliarwithbutarecapableofusingit?
Should I give my students opportunities to choose their preferred
technologicaltool?
The following are some technological tools which can be used for various
purposesdependingontheteachers’intention.
(a) Mindmapscanbeusedfor:
o problemsolving
o creatingoutlinesforplanningpurposes
o brainstormingideas
o expressingindividualunderstandingofconceptslearnt
(b) ForumDiscussionsserveasaplatform:
o tocontinuediscussionsoutoftheclassroom
o to share information about a concept or topic which students have to
learn
o todiscussissuesbeforecomingtoclass
o togenerateideasandshareresources
o toprovidesupportgroupstooneotherastheyexplorenewconcepts
o for teachers tomonitorstudents’understandingofconceptswhich they
arerequiredtolearn
o forteacherstomonitorthethoughtprocessesorthinkingprocessesina
groupdiscussion
(c) Wikiplatformsareusefulwhen
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o studentsarerequiredtobuildononeanother’scontributions
o students can edit and consolidate one another’s contributions in aneat
andorganizedfashion
o thewikipagecanbeorganizedintovarioussitesforeasyreference
o wiki pages can be an ongoing task for students to share their learning
journey
(d) Blogsareusefulwhenteacherswanttheirstudentsto:
o sharetheiropinionsaboutatopic
o reflectonwhattheyhavelearnt
o sharetheirexperiences
Thequestionsweposeinthischapterarenotmeanttobeexhaustive.Theyserve
astriggersfortheskilfulteacherasheorsheplansforSDLtohappenwithinthe
contextof formalschooling. In thenextchapter,we illustratehowthesedesign
principlesareputintopracticewhenateacherplansforSDLtotakeplacewith
particularattentionontheuseofICT.
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3 WorkedExamplesofSDL
Introduction
Inchapter2,welaidouttheSDLspectrumasawayforteacherstonegotiatethe
extentofSDLthatispossiblefortheirstudents.Wealsomadeexplicitthedesign
principlesthathavetobejudiciouslyconsideredwhenplanningforSDLtotake
place in the classroom or other learning environments. In this chapter, we
provideworked examples of howSDLmay look like in the classroomor other
learning environments. We foreground the learning outcomes, the learning
scenarios and the possible uses of ICT in our examples. Each scenario is
organizedaccording toGibbons’ (2002)SDLspectrum(seeChapter2),starting
fromtheincidentalSDL.
DesignConsiderationsforIncidentalSelf‐DirectedLearning
Thescenariosdepictedherearemainly teacher‐directed.Foreachscenario,we
provide a counter‐example of SDL and how it can be redesigned to provide
opportunitiesforSDLtotakeplace.Thefollowingassumptionhasbeenmadein
craftingthescenarios:directionsforlearningaredecidedbytheteacher.Muchof
thedecisionsabouthowtolearn,whattolearnandhowtoexhibit learningare
decidedbytheteacherforthestudents.
Learningoutcomes(forScenarios1&2)
What are the learning outcomes the students should achieve by the end of this
learningprocess?
Insteadofbeingprovidedwiththeinformation,studentsaregiventheopportunity
tointer‐connectrelatedconceptsandissues.
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Scenario1:
Whatanon“incidentalself‐directedlearning”lessonmaylooklike
Mrs Limwants her students to differentiate between living and non‐living things.
Through a didactic manner of teaching, Mrs Lim presents the information via a
PowerPointpresentation. Shepresents informationon the characteristicsof living
things, namely: feeding, movement, breathing, excretion, growth, sensitivity and
reproduction. MrsLimthenshowspicturesof livingthings likeanimalsandplants
aswellasnon‐living things likecars,books,and toys.Throughnominatedresponse,
sheasksherstudentstochooseany4picturespresentedandgroupthem into living
andnon‐livingthings.
RedesignedScenario1:
Whatan“incidentalself‐directedlearning”lessonmaylooklike
Mrs Lim begins the lesson by showing animated pictures of a dog and a carusing
PowerPoint. She poses questions to make her students think. She provides
opportunities for them to ask her questions about the two pictures related to the
characteristicsoflivingandnon‐livingthings.Ifstudentsdonottaketheopportunity
toaskquestions,Mrs.Limmayelicitresponsesfromthembymakingthemthink. For
example,sheasks:
Whatarethesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenthesetwothings?
Oneofthecharacteristicsofadogisthatitcanmove.Sincethecarcanmovejust
likeadog,doesitmeanthatthecarisalivingthing?
Sowhyadogisclassifiedasalivingthingandthecaranon‐livingthing?
Whataretheotherpossiblecharacteristicsthathelpusdecideoneisalivingand
theotherisanon‐livingthing?
Afterhavinggoingthroughmoreexamples,Mrs.Limasksherstudentstodrawamind
map of theirunderstanding of livingandnon‐living things. Sheasks them to add
questions if they are unsure. Studentswill complete themindmap. After going
throughherstudents’mindmaps,Mrs.Limcanconsolidatetheirdoubtsandclarifyin
thenextlesson.
30
PossibleusesoftechnologyfortheredesignedScenario1
Teacher uses technology like PowerPoint and online teaching materials from the
Internet to present facts about the characteristics of living things and non‐living
things.This provides opportunities for students to visualize andmake comparisons
and infer the characteristics of living and non‐living things. The teacher also
provides opportunities for students to consolidate their understanding through the
useofmindmaps.
Scenario2:
Hownon“incidentalself‐directedlearning”maylooklikeintheclassroom
MissKala informs the class that theyaregoing to learnabout the variousways to
represent data, such as in the form of pie chart, histograms and bar charts. She
showsher students thevariousgraphsviaPowerPointandquerieswhichgraphical
formtheyshouldusefortheirlessononthatday.Majorityofthestudentschoosethe
piechart.Usingthepiechartasanexample,sheexplainsthatthepiechartisagreat
wayofshowingthedifferentsegmentsthroughcolourcodes. Piechartisalsouseful
forvisualisingthevariouspercentagedistributionsasawhole.MissKalahighlightsto
herstudentsthatoften,theywillseeasegmentofthedrawingseparatedfromtherest
ofthepieinordertoemphasizeanimportantpieceofinformation.Astudent,Joseph,
asksMissKalahowapie chartdiffers fromabargraph.MissKala then shows the
classherpreparedPowerPointslidesonthebargraphandverballyexplainsthekey
pointsaboutthebargraph.
RedesignedScenario2:
Howincidentalself‐directedlearningmaylooklikeintheclassroom
MsKalainformsherstudentsthatdatacanberepresentedinvariousforms. MsKala
showssomeexampleshowdataiscollected,collated,analysedandrepresented,such
asusingthepiechart,bargraphandhistogram.Shethengivesherstudentstwenty
minutestosearchtheInternetonwaysofrepresentingdataandtheusefulnessofeach
graphicalform.Dependingontheabilityofherstudentstoworkindependently,Miss
Kalamightgivethemkeywordstobegintheirsearch,orspecificwebsitesforthemto
look for informationorgive themcompletechoiceofwhere theywant tosource for
31
the relevant information. She instructs her students to discuss in groups to
consolidatewhattheyhavefoundoutfromtheirsearches.EachgroupisgivenaWiki
pagetosharetheoutcomeoftheirgroupdiscussion.
PossibleusesoftechnologyfortheredesignedScenario2
Theuseofinternetallowsforstudentstosourceforinformationandmakedecisions
aboutrelevanceofinformationselected. Dependingontheabilityofthestudentsto
search for information, theuseof internetprovides formuch flexibilityas towhere
students locate information. The teacher has decided to useWiki to support her
students’discussion. ShecandosobycreatingaWikipageforeachstudentgroup.
In eachgrouppage, the teacher can scaffold theirdiscussionbyaddingpicturesof
variousgraphs. Studentsarerequiredtorespondwiththeirreasonsastowhythey
willuseaparticulargraph. TheuseofWikienablestheteachertomonitorstudents’
responsesand tocheck for theirunderstandingon theappropriateuseofgraphs to
represent data. In addition, the use of Wiki as a platform allows students to
consolidatetheirlearningandtosharetheirfindingswithintheirgrouptohelpbuild
on eachother’s contributions. Each studentgrouppage canbemadeavailable to
othergroupsintheclass,sothattheycanlearnfromoneanother. BesidestheWiki
pages, teachers could also use Google docs since the platform allows group
collaborationandaccessbyvariousgroupmembers.
DesignConsiderationsforTeachingStudentstoThink
Independently
Thescenariosdepictedinthissectionemphasisetheskillsstudentsneedasthey
aregivenmoreopportunitiestodirecttheirlearning.Whendesigningalesson,a
teachermightconsider:
providing opportunities for students to communicate with friends and the
teacherfacetofaceand/oronline
makingprovisionsforhandlingreallifedataforanidentifiedpurpose
designing tasks to develop multiple perspectives to an issue and reach a
commonconsensusforthetaskathand
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Learningoutcomes(forScenarios3&4)
Whatare the learningoutcomes that thestudentsshouldachieveby theendof
thislearningprocess?
Studentsshouldbeabletotakethe initiativetoaskquestionsrelatedtothe
topicofdiscussion
Students should be able to conduct inquiry and investigate their areas of
interest
Basedontheir findings,studentsshouldbeabletopresenttheiropinionsor
deriveafeasibleconclusionverballyand/orusingothermodalities
Scenario3:
Acounter‐exampleof“teachingstudentstothinkindependently”
MrLimprovideshisstudentswithdatacollectedfromsomerealworldcontexts.
Theuseofrealdataenablesthestudentstolinkwhattheyarelearninginclassto
the real world outside. He shows the students how the data is presented in
graphical forms.Hegiveshis students somequestions toanswer that test their
ability to analyse the graphs in the form of a groupwork.The teacherwalks
around the class to answer any queries that may arise during the group
discussions.
RedesignedScenario3:
Howa“teachingstudentstothinkindependently”lessonmaylooklike
MrLimpreparesinstructionsandinformsstudentsthattheywillhavetocollect
datafortheMathematicslessonnextweekon‘Graphs’.ThisisMrLim’seffortin
providingopportunities forhis students toexperiencehow to collect theirown
data. He informs them that it shouldbeanareaof interest to them, suchas
findingoutyoungpeople’sresponsesaboutanewmall in theirneighbourhood.
Theuseofrealdatalinksclassroomlearningtorealworldcontextandstudents
actuallylearnbydoing–collectingdatathattheywanttoanalyseontheirown,
analysingand representing it.The task for students is toanalyse thedataand
presenttheirfindingsusingthegraphtheyfeelbestrepresentswhattheywantto
findout.
33
Unliketheusuallessonwherestudentslookatthefinalgraphandanalyseitlike
a worksheet, students are now experiencing how data is collected, collated,
analysed and represented. They will have questions to ask, such as how to
consolidate the data they have collected using Microsoft Excel. They can
approach the teachers to clarifyanydoubts that theyhave, suchaswhen they
havedifficultiescreatingthegraphstechnicallyusingMicrosoftExcel.
Once theyhavecreated thegraphs, theywillhave torationalize theirchoiceof
graph and its suitability for representing the data they have analysed.At this
stage, students can be given opportunities to discuss online. They can search
websites Mr. Lim has provided for them. Alternatively, if his class is
independent,Mr.Limmightsuggestkeywords for them tosearchonlineand to
sourcefortheirinformation. Mr.Limmaybeabletointervenebymodellingfor
them thekindsofquestionsand issues theyneed to consider.For instance,Mr.
Limmayquestion therelevanceandcredibilityof the information the students
have found fromtheInternet.Duringtheonlinediscussions,theteacherassigns
rolesamongthegroupmemberssothatmultipleperspectivesaremadepossible.
It ismore likely that the studentswillargue theirpointof view for issues like
whichgraphissuitableandtheirreasonsfortheirpreferredchoice.Therolesare
explicitsothatthestudentsaregiventheopportunitiestoquestiononeanother’s
assumptions before reaching a consensus. They are explicitly instructed to
agree todisagreeas their ruleofengagementbutat theendof thediscussion,
theywillhavetonegotiateandreachaconsensusasagroup.
Beyond thecontent learningoutcome,students in thisscenario learnsoftskills.
Theylearntopresenttheirargument,tosubstantiatetheirargumentorpointof
viewwith reasonsor facts. They learn toquestioneachother’spointofview.
Students are provided opportunities to communicate with each other and to
share their points of view. They are provided opportunities to negotiate and
reacha consensus.Theseare skillsandexperiences that studentsgainbecause
Mr. Lim, the teacher, has decided to provide opportunities for his students to
thinkindependently.
34
PossibleusesoftechnologyintheredesignedScenario3
StudentsusetheExcelspreadsheettocollateandorganisetheirdata.Thedata
can be represented in various forms.With theuse of technology, students can
visualizehowtheirdatawilllooklikethroughtheuseofthevariousgraphs.
Forumsareuseful for thestudents toworkon theirdatacollaborativelyovera
period of time. It is appropriate for them to discuss and share their findings.
Somepossiblebenefitsarethatstudentscanconductresearchontheirownand
share their findingswith the peerswithin the group.They can further discuss
abouttheprosandconsofthevarioustypesofgraphsandtheusefulnessofusing
thevarious typesofrepresentations.The forumdiscussion servesasaplatform
forstudentstosharetheirthoughtsandideas,questiononeother’sassumptions
andtoexploreandgatherinformationbeyondthetext. Theforumdiscussionis
also useful forMr. Lim tomonitor his students’ understanding of the topic of
investigation.Mr.Limcanguidehisstudentsiftheyareunabletomakedecisions.
Mr.Limcanalsomonitorhisstudents’progress. Whennecessary,hecanclarify
students’doubtsandhelpthemtomoveforwardintheirlearning.
Theteacher’srolesintheredesignedScenario3
Mr.Lim’sroleistoessentiallysettaskswithclearinstructionsandmilestonesfor
hisstudents.Mr.Limwillhavetofacilitateandmonitorstudents’progress,both
intheface‐to‐faceandonlinemodes.Dependingonthereadinesstoparticipatein
groupwork,Mr. Limmay permit some students to form groups or give some
studentsclearguidelinesonhowtheycanformtheirowngroups.
When using technology,Mr. Limmay have to demonstrate the technical skills
required. For example when using the spreadsheet, Mr. Lim might have to
demonstrate how data entry should be done. Thismay be taught just‐in‐time
when the students ask questions about keying in and analysing the data they
havecollectedusingMicrosoftExcel.Alternatively,Mr.Limmightengagestudent
helperstoassistindemonstratingtotheirpeershowdataentrycanbedone.
When settinguponlinediscussions,Mr.Limneeds to stateclearly therules for
35
engagement,suchasthediscussionformatandtheetiquetteforparticipatingin
thediscussion.Mr.Lim’srole inthe forumdiscussion istomonitorhisstudents’
discussion,observethe learningthat istakingplace,andtoansweranyqueries
thathisstudentsmayhavesotheycanmakeprogressintheirlearning.Modelling
by the teacher takesplacehereaswellasaway to teach the studentshow to
think independently in groupworkwith regard to their levels of thinking, the
choices theymake, the relevance and credibility of the information they have
sourced,andhow toengage inargumentative thinking that is constructive for
groupwork.
Thestudents’rolesintheredesignedScenario3
Giventheopportunitytoexplorewaysofrepresentingtheirunderstanding(such
as by creating graphs), the students learn how to consolidate, organise, and
present their data graphically. They also learn to rationalise the bestway to
represent theirunderstandingasagroup, suchaswhen theyare selecting the
most appropriate graph for their group task. The students also learn to be
resourcefulas theyexplore thevariousgraphs thatareavailable for theiruse.
Theyalsolearntobeeffectiveintheirsearchthroughtheguidelinestheteacher
provides during the search itself and learn to evaluate the various sources of
informationasagroup.Thestudentstakeresponsibilitytoreachaconsensusand
learnhowbesttopresenttheirfindingstotheclassortheteacher.
Scenario4:
Acounter‐exampleof“teachingstudentstothinkindependently”
MdmRohana sets a task for her students to research about a current or past
world leader.Thestudents’task isto investigateandresearchaboutthe leader,
thecharacteristicsoftheworldleader,theactionsoftheleaderandtheimpactof
theactionsandhowpeopleperceivetheworldleader.Thestudentsthenpresent
their findings in the formofa talk show.Eachmember is to takeona role:A
reporter,theworldleader,anaidetotheworldleader,oneortwomember(s)of
thepublic,preferablyofdifferentsocialeconomicstatus. Thestudentswillhave
tosourceforsufficientinformationtoplaythevariousrolesandduringthetalk
show,theyaretosharetheinformationwiththeirclassmatesandtorationalise
36
why they feel this leader is their rolemodel. The students finally do a report
writingtaskontheleaderidentifiedfortheirresearchtopic.
RedesignedScenario4:
Howa“teachingstudentstothinkindependently”lessonmaylooklike
MdmRohanaasksher students for examplesofworld leaders they know from
theirtextbook,newsandelsewhere.Sheleadsaclassdiscussiononwhatmakesa
personaworld leaderandcollectivelywiththeclass,she teasesoutcriteria for
assessingleadership,suchasthecharacteristicsoftheworldleader,theiractions
andtheimpactoftheiractionsontheworld,andtheperceptionsofthepublicof
them.
MdmRohanaaskseachgroupofstudentstochooseaworldleaderbasedonthe
classdiscussionand findoutmore informationabout the leader thegrouphas
chosen toresearchon. MdmRohanaassigns specificroles foreachgroup, the
taskstobecompletedwithinaspecifiedtimeframe.Eachgrouphastoreportto
her thedecisions theyhave tomake, suchas the responsibilitiesofeachgroup
memberaccordingtotherolesgivenandtheirreasonsforthechoiceoftheworld
leader.StudentsarealsotoldtogathertheirinformationandbuilduptheirWiki
pageontheworldleaderwhomtheyhavechosen.
MdmRohanaprovidesquestions toguideherstudents in their fact findingand
posesquestions that further their thinking so thather students can constantly
buildtheirunderstandingusingtheWiki.Oncetheinformationhasbeenbuiltup
ontheWiki,studentswillhavediscusstoextractrelevantinformationtheywant
to shareorpresentduring the ‘talk show’where theywill share their findings
with their classmates. Students will also consolidate the resources and
informationusinganypresentationtoolstocomplementtheirtalkshow.
PossibleusesoftechnologyintheredesignedScenario4
Mdm Rohanamakes use of Internet resources to expand students’ knowledge
about the selected world leaders. In addition, the Wiki is created to guide
students’meaningmakingprocessas theyreadandassimilatewhat theyknow
37
about the world leaders. TheWiki is also used to share and build students’
knowledge during this process. Finally, theWiki serves as a resource page for
eachgroupandtheentireclass,not just todeveloptheir talkshow,butalsoas
another learningmaterialabout theworld leaders. Inaddition, theWikipage
servesasaplatform forMdmRohanatomonitorandtrackthedevelopmentof
thoughts and knowledge about the world leaders among the students. Mdm
Rohana may suggest the use of Glogster to present the key information in
creativemannertotherestoftheclassmates.
Theteacher’sroleintheredesignedScenario4
Similar toScenario1,MdmRohana’srole is toset taskswithclear instructions
andmilestones forher students.MdmRohanamayhave to start the lessonby
makingavailablesomeresourcesforclassroomteaching,suchasalistofstart‐up
websitesforclassroomdiscussionsandafollow‐upInternetsearch.MdmRohana
mayprovide someguidelines onhowher students shouldparticipate ingroup
discussionforeachspecifiedrole.Forexample,shemayaskastudenttoplaythe
roleofadevil’sadvocate.Thestudentadoptingthisrolemayaskquestionslike:I
likeyourreasonsbuthaveyousearchedwebsitesthatpresenttheworldleaderin
anegativemanner?Basedonknowledgeofherstudents’participationingroup
work,MdmRohanamayassignstudentstoaparticulargrouporallowthemto
form theirowngroups.When the studentsare ready,MdmRohanagives them
permission tobegin their researchandadd relevant informationon theirWiki
page.
If students need further guidance or resources, the Mdm Rohana may then
provide themwith thenecessary resourcesor topoint them towhere theycan
obtaintherequiredinformation. MdmRohanamightalsoaskquestionstohelp
eachgroupmonitorthedevelopmentoftheirthoughtsandknowledgeintheWiki
pagetoensurethattheyhavecollectedsubstantialinformationtopresentduring
thetalkshow.
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Thestudents’roleintheredesignedScenario4
Sincestudentshavetoselectaworldleadertoresearchon,theywillhavetocome
to a decision based on a consensus reached among the groupmembers. The
decisionmaking processmay take various forms. One possible way is where
students in a group brainstorm and select aworld leader based on themost
convincing reason and popular vote.Another approach could be that students
startwithresearchonvariousworld leadersandpropose theirselection to the
rest of the groupmembers and convince them that their selection should be
picked. This iswhere studentsare likely to question, explore, investigate and
arguemoreabouttheirpointofview. Itprovidesopportunitiesforstudentsto
developindependentthinkinganddecisionmakingskills.
Oncethegrouphasdecidedontheworldleader,theywillthenhavetonegotiate
and decidewho takes on the various characters – reporter,world leader etc.
Some groupsmay decide that they will conduct their research based on the
different requirements set by the teacher and once they have the information,
theywillthenworkouttheroles. Again,studentswillhavetodecideandwork
outhowbesttheywanttolearn.
Students then discuss and think of the bestway to present their choice of the
world leader and the rationale for their choice. Theywill also have to think
about what information they will want to add on to their presentation tool
(Glogster,PowerPoint,etc)tocomplementtheirroleplayandtosuccinctlybring
theimportantpointsacrosstotheirclassmates.
During role play, other students can be prompted to ask questions, to seek
clarification and to challenge assumptionsmade by the groups. After having
gatheredthevariousviewpoints,studentswillnowhaveabetter insighttothe
informationtheyhavegathered.Theywillthentakeonthepersonaofanyofthe
charactersandwriteareport.
39
DesignPrinciplesforSelf‐ManagedLearning
Thedesignconsiderations that teachersshould factor inwouldbe to reflecton
their roles. The teachermaywant to adopt the role of a facilitator to provide
guidance,feedbackanddirectionforthestudentstoaddvaluetotheirlearning.
The teacher does not teach the students what they do not know; the teacher
highlightstheareasthatstudentsshouldfocusonandguidesthemthroughthe
learningprocess.
The following is an example of how a ‘self‐managed learning’ lesson may be
designed.
LearningOutcomes
Whatarethelearningoutcomesthatthestudentsshouldachievebytheendof
thislearningprocess?
Studentsaregivenopportunitiestoselectwhattheywanttolearn
Studentspacetheirlearning
Ifstudentsareunsure,theyareabletore‐visittheconceptsandlearnthem
attheirownpace
Studentsmayseekassistancefromtheteachershouldtheyneedto
Oncestudentsareconfidentoftheconcepts,theycanopttoself‐assesstheir
learning
Assessmentcouldalsobeconductedbytheteacher
Scenario5:Howself‐managedlearningmaylooklikeintheclassroom
MrGabrielselectsanarticleonglobalwarmingtogenerateinterestamonghis
students. Hegivesthemthefollowingarticletoread…
GlobalWarming…whatisitallabout?
“An islandof icemorethan fourtimesthesizeofManhattan isdriftingacross
theArcticOceanafterbreakingoffaglacierinGreenland.
In a July 6, 2009 photomade available byGreenpeace, researcher JasonBox
adjustsatime‐lapsecameraonthesoutheastsideofPetermannGlacier,oneof
Greenland’s largest and most northerly glaciers. A 100‐square‐mile iceberg
40
brokeofftheglacierlastweek.
SatelliteimagesfromNASAshowthePetermannGlacieronJuly28(leftphoto)
andaftertheicesheetbrokefreeonAug.5.“It’ssobigthatyoucan’tpreventit
fromdrifting.Youcan’t stop it,” says Jon‐OveMethlieHagen,aglaciologistat
theUniversityofOslo.
Potentiallyinthepathofthisunstoppablegiantareoilplatformsandshipping
lanes ‐ and any collision could do untold damage. In aworst‐case scenario,
large chunks could reach the heavily trafficked waters where another
GreenlandicebergsanktheTitanicin1912.
It's been a summer of near biblical climatic havoc across the planet, with
wildfires,heatandsmoginRussiaandkillerfloodsinAsia.Butthemomentthe
PetermannGlaciercrackedlastweek–creatingthebiggestArcticiceislandin
halfacentury–maysymbolizeawarmingworldlikenoother”
Sourceofarticle:
http://www.pressherald.com/news/nationworld/giant‐iceberg‐fuels‐debate‐over‐glo
bal‐warming_2010‐08‐11.html
Mr Gabriel informs his students that there is renewed interest in global
warminggiventhecurrentissueofthebreakawayiceberg.Inordertoprepare
forclassdiscussions,heasksthemtoreadalessonpackagehehascreatedfor
themon theLearningManagementSystem. He informs them that theyhave
oneweektocompletetheirtask. Heremindsthemtoattemptthequizhehas
designed forthemattheendofeachsegment. Theobjectiveofthequiz isto
helphisstudentstotesttheirunderstandingofthetopicswhichtheyhavejust
gone through.He reiterates that if theydonotperformwell for thequiz, the
studentsareallowedtore‐visittheinformationandtoattemptthequizagain.
He reminds them toattemptall thequizzesand to submit their responses so
thathecanassesshowpreparedhisstudentsarefortheclassdiscussion.
An alternative approach to this scenario could be thatMrGabriel generates
interestinthetopicofglobalwarmingtogethisstudents’attention. Hethen
gives thembroadareas to focusonandhe reminds them that theyhaveone
week to search for the relevant information so that they are prepared to
41
participate actively in class discussion the following week. In order to get
them started,Mr Gabriel posts someweb resources and information for his
students. He expects them to research beyond the information that he has
providedandtocharttheirlearning. MrGabrielmightchoosetomonitorhis
students’ progress by requesting them to post their findings on a forum
discussionboardorablog.
Theteacher’sroleinScenario5
Mr.Gabriel’srolecouldvarydependingonhisassessmentof theabilityofhis
studentstolearnindependently. IfMr.Gabrielassessesthathisstudentsneed
pre‐packagedmaterialstogetthemstarted,thenhisroleasateacherwouldbe
togathertherelevantinformationandpresenttheresourcestohisstudentsso
they can explore. If he feels that his students’ potential can be stretched
beyondtheinformationhehasconsolidated,hemightsuggesttothemthatthey
canexploreresourcesbeyondwhathehasgiven.
In a different scenario, Mr. Gabriel might assess that his students are
independentandwillbeabletoresearchonthetopicswithouthisconsolidated
resources. In this situation,Mr.Gabrielwillprovidebroadguidelines forhis
students so they knowwhat research they should be engaged in. Theywill
thensourcefortherelevantinformationandlearnwhattheyhavetoinorderto
bepreparedfortheclassdiscussion.
Thestudents’roleinScenario5
Thestudentsarerequiredtoassesstheirownknowledgeofthetopic. Directed
bytheresourcesthatMr.Gabrielhasconsolidatedforthem,studentswillaccess
theinformationthattheyfeeltheydonotknowwellandlearnit.Theymaydo
self‐assessmentbyattemptingthequiz.Iftheydowell,theymaythenproceedto
anotherareawhere they feel theyneed togather knowledge.Essentially, the
students’roleistoreflectonwhattheydonotknow,andtolearnitsothatthey
arepreparedforthetaskthattheyhavetoattempt.
42
Self‐plannedandSelf‐directedlearning
In self‐planned and self‐directed learning, students are ready to assume high
degreeofself‐direction.Studentsarerequiredtomakedecisionsaboutwhatthey
want to learn, how they want to learn, and to draw out a time frame of the
durationwithinwhichtheywillachievewhattheywanttolearn.Somepossible
areas where teachers may attempt to introduce self‐planned and self‐directed
learningmaybeintheareaofprojectwork.
Scenario6
Insteadofprovidinghis studentswith topics for theirprojectwork (whichMr.
Tan usually does), he has decided that he wants his students to take
responsibility for their work and to bemotivated to complete it. Mr. Tan’s
decisionismadeonthebasisthathewantshisstudentstolearnwhattheywant
towhentheyareengagedinprojectwork.
He informs students that theywill have to submit a project, togetherwith a
portfolioof theprogress theymade in their learning tohim in6months’ time.
He tells them tomakedecisionsand toconsulthimonhow theywould like to
approachtheproject.
During the consultation, Mr. Tan expects his students to inform him of the
following:
Thegroupmemberswhomtheywillbeworkingwith
Thetopicoftheirchoiceandwhy
The timeline for their project, togetherwithmajormilestoneswhere
theywillsubmitartefactstohimreflectingtheirprogress
Thedirectionsinhowtheywilllearnandcompletetheproject
The choice of presentation mode they will use to showcase their
learning
Mr.Tanremindsstudentsthattheyareresponsibleforgeneratingtheirlearning
objectives and charting the timeline. He reiterates that it is the students’
responsibilitytoupdatehimontheirprogressandtoconsulthimwhentheyneed
43
assistance.Toassisthisstudents’learningprocessandtomonitortheirlearning,
Mr.Tanmaycreateane‐portfoliowithintheLearningManagementSystem.His
students coulduse the e‐portfolio topresent theirprogress toMr.Tanand to
reflecton theirown learning.Thee‐portfolioservesasameans forstudents to
chart theirprogressand toreflectonwhether theyhaveachieved the learning
goalstheyhadsetforthemselves.
In this chapter, we have attempted to describe how the different scales of
self‐directed learning may look like in a lesson. The examples given are not
exhaustive.Theyarejustsomeexamplesofhowalessonmightlooklikebasedon
thedesignconsiderationsthatteachersmayhaveinmind.Thelessonsmayvary
dependingonmanyfactors,suchasstudents’readinesstoworkindependently,
teacher’s assessment of students’ learning needs, availability of resources, and
availabilityoftechnologytosupportstudents’learning.Toreiterate,theteacher’s
role is crucial in the design process of the lesson since the teacher has to
articulatethelearninggoalwhichthestudentsneedtoachieve.
44
4 AssessmentandSDL
TypesofAssessmentsinSDL
Inchapter3,we illustratedhowSDLmaytakeplace todifferingextentswithin
formal schooling in Singapore. In this chapter, we consider how teachersmay
assessSDL toenhancestudents’ learning.We firstdescribewaysofdeveloping
students’ capacity in self‐assessment followed by the types of assessment a
teachercanuseintheprocessofguidingstudentsforSDL.
As educators, we recognise the importance of assessment in learning. We are
familiar with assessment of learning, also known as summative assessment
(Bloom,Hastings,&Madaus, 1971) that evaluates the extent towhich learning
goals are achieved, usually in the forms of quiz, test, or examination. We
commonlyuse informationfromassessmentof learningforplacementpurpose.
Forexample inSingapore,ourprimaryschoolpupilsapplytodifferenttypesof
secondary schools based on their Primary School Leaving Examination (PSLE)
scores, or pupils are placed in different classes based on their overall yearly
performanceintheschoolexaminations.Assessmentoflearningisalsousedfor
to gauge the effectiveness of an individual or a school in achieving specific
educationaloutcomes.
Consistent with the goals of self‐directed learning, we should focus on
assessment for learning as opposed to assessment of learning. Assessment for
learning (Black&Wiliam, 1998) is the use of assessment to improve learning,
bothintermsofthelearningoutcomesandthelearningprocesses.Forexample,
45
a teacher analyses her students’ performance in a class test to diagnose the
commonproblemsormisconceptionsassociatedwithlearningaparticulartopic.
Usingthisinformation,theteacherthendesignssubsequentlessonstohelpher
students overcome the problems to achieve better understanding of the topic.
For self‐directed learning, a teacher assesses her students’ behaviours that
indicate self‐direction so that she can provide feedback to the students or to
modify her instructional strategies. Moving one step closer to the goal of
self‐directed learning, it is desirable to develop students’ capacity in
self‐assessmentsothattheycanassesstheirownprogressandmakeappropriate
changes. In this way, assessment becomes an integral part of the learning
process.
DevelopingStudents’CapacityinSelf‐Assessment
BelowisavignetteofwhathappenedinaPrimary3Englishclass:
VignetteofaPrimary3Englishclass
Thepupilsare taskedasa tourguide to introducea famous river to the tourists.
Theywork ingroupsof five.Inthisparticular lesson,thepupilsusetheInternetto
search for information fortheirpresentation.Examinethisexcerptofconversation
amongstagroupofthreePrimaryThreepupils(agednine)whentheyaresearching
forinformationontheRiverNile.Theirtaskistoassumetheroleofatourguideto
introducetheRiverNiletoagroupoftourists.
Jeremy: Hey,Ifoundthiswebsite.Look,therearemanypictures.
Joel: Wow,quick,rightclickandsavethepictures.
Janet: Yes,yes,andpastetheminthePowerPoint.
Jeremy: Allthepictures?
Joel: Clickthisone.Ilikecrocodiles…thebirdslooknicealso.
Jeremy: OK,ok,whatshouldItypeinthePowerPoint?
Janet: Here,copythispart.“TheRiverNile,isthelongestriverinthe
world.Everyyear theNile floodsatalmostexactly the same
timeofyear,15thJuly.”
46
Jeremy: OK,what else canwe include?The teacher saidwe need to
presentfor2minutes.
From the children’s conversation, we can tell one possible reason for not
engaging effectively in SDL among the children is that they do not know the
criteriaofagoodperformance.Inthiscase,thechildrendonotknowwhatthey
can include in their presentation to excite the tourists as a tour guide. Joel’s
criterion for selecting the picture is based on his personal preference. Janet
suggests copying the text without checking whether it is relevant to the task.
Theyprobablydonotrealisethattheyneedtoappealtothetourists’interestsor
arousetheircuriosity.
When we are learning a physical skill, the feedback is usually concrete and
observable. For example, youwill knowwhether you have learnt how to cycle
because you will experience the success (the bicyclemove forward while you
maintain your balance) or failure (you fall).When learning a cognitive skill or
knowledge, thecriteriatoassesswhetherwearesuccessfularenot intuitiveor
observable.Asateacher,itisnecessarytodevoteanappropriateamountoftime
andefforttodevelopinstudentsthecapacitytoassesstheirownlearning.
Different levels of scaffolds can also be provided for this purpose. For lower
primary pupils, a checklist with observable indicators can be used. For upper
primary pupils, assessment rubricswith an explanation and demonstration on
how to use the rubrics can be considered. For secondary school or older
students, they can be encouraged to identify and discuss the appropriate
assessment criteria for their assigned tasks. The following section shows
examplesofhowstudentscanself‐assesstheirself‐directedlearning.
Students’Self‐AssessmentofSDL
Table 2 shows an example of a students’ self‐assessment template. It uses a
6‐pointLikertscale.Aclassroomteachercanaskhisorherstudentstodecideon
47
the extent to which they are engaged in a SDL behaviour by shading the
appropriatecircleusingintuitivejudgementwhetheritisclosertothedescriptor
“All thetime”or“Notatall”. Ifyourstudentshaveproblemsunderstandingthe
scale,youcanchangethe6‐pointscaletoYes/Nooptions.
Dependingonthereadinessofyourstudents(seeChapter2),itmaybenecessary
to go through the form with the students to help them understand the
statements. For younger pupils, the items may be changed to suit their
comprehension levelbyusingsmiley icons(e.g.,,) toreplacethecircles.
Thiscanbefollowedbyadiscussionwiththestudentsonwaystheycanimprove.
HelpthemtoanalysewhatcouldhavepreventedthemfromengaginginSDL.Isit
becausetheyarenotawareofitortheydonotknowhow?Iftheydonothavethe
competency,wherecantheyturntoforhelp?Studentswhoaremorereadyfor
SDLcoulddotheself‐assessmentindependentlytomonitortheirownprogress.
Thestatementsaregeneralindicatorsthatmayprobablychangeonlyafterafew
weeksormonthsof intervention.Table2 isbestused togaugeand record the
generalbehavioursatdifferentpointsinasemester(ratherthandailyorweekly)
orforaprojectthatlastsforatleastafewweeks.
48
Table 2: Students’ self-assessment of SDL behaviours
BehaviouralIndicators Frequency Reflection
Notatall Allthetime Iamsatisfiedwith
myperformance
Icanimproveby…
Isetlearningtargetsfor
myself.
Yes
No
Iknowwhichpartsofmy
lessonsIdonot
understand.
Yes
No
IaskquestionswhenI
amnotsureaboutmy
lessons.
Yes
No
Ilookformore
informationtohelpme
understandmylessons
better.
Yes
No
ImakealistofwhatI
needtodoformy
learning.
Yes
No
Icompletemy
schoolworkontime. Yes
No
Itrytounderstand
whereIwentwrongin
myschoolwork.
Yes
No
Itrydifferentwaysto
solveproblemsonmy
own.
Yes
No
IusewhatIlearninclass
aftermylessons. Yes
No
Ifindoutmorethanwhat
myteacherteachesmein
school.
Yes
No
49
Students’Self‐AssessmentofPerformanceOutcomes
Previously, we focused on how to facilitate students’ self‐assessment of their
participationinSDLprocesses.Wenowmoveontodiscusswaysofusingrubrics
todevelopstudents’capacityinassessingperformancetasksforSDL.
Inessence,assessmentrubricsareusedforauthenticperformancetasksthatare
complex, involvingmulti‐dimensional skills, and require judgment tograde the
performance.Forexample,tocompleteascienceinvestigationproject,students
have to formulate the problem, collect data, analyse the data, and write the
report. Each of these processes involves several skills. Using a rubric, we can
clarifythedifferentdimensionsofassessment,anddescriptorsofdifferentlevels
of performance. Table 3 shows an example of a rubric for science project for
Secondaryschoollevel.
When using rubrics, it is important to explain the different dimensions of
performance (such as information seeking skills) and the level of achievement
(such as extents of meeting expectations). A checklist (with Yes/No options
rather than level of performance) can also be used for younger students who
mighthaveproblemsunderstandingrubrics.Spacescanalsobeprovidedforthe
students toscore theirperformance, justify theirassessmentandsuggestareas
forimprovement.Itisimportanttoimpressuponthestudentsthatthepurpose
is not to prove how good they are, but to reflect on their performance for
improvement.
Classroom teachers can also conduct conferences with students using their
self‐assessment. The conference provides an opportunity for the teachers to
validate their students’ self‐assessment and help them to develop their self
assessmentskills.Dependingonthematuritylevelofthestudents,theycanalso
useitforpeerassessment.
50
Table 3: An example of an assessment rubric for a science project
Componentsofproject
Beginning Developing Accomplished Exemplary Student’scomments
Teacher’sorpeer’scomments
Choiceofresearchproblemandquestions
Useresearchquestionssuppliedbyreferencebooksorothersources
Constructresearchquestionsthathavereadilyavailableanswers
Constructresearchquestionsthatarechallenging
Constructchallengingresearchquestionsandjustifythesignificanceofthestudy
Informationseeking
Gatherinformationthatlacksrelevance
Gatherrelevantinformationfromoneortwosources,lacksdepthandquality
Gatherrelevantinformationfromavarietyofsources,selectsourceswithdepthandquality
Gatherrelevantinformationfromavarietyofsourceswithdepthandquality;criticallysynthesiseideastosupporttheresearch
Datacollectionmethod
Datacollectedarenotrelevanttotheresearchquestions
Relevantdatabutlackofprecisionorreliability
Relevantdatathatdemonstratesprecisionandreliability
Relevant,preciseandreliabledata,withvalidassessmentonthequalityofdata.
Analysis Presentrawdata
Attempttoanalysethedata
Usescientificmethodtoanalysethedata
Usescientificmethodtoanalysethedataandjustifyfortheappropriatenessofmethod
Report/ Presentation
Thereportisnotlogicallypresented
Usestandardscientificformattopresent
Presentacoherentscientificreportwithclearfocusontheinvestigation
Presentascientificreportthatisclear,concise,andconvincing.Useevidencetosupporttheconclusion
Communication Uselaymanlanguage
Attempttousescientificlanguagewithsomeerrors
Usescientificlanguageaccuratelytopresentthefindings
Usescientificlanguageeffectivelytopresentthefindingsinalogicalmanner
51
Perhapsthehighestlevelofself‐directionisachievedwhenstudentscandevelop
theirownassessmentrubrics,explaintheirrationalesandusethemobjectively
tomonitortheirownlearning.Thiscanonlyhappenwhenastudentappreciates
thecomplexityofatask,understandwhatitentails,andsetshighstandardsfor
himselforherself.
Students’Portfolio
A student’s portfolio contains a purposeful selection of works by the student
togetherwiththereflectionforlearning.Therearemanyresourcesavailableon
theusesandwaystoprepareaportfolio.Unfortunately,thediverseapplications
of portfolio also bring about some confusion. We will focus on how portfolio
assessmentcanbeusedforSDL.Whenusedappropriately,itisanidealtoolfor
assessmentforlearning.
For learning purposes, a portfolio should not be a mandatory collection of
specifiedworks from a program or a course that is like a student’s dossier or
folder,whichatbestprovidesadditionalevidence for the teacher toassess the
learning outcomes. It is also important to distinguish learning portfolio from
showcase portfolio. While a learning portfolio focuses on assessment for
learning, a showcaseportfoliousually contains the student’sbestworks and is
usedasasummativeproofforthelearningoutcomesorforgainingentryintoa
new programme. For SDL, students should assume some responsibilities in
identifying and explaining the choice of works that represent their learning
progress or development. Asking students to choose and justify for their
selection will likely engage them in self‐managing and self‐monitoring of
learning. They have to think about which piece of work fulfils the specified
criteriaandwill reflecton thequalityofwork. Inevitably, reflectionbecomesa
criticalpartoftheportfolioassessment.
52
Therearedifferent levelsofreflectioninaportfolioassessment.Astudentmay
writeabouttheoverallstructureandchoiceofworksthatwillfulfilthelearning
criteria;areflectionontheoveralllearningprogressandareasforimprovement;
aself‐assessmentonaparticularaspectof learning(e.g.,communicationskills);
oracommentonaparticularpieceofwork.Toengageinmeaningfulreflection,
thepurposeofreflectionandthecriteriaforassessmentmustbemadeknowto
thestudents.Student’s self‐profiling toolsandassessmentrubrics,asdiscussed
in the previous two sections, can be provided to guide the students in the
reflection.For studentswhoare ready, theycandevelop theirownassessment
criteria.
AsstudentsareatdifferentreadinesslevelforSDL,apurposefulconferencewith
theteacheraboutthelearningprogressusingtheportfoliowillbebeneficial.To
beeffective,theconferencecanbescheduledearlyenoughforstudentstoreceive
feedback and work towards improvement. It should also be conducted at
appropriateintervals(ratherthanjustattheendofacourse)fordevelopmental
purposes.
Figure3showsthekeyprocessesforpreparingalearningportfolio.Thedotted
square boxes describe examples of how a teacher can provide necessary
supports throughout the process. As assessment for learning, the learning
portfolioenablesthestudentstoexhibitwhattheyhavelearntdevelopmentally
onacontinuousbasisandcanbeusedtosetfuturedirectionforlearning.
53
Figure3:Keyprocessesofalearningportfolio
Teachers’assessmentinSDL
Earlier,wefocusedonhowstudentscouldassesstheirSDL.Wenowmoveonto
discusshowteacherscangoaboutassessingtheirstudents’SDL.Classroom
teacherscanassesswhethertheirstudentsparticipateinSDL.Ifthefrequencyis
lowerthanexpected,thereareatleasttwopossiblefollow‐upactionsthatcanbe
taken.Oneistofurtherdevelopstudents’competencyinSDL;theotheristo
providemoreopportunitiesforstudentstopracticetheirSDLskills.
Assessingstudents’behaviours
ToassesswhetherthestudentspractiseSDL,oneofthewaysistoobservetheir
actionsandbehaviours.BasedonthetheoriesofSDL,thethreedimensionsof
SDLi.e.ownershipoflearning,self‐managementandself‐monitoringand
extensionsoflearningareidentifiedtogetherwithcorrespondingbehavioural
indicators(seeChapter1).Theextenttowhichthestudentsdisplaythese
Learning
Portfolio
Specify,explainornegotiatethepurposeofportfolio
Specifyandexplainthecriteriaoftheportfolio(mayincludecriteriaforeachpieceofwork)
Provideguidanceonthetypesand
modalitiesofworkse.g.,photographs,report,video
Provideguidanceonpurposefulreflectionusingthecriteria
Providepurposefulfeedbackbothonthelearningoutcomesandtheself‐assessment
process
54
behavioursreflectswhetherthestudentshavedevelopedsomegenericSDL
skills.
Table4showsanexampleofhowclassroomteacherscanratetheirstudents’
behaviours.Thistableusesa6‐pointLikertscale.Usingateacher’sintuitive
judgement,heorsheshouldbeabletodecidewhetheritisclosertothe
descriptors“Allthetime”or“Notatall”.Thesearegeneralindicatorsthat
probablymaychangeafterafewweeksormonthsofintervention.Theteacher
canusethistogaugeandrecordthegeneralbehavioursofaclassatdifferent
juncturesinasemester(ratherthandailyorweekly)andtomakenecessary
adjustmentinhisorherinstructionalstrategies.
Table 4: Assessing students’ SDL behaviours
BehaviouralIndicators Frequency Reflection
Notatall Allthetime Evidenceoflackoflearning
opportunities
Strategiestoprovidelearning
opportunities
HowICTcouldsupportthe
strategiesSDLDimension1:Ownershipoflearning
Studentsidentifyand
articulatetheirown
learninggoals
Students determine
learning goals and identify
learning tasks to achieve
the goals
Students chart their
learning process
Students challenge
themselves and set the
standards for the
achievement of their
learning goals
55
BehaviouralIndicators Frequency Reflection
Notatall Allthetime Evidenceoflackoflearning
opportunities
Strategiestoprovidelearning
opportunities
HowICTcouldsupportthe
strategiesSDL Dimension 2: Management and monitoring of own learning
Students explore a range
of possibilities and make
sound decisions
Students formulate
questions and generate
relevant inquiries
Students self‐plan and
self‐manage their time
Students critically reflect
on their learning and
initiate gathering of
feedback from teachers
and peers to achieve their
learning goal
SDL Dimension 3: Extension of own learning
Students apply what they
have learnt to new
contexts
Students utilize the skills
that they have acquired to
learn beyond the
curriculum content
A caveat is that this instrument uses behavioural indicators, which may not
reveal covert thinking. For example, a student can be reflecting on his or her
performancebutthethoughtsmaynotbecapturedaswriting.Askingstudentsto
keep a reflection log or interviewing the students can complement this
instrument. If the frequency of behaviour is lower than expected and there is
56
evidence that it is due to insufficient opportunities for the students to
demonstrate their skills, the teacher can then think of ways to provide these
opportunities. Another possible reason is that the students need further
developmentinSDL.Ateachercanalsoassesshis/herownscaffoldingstrategies
infosteringSDLamongstthestudents.
Teachers’self‐assessmentofscaffoldingstudentsforSDL
Table 5 is an example of what a teacher can do to reflect on the roles of the
teachers in providing support to engage the students in SDL. These are
complementaryrolesinthethreesalientaspectsofSDL.
Table 5: Teachers’ self-assessment of scaffolding for SDL
Frequency Reflection Behavioural
IndicatorsNotatall Allthetime Evidencethat
studentslackcompetency
Strategiesforenhancedscaffolding
HowICTcould
supportthestrategies
Student‐teacherslearningpartnership
Teachersnegotiate
andprovide
scaffoldtostudents
toenablethemto
developalearning
contracttoachieve
theirintended
learninggoals
Teachersprovide
supportfor
studentstoplan
andcharttheir
learningpath
Teachersprovide
supportfor
studentstodevelop
self‐evaluation
criteria
57
Frequency Reflection Behavioural
IndicatorsNotatall Allthetime Evidencethat
studentslackcompetency
Strategiesforenhancedscaffolding
HowICTcould
supportthestrategies
Conditionsforstudents’self‐managementandmonitoringoftheirlearning
Teacherstoidentify
relevantskillsthat
studentsneed(e.g.
goalsetting,
managingand
planninglearning,
resource
management)soas
toenablestudents
tobecomeefficient
intheirlearning
Experiencesforextensionofstudents’learning
Teachersprovide
learningcontexts
conduciveto
broadenand
deepenstudents’
learning
Teachersinitially
challengestudents
andthengradually
encouragestudents
tochallenge
themselvessoasto
sethighstandards
ofachievement
The exampleswe provide in this chapterworkwellwith the design principles
thatwe laidout inChapter2.Although thereare suggestionsonwaysofusing
theserubricsandthelearningportfolio,theseassessmentmeansareflexibleand
open to other informed uses by the teachers. For instance, to assess both
58
students’ and teachers’ readiness for SDL, Table 4 and 5 can be used before
designinga lesson that fostersSDL.Both tables canalsobeused to review the
extentsofSDLthathavetakenplaceaftersomeinitialeffortsaremadetofoster
SDLintheclassroom.ThewaysofassessingSDLarebynomeansexhaustiveand
definitelyneedsextendedthoughtwhenappliedtoactualpracticeinSingapore’s
context. It is our intention that this chapter can expand Singapore teachers’
current understanding of assessment and kick start some possible ways of
assessingSDLamongthestudents.
59
ConcludingThoughts
In this monograph, we attend to the notions of SDL that are of relevance to
formalschoolingwithintheSingaporecontext.WhileSDLcouldbemorelikelyto
take place in informal contexts, particularly outside schools, we focus on how
SDL can be fostered within the formal curricula in Singapore. Ideas on SDL
demonstrate that it isuseful for thestudents tohave theopportunities toown,
manage,monitorandreflectupontheirlearningenterprise.AlongsideSDL,other
21stcenturyskillsalsobecometheby‐productofparticipatinginsuchawayof
learning.WheninculcatingSDLinourformalschooling, teachersshouldalways
bearinmindthatthestartingpointisthelearnerandrespectthereforeshouldbe
giventothelearnerautonomy,interestsandvisionoflearning.Thelearnerand
hisworldcanbeperceivedasresourcestobe leveragedforclassroomteaching
andlearning.
60
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