spanish in the usa
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SPANISH IN
THE USA
C H A R L O T T E , BL A Y N E , K
I M A
N D TE S S
HISTORY AND CONTEXT:MEXICAN SPANISH• Texas War of Independence, 1836
• Mexican-American War, 1848
• Mexican Revolution, 1910-1920
• ‘Bracero’ Programme, 1942
CUBAN SPANISH• Spanish-American War, 1898
• Cuban Revolution, 1959
• Mariel boatlift, 1980
• ‘Balseros’, 1994
PUERTO RICAN SPANISH• Spanish-American War, 1898
• 50,000 immigrate to US mainland, 1945-1955
CENTRAL AMERICA POLITICAL TURMOIL , 1980S• E.g. El Salvador Civil War
DEMOGRAPHICS OF THE UNITED STATES (FOCUSING ON ITS HISPANIC POPULATION):
A LITTLE BIT OF HISTORY…Earliest origins of the language date back to the 16th/17th centuries with
colonization efforts
Many Southern states, especially in the SW, were under the Spanish Empire, and
there were efforts to conquer areas of the United States further north
Mexico gained independence from Spanish Empire in 1821
Treaty of Guadalupe signed in Feb 1848
Spanish Influence still clearly visible in these parts
Puerto Rico 1898 (Citizenship in 1917)
Large immigration movement from Mexico, Cuba, etc. to America since
19TH CENTURY
MEXICAN CESSION: TREATY OF GUADALUPE HIDALGO
LASTING EFFECTS & CONSEQUENCESArizonaCaliforniaColoradoFloridaMontanaNevadaNew MexicoTexasUtah
Spanglish
• Various areas of some US cities have an exceptionally high Hispanic population, with areas such as Washington Heights (NY) and Little Havana (Miami)
• Common enough site in cities but these places, among others, are noted for having Spanish signs
RECENT POPULATION TRENDS
http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-02.pdf
http://www.census.gov/geo/www/mapGallery/images/hispanic.jpg
http://popcenter.uchicago.edu/census_conference/Research-News.shtml
FEW INTERESTING NOTES FROM THE 2002 CENSUS
66.9% Mexican, 8.6% Puerto Rico, 3.7% Cuba, 14.3% other C&S America,
6.5% other Hispanic
“Hispanics are more likely than non-Hispanic Whites to live inside
central cities of metropolitan areas”
45.6% of Hispanics, compared to 21.1% of non-Hispanic whites
Just 8.7% of Hispanics live outside metropolitan areas, compared to
22.1% of non-Hispanic whites
The concentration within cities can help them to raise awareness and
keep visible so that the Spanish language naturally gains
prominence form State authorities
http://www.globalvillage.us/census2002.pdf
THE FUTURE OF SPANISH IN THE USA
1. If migration of Spanish speakers will continue, the status of Spanish as the USA’s second language (first in some places) will be guaranteed.
2. Ethnic and linguistic assimilation to Anglo American culture will continue to increase.
Table with row headers in columns A and column headers in row 3. Hispanic population in the United States:
1970 to 2050
Source of Data and
Year
Hispanic Population (in millions)
Percent Hispanic of
the total population
Census 1970 9.6 4.71980 14.6 6.41990 22.4 9.02000 35.3 12.5
Projections 2010* 47.8 15.52020* 59.7 17.82030* 73.0 20.12040* 87.7 22.32050* 102.6 24.4
Footnote:*Projected population as of July 1
SOURCE: U.S. Census Bureau, 1970, 1980, 1990, and 2000 Decennial Censuses; Population Projections, July 1, 2010 to July 1, 2050.Internet Release Date: February 08, 2008
GROWTH OF H
ISPANIC
POPU
LATION
US Censu
s Data
& Pred
iction
s
‘SPANGLISH’• Code-switching / lexical borrowing• Ambiguous connotations
“Spanish characterized by numerous borrowing from English.”
American Heritage Dictionary“A type of Spanish contaminated by English words and
forms of expressions, spoken in Latin America.”Oxford English Dictionary
• Can be use positively as a badge of bicultural identity• Can be used to disparage US Latinos
SPANISH IN THE MEDIA
• Significant presence in the media
730 radio stations; 200 television station; 1851 print publications
(2007)
• In some places Spanish televisions and radio has a greater
audience than English counterparts.
• Demand for information in Spanish regardless of fluency in English
LINGUISTIC LEGISLATION IN THE USASPANISH AS A MINORITY LANGUAGENATIONAL LEGISLATION
April 27, 1981
Proposing an amendment to the Constitution of the United States establishing English as the
official language of the United States.
`Article --
`Section 1. The English language shall be the official language of the United States.
`Section 2. Neither the United States nor any State shall make or enforce any law which requires the use of any language other than English.
“English Only” ? “Language of Government” ?
“English Language Empowerment Act of 1996'‘
`Sec. 161. The official language of the Federal Government is English.
Sec. 165. (a) Fluency.--It has been the longstanding national belief that full citizenship in the United States requires fluency in English. English is the language of opportunity for all immigrants to take their rightful place in society in the United States.
`Sec. 167. ``(1) to prohibit a Member of Congress or an employee or official of the Federal Government, while performing official business, from communicating orally with another person in a language other than English; …(4) to discourage or prevent the use of languages other than English in any nonofficial capacity.
Source: The Library of Congress, Thomas
MOST RECENT LEGISLATIVE ATTEMPTS (1)
“National Language Act 2011”
March 17, 2011
To amend title 4, United States Code, to declare Englishas the official language of the Government of the UnitedStates, and for other purposes.
‘‘Sec.‘‘161. Declaration of official language.‘‘162. Official Government activities in English.‘‘163. Preserving and enhancing the role of the official language.
[…] no person has a right, entitlement, or claim to have the Government of the United States […] act, communicate, perform or provide services, or provide materials in any language other than English.
(does not apply to voting rights, education or religious context)
Source: The Library of Congress, Thomas
MOST RECENT LEGISLATIVE ATTEMPTS (2)
“The English Plus Resolution”: Concurrent Resolution
January 7, 2011 (High Congress Resolution 8)
Whereas multilingualism promotes greater cross-cultural understanding between different racial and ethnic groups in the United States;
Whereas there is no threat to the English language in the United States;
Whereas “English-only” measures, […], would violate traditions of cultural pluralism, divide communities along ethnic lines, jeopardize the provision of law enforcement […] to those whose English is limited;
Whereas such “English-only” measures […]contradict the spirit of the 1923 Supreme Court case Meyer v. Nebraska, “The protection of the Constitution extends to all; to those who speak other languages as well as to those born with English on the tongue” …
Now, therefore be it
That the United States Government […] –
(1) Encourage all residents of this country to become fully proficient in English […];
(2) Conserve and develop the Nation’s linguistic resources by encouraging all residents of this country to learn or maintain skills in languages other than English;
(4) Continue to provide services in languages other than English as needed […];
(5) Recognise the importance of multilingualism to vital American interests and individual rights, and oppose “English only” measures and other restrictionist language measures.
Source: The Library of Congress, Thomas
Advantages of “English Plus”
• Increases number of citizens with multiple language skills• Aids U.S. trade, diplomacy, and national security• Shifts focus off a disability of immigrants to speak English, and encourages them to maintain their native tongue in order to teach it to the monolingual population
How is the “English plus” resolution unsuccessful?
• Many native-born Anglo-Americans are monolingual• Some organisations have focused more on the English, and others more on the Plus: tension between advocating a second-language and of defending language rights• Some critics maintain that English Plus fails to acknowledge the role that minority groups themselves must play in developing language policies that affect their own communities
Source: Crawford, J.
States with “English Plus” Resolutions
New Mexico (1989)Oregon (1989)Rhode Island (1992)Washington (1989)
STATE LEGISLATIONSince 1981 25 states have adopted various forms of Official English legislation
Hawaii is officially bilingual
Alaska tried to implement an English-only initiative - been declared unconstitutional
There are 27 states with active Official English laws.
These measures are unrelated to the amendment of the U.S. Constitution.
Statute – Arkansas (1987), Georgia (1996), Idaho (2007), Iowa (2002), Indiana (1984), Kansas (2007), Kentucky (1984), Mississippi (1987), Missouri (1998), Montana (1995), New Hampshire (1995), North Carolina (1987), North Dakota (1987), South Carolina (1987), South Dakota (1995), Tennessee (1984), Utah (2000), Wyoming (1996), Virginia (1981; 1996)
Constitutional amendment – Alabama (1990), Nebraska (1923), Oklahoma (2010)
Constitutional amendment adopted by voter initiative –, Arizona (2006),California (1986), Colorado (1988), Florida (1988)
IIllinois (1969) – statute repealing a 1923 declaration of "American" as the official state language and adopting English
Source: Baron, D.
Source: Crawford, D.
STATUS OF SPANISH IN THE USAAmericans who speak a language other than Spanish at home - 55,076,078
Number of those who are Spanish speakers - 34,183,747 http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/thomas]Table 2.
Population 5 years and older Who spoke aLanguage other than english at home by selectedhispanic origin and race group: 2009 [U.S. Census Study]
Hispanic Origin and race PercentTotal Population 5 years and older
20.0
Not Hispanic or Latino 10.0Hispanic or Latino 76.2White Alone; not Hispanic or Latino
14.5
Black or African American Alone
7.9
American Indian and Alaska Native Alone
29.0
Asian Alone 77.1
Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander Alone
42.5
Two or More Races 19.6Source: US Census 2010
LANGUAGE CONCENTRATION IN THE USA
In 2007, with 34.5 million speakers, Spanish is by far the most commonly spoken non-English “minority language”
For Spanish speakers, three states (Texas, California, and New Mexico) had the highest percentage, but the southwest corridor of the United States also had a sizable percentage of thepopulation speaking Spanish
Concentration by State Metropolitan/Micropolitan ConcentrationLarge metro areas such as New York (9.5%), Los Angeles (12.8% Spanish), and Chicago (4.3% Spanish) generally had large proportions of foreign-language speakers because of the economic opportunities in these places or because they act as gateway points of entry into the country.
Concentration of Spanish Speakers by State
Source: US Census 2010
EXAMPLESPuerto Rico
Spanish is the native tongue of the vast majority of Puerto Ricans.
English is taught in the island's schools: less than 20 percent of its residents have learned to speak, read, and write English fluently (est.)
English Only legislation has become a cause for alarm in Puerto Rico
1991: congress voted to repeal Puerto Rico's official bilingualism and replace it with Spanish as the sole official language
1993: statehood advocates regained the upper hand - Puerto Rico's legislature reinstated the policy of official bilingualism.
Despite the fact that it is a predominantly Spanish-speaking state, Spanish still does not hold precedence over English in legislation
New Mexico Has a high number of Spanish speakers
State declarations of Official English produced a counter-trend
It became the first state to adopt an English Plus resolution followed by Oregon and Washington StateIn many states where English is the official
language, and there is a high percentage of (monolingual) Spanish speakers immigration is also an issue.
Thus, the language conflict of the area is associated the issue of illegal immigration
Eg. Prince William County, Virginia http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wSVQAT3TSdE&feature=plcp&context=C45eb6b1VDvjVQa1PpcFP38fSI81qfHIaPERetKpcnvteFCoHQVcw%3D&fb_source=message
Entrance to Puerto Rico: dual flags
Source: Crawford, J.
IS SPANISH A MINORITY LANGUAGE?
In the above table, it is clear to see that a high number of Spanish-speaking citizens cannot understand or speak English.
This means that with English as the dominant language, they will have difficulties with language on a day-to-day basis.
Spanish appears to be growing in the states more due to high numbers of immigration rather than the passing
on of native language from generation to generation
It is difficult to place Spanish as a minority language in the USA.
It is, however, spoken by a minority group in given areas; would it therefore be accurate to say that Spanish is a minority language in the United States?
Obviously, Spanish, though a minority language in the US, is not a minority language on an international level
It is only a minority language on the basis that it is spoken by a minority of the US population, and the language does not possess the same rights to speak their language as English
‘ENGLISH ONLY’ MOVEMENT• 1981: Senator Samuel Hayakawa of California proposed an English
Language Amendment.
1. A common language can unify, whereas separate languages can fracture a society.
2. Learning English is the major task of each immigrant.3. Only by learning English can an immigrant fully participate in
our democracy.
• This amendment failed, but these themes would spark the movement. The publicity it achieved led to the creation of the organisation ‘US English’ in 1983.
• None of these proposals have been successful, but the English Only movement continues to lobby vigorously, for a change of language policies at both federal and state levels.
• However, they have had considerable success at state level.• California’s Proposition 63, passed in 1986 – declared English as the official
language of the State of California.• Since then, 23 states (and 40 cities) have adopted English as their official
language.• Statutes and amendments vary significantly from state to state, but generally
speaking, they want:• English to be the official language of the state• In most cases, English to be the only language of government activity.
• These laws are generally popular.
‘ENGLISH ONLY’ MOVEMENT
1. Adopt a constitutional law establishing English as the official language of the US.
2. Repeal laws mandating multilingual ballots and voting material.3. Restrict federal funding of bilingual education4. Strengthen the enforcement of English-language civic and
immigration requirements for naturalisation.
• These are not particularly new concerns – similar objectives were seen in the ‘Americanisation Movement’ for example, at the time of WWI.
• What is distinct about the present English Only movement is its national profile and organisation (and its support from the American public).
KEY OBJECTIVES OF THE ENGLISH ONLY MOVEMENT:
FOUR SIGNIFICANT PROBLEMS OF THE ENGLISH ONLY MOVEMENT:
• As defined by May:
1. The historical inaccuracy that characterises many of their arguments about the role of English (and by implication other languages) in the US.
2. Explicit link made between a lack of English-language facility and subsequent educational failure. Also misrepresentation of bilingual education.
3. Inherent nativism of much English Only rhetoric – i.e. language is used as a convenient proxy for maintaining racialised distinctions in the US.
4. The assumption that speaking English is a unifying force, whilst multilingualism is by definition destructive of national unity.
• ‘Historical amnesia’ and the myths on which the English Only movement is based (May, 2008, p.207).
PROPOSITION 227 IN CALIFORNIA
• Entitled ‘The English Language Education for Children in Public Schools Initiative’
• Passed in 1998• Significantly changed the way that LEP (limited English
proficient) students were taught in California.• Controversial, given its relation to race and immigration.
BEFORE THE PROPOSITION...• 70% of all LEP students in California received some sort of help to
aid them in their studies.• 40% were taught in English, but using class materials and teaching
methods specially for students who do not speak English well.• 30% were taught at least partly in their home languages.
• LEP students would receive special help until:• they could read, write and understand English to the same level as
that of average students in the same grade.• until they could participate equally with fluent English-speakers in
the class (they may have received special help over several years).
AFTER THE PROPOSITION...• Ended the possibility of bilingual education programs for LEP
students.• Replaces this with an English immersion program.• Requires California public schools to teach LEP students in special
classes that are taught nearly all in English.• This would eliminate "bilingual" classes in most cases.• Shortens the time most LEP students would stay in special classes.
• LEP students should move from special classes to regular classes when they have acquired a good working knowledge of English.
• These special classes should not normally last longer than one year. This would eliminate most programs that provide special classes to LEP students over several years.
TEN YEARS LATER...• Mixed opinions about how effective the changes have been.• But... test scores of LEP students are said to be higher, and averages of
all students together also higher.• Since then, several other states have attempted to follow California's
lead with mixed results.• Voters in Arizona approved an English immersion education law in 2000
and Massachusetts approved one in 2002.
‘All reputable research in bilingual education, as should be clear by now, suggests that this submersion English-only approach, with only short-term specialist support, represents the worst of all possible worlds for
such (predominantly Hispanic) students.’ (May, 2008, p.221)
BIBLIOGRAPH
Y
Arizona Department of State, http://www.azsos.gov/election/2006/Info/PubPamphlet/english/Prop103.htm, [Accessed 18.03.2012]
Baron, D. Language Laws and Related Court Decisions, http://www.english.illinois.edu/-people-/faculty/debaron/essays/langlaw.htm [Accessed 17.03.2012]
Crawford, J. (1997-2008: Last updated 01.02.2012), http://www.languagepolicy.net/archives/langleg.htm [Accessed 16.03.2012]
May, S. (2008) Language and Minority Rights, New York: Routledge
Thomas: The Library of Congress, http://thomas.loc.gov/home/thomas.php [Accessed 16.03.2012]
United States Census 2010, http://2010.census.gov/2010census/ [Accessed 18.03.2012]
BIBLIOGRAPH
Y
Spanish in the United States: Linguistic Contact and Diversity
Ana Roca, John M. LipskiWalter de Gruyter 1999
Varieties of Spanish in the United States
John M. LipskiGeorgetown University Press
Language Diversity in the USAKim PotowskiCambridge University Press
On so-called SpanglishRicardo Otheguy, Nancy SternInternational Journal of Bilingualism
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