theoretical models of reading
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TOPIC 2
Theoretical Models of
Reading
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Research on Reading
1. Bottom-up and Top-Down Processing
(Goodman, 1970)
2. Schema Theory and BackgroundKnowledge
3. The Power of Extensive Reading
4. The Reading-Writing Connection
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1. Bottom-up Processing
Readers must first recognize multiplelinguistic signalsletters, syllables, words,
phrases, grammatical cues, discourse
markersin order to understand theirreading. These data-driven operations
require a sophisticated knowledge of the
language. From all the perceived data, thereader selects signals that make
sense/cohere or mean.
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Top-down Processing
Reading is a guessing game because readers
must infer meaning, decide what to retain or
not, and read on. This is where readers use
top-down or conceptually-drivenprocessing, relying on their experience and
intelligence.
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2. Schema Theory and Background Knowledge
A text by itself does not carry meaning. Thereaderbringsinformation, knowledge,emotion, experience, and culture to thereading. As Guy Cook stated, this is ourpreexistent knowledge of the world(1989). This knowledge is known asSchema.
In fact, Clarke & Silberstein (1977) claim thatmore information is contributed by thereader than by the print on the page.
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2. Schema
If you hear
someone describe
what happened in
a hospital, you
dont have to be
told what is
normally found
in a hospital.
Doctors
Nurses
Patients
Wards
Pharmaceuticals
Trolleys A peculiar smell
Heathrow Airport?
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Group Task: Top-down or Bottom-up processing?
Across the emerald pool fell a shimmering image oflotus-shaped cupolas and copper-gilt walls. Dhoti-
clad men lowered themselves into the water to
perform ablutions; women in saris murmured
prayers in Punjabi. Such a domain of peace andpietythe Golden Templehad been impossible
to imagine in the clamorous lanes of Amritsar
outside. The temple was orderly, efficient. Sikh
guards, dressed in robes of alabaster white and
turbans of royal blue,
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Across the emerald pool fell a
shimmering image oflotus-
shapedcupolas and copper-giltwalls. Dhoti-clad men lowered
themselves into the water to
perform ablutions; women in
saris murmured prayers in
Punjabi. Such a domain ofpeace and pietythe Golden
Templehad been impossible
to imagine in the clamorous
lanes ofAmritsaroutside. The
temple was orderly, efficient.
Sikh guards, dressed in robes
ofalabaster white and turbans
of royal blue,
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2. Background Knowledge
John was on his way to school. He was really worried about the science
lesson.
Yesterday, he had been unable to controlthe class.
It was unfair of the teacher to ask him to
teach the lesson. After all, it was not the cleaners duty.
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3. The Power of Extensive Reading
Krashen (The Power of Reading, 1993) and
Day & Bamford (1998) have made the case
for extensive reading in developing
students reading ability, linguisticcompetence, vocabulary, spelling, and
writing. Green & Oxford (1995) found that
reading for pleasure and reading withoutlooking upunknown words were correlated
with increased language proficiency.Krashens acquisition vs. learning
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4. The Reading -Writing Connection
Reading has been found to have a reciprocalrelationship with writing; development of goodreading habits and skills improve studentsability to write. In fact, reading within a
discipline helps students to writeprofessionally in their field; biologyprofessors learn to write articles the waybiology professors do by reading articles thatbiology professors have written (Leki, 1993,p. 10).
Students reading and writing skills, developed intheir first language, are generally transferable totheir second language.
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10 Strategies for Improving Reading Comprehension
1. Identify the purpose in reading2. Use graphemic rules and patterns to help bottom-up
processing (for beginners)
3. Use efficient silent reading techniques
4. Skim the text for main ideas5. Scan the text for specific information
6. Use semantic mapping
7. Guess when you arent certain
8. Analyze vocabulary
9. Distinguish between literal and implied meanings
10. Capitalize on discourse markers (Brown, 2001)
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Reading Strategies Explained
2. At beginning levels,students may havedifficulty in makingconnections betweenspoken/oral and written
English/spelling. Pointerson
Short vowel sounds inbat, him, leg
Long vowel sounds inlate, time, bite
And numerous other phonicapproaches.
3. Silent Reading
Dont move lips
Perceive more than
one word at a time,possibly phrases
Skip over difficult
words unless they are
needed for global
understanding
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Reading Strategies Explained
4. SkimmingQuickly running youreyes over a text to getthe gist. Can predict
purpose, main topic,and supporting ideas.
5. Scanning
Quickly searching for
specific information(names, dates, adefinition, etc.) in atext.
6. Semantic Mapping orClustering
AIDS in Asia
China India
lack of awareness
poverty + ignorance
solutions
education cheaper
treatment
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Reading Strategies Explained
7.Guess when you arentcertain
Meanings of words
Grammatical relationship
(e.g., pronoun reference) Discourse relationships
Implied meanings
(between the lines)
Cultural references
9. Distinguish between literaland implied meanings
Shut the door
Its getting cold in
here. Shall we keep out the
draft?
Now, Karen, what have
you forgotten to do? Brrr!
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Reading Strategies Explained
10. Discourse markers Enumerative: first,
second, one, two, next,
finally, to conclude
Additive: again, also,
moreover; equally,
similarly
Logical sequence: sofar, then, thus,
therefore
Explicative: namely,in other words, that is
to say
Illustrative: for
example, for instance
Contrastive: again, on
the other hand,
instead, by contrast,however, though, yet
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Group Task
Do you read English material for
pleasure? If yes, what do you read?
Has this habit helped in the acquisition
of English? How?
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How many words are necessary to do the things that
a language user needs to do?
For learners who are going to
do academic study in
English, the most accurate
indication of the wordsneeded for study at
secondary and university
level is theAcademic
Words List.
http://www.vuw.ac.nz/lals/re
search/awl/
TheAWL is a compilation of
words from academic
journals, textbooks or
course books, chaptersfrom college textbooks,
and other academic
sources. The resultant 414
source materials yielded a
total of 3,513,330 words,70,377 individual words,
and 570 word families.
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Academic Word List (AWL)
The total group of words(corpus) was divided intofour categories: Arts,Commerce, Law, andScience.
Words were selected for theAWL if they were notamong the first 2,000 highfrequency words inEnglish and if they
occurred at least 10 timesin each of the four maincategories.
The 570 word families coverabout 10% of the words inacademic articles and text
books, about 4% of thewords in newspapers, and
less than 2% of the wordsin novels andconversation; it is clearly aspecialized vocabulary.Academic vocabulary is a
very important learninggoal for learners who aregoing for higher studies inEnglish.
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The following is an academic text. Which words are
from theAcademic Words List?
The second idea is used to justify a rule basedapproach to policy is the idea of timeconsistency which implies that discretionary
policy has systematic inflation bias. I attachless significance to this second idea thanmany of my colleagues in the profession do.The reason is that in the time consistency
theories, the benefits of policy rules largelyarise from how they influence inflationexpectations.
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Words from the
Academic Words List
The second idea is used tojustify a rule basedapproach topolicy is the idea of timeconsistency which implies that discretionary
policy has systematic inflationbias. I attachless significance to this second idea thanmany of my colleagues in the profession do.The reason is that in the time consistency
theories, thebenefits of policy rules largelyarise from how they influence inflationexpectations.
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Can you raed this?
I cdnuolt blveiee that I cluod aulacllyuesdnatnrd what I was rdanieg. The phaonmneal
pweor of the hmuan mnid, aoccdrnig to arscheearch at Cmabrigde Uinervtisy, it dseno't
mtaetr in what oerdr the ltteres in a word are, theolny iproamtnt tihng is that the frsit and last ltteer
be in the rghit pclae. The rset can be a taotl msesand you can still raed it whotuit a pboerlm. This
is bcuseae the huamn mnid deos not raed erveylteter by istlef, but the word as a wlohe. Azanmighuh? Yaeh and I awlyas tghuhot slpelingwas ipmorantt! Movie after break
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Home Work - Writing Assignment
Hong Kong universities plan to increase the number ofinternational students to about 20% of the total enrollment.Supporters of this plan say that international students willadd more diversity to our universities. Opponents arguethat international students will take places away from
Hong Kong students. Which position do you support? Givespecific reasons for your response.
Please write a clear thesis statement and a topic sentence foreach paragraph. You should also ensure properorganization and cohesion.
Your paper should be about 600-words (about two double-spaced pages) in length, and should be word-processed.Your primary readers will be your classmates.
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