unit 1: scientific processes and measurement
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Unit 1: Scientific Processes and Measurement
Science: man made pursuit to understand natural phenomena
Chemistry: study of matter
Safety ResourcesHazard Symbols
blue – health red – flammabilityyellow – reactivity white – special
codes
Scale: 0 to 4 0 = no danger4 = extreme danger!
MSDS – Material Safety Data Sheet
• gives important information about chemicals
first aid, fire-fighting, properties, disposal, handling/storage, chemical formula…
Scientific Method•General set of guidelines used in an experiment
Hypothesis•Testable statement based on
observations; can be disproven, but not proven
Which of these is a hypothesis that can be tested through experimentation?
• A) Bacterial growth increases exponentially as temperature increases.
• B) A fish’s ability to taste food is affected by the clarity of aquarium water.
• C) Tadpoles’ fear of carnivorous insect larvae increases as the tadpoles age.
• D) The number of times a dog wags its tail indicates how content the dog is.
Law• States phenomena but does not
address “why?”• Examples: Newton’s Laws of
Motion, Law of Conservation of Mass
Theory• Broad generalization that
explains a body of facts• Summarizes hypotheses that
have been supported through repeated testing
Qualitative ObservationsNon-numerical descriptions in an
experiment
Example: Color is blue…
Quantitative Observations• Observations that are numerical
• Example: the mass is 9.0 grams
Parts of an ExperimentIndependent Variable: variable that is
being changed or manipulated by YOU
Dependent Variable: variable that responds to your change ---- what you see
Controlled Variables: variables that you keep the same
Control or Control Set-up: used for comparison; allows you to measure effects of manipulated variable
Directly proportional: when one variable goes up, the other also goes up
Indirectly proportional: when one variable goes up, the other goes down
The diagram shows different setups of an experiment to determine how sharks find their prey. Which experimental setup is the control?
A) QB) RC) SD) T
• “DRY MIX” - way to remember definitions and graphing
• DRY – dependent, responding, y-axis
• MIX – manipulated, independent, x-axis
Nature of Measurement
Part 1 - Part 1 - numbernumberPart 2 - Part 2 - scale (unit)scale (unit)
Examples:Examples:• 2020 gramsgrams
• 6.63 x 106.63 x 10-34-34 Joule secondsJoule seconds
Measurement - quantitative Measurement - quantitative observation observation consisting of 2 partsconsisting of 2 parts
Measuring Volume Temperature Mass
Reading the Meniscus
Always read volume from the bottom of the meniscus. The meniscus is the curved surface of a liquid in a narrow cylindrical container.
Try to avoid parallax errors.ParallaxParallax errorserrors arise when a meniscus or arise when a meniscus or needle is viewed from an angle rather than needle is viewed from an angle rather than from straight-on at eye level.from straight-on at eye level.
Correct: Viewing the meniscus
at eye level
Incorrect: viewing the meniscus
from an angle
Graduated Cylinders
The glass cylinder has etched marks to indicate volumes, a pouring lip, and quite often, a plastic bumper to prevent breakage.
Measuring Volume Determine the volume contained in a graduated cylinder by reading the bottom of the meniscus at eye level. Read the volume using all certain digits and one uncertain digit.
Certain digits are determined from the calibration marks on the cylinder. The uncertain digit (the last digit of the reading) is estimated.
Use the graduations to find all certain digits
There are two unlabeled graduations below the meniscus, and each graduation represents 1 mL, so the certain digits of the reading are…
52 mL.
Estimate the uncertain digit and take a reading
The meniscus is about eight tenths of the way to the next graduation, so the final digit in the reading is .
The volume in the graduated cylinder is
0.8 mL
52.8 mL.
10 mL GraduateWhat is the volume of liquid in the graduate?
_ . _ _ mL6 26
100mL graduated cylinder What is the volume of liquid in the graduate?
_ _ . _ mL5 2 7
Self TestExamine the meniscus below and determine the volume of liquid contained in the graduated cylinder.
The cylinder contains:
_ _ . _ mL7 6 0
The Thermometero Determine the temperature by reading the scale on the thermometer at eye level.o Read the temperature by using all certain digits and one uncertain digit. o Certain digits are determined from the
calibration marks on the thermometer. o The uncertain digit (the last digit of the reading) is estimated. o On most thermometers encountered in a general chemistry lab, the tenths place is the uncertain digit.
Do not allow the tip to touch the walls or the bottom of the flask.
If the thermometer bulb touches the flask, the temperature of the glass will be measured instead of the temperature of the solution. Readings may be incorrect, particularly if the flask is on a hotplate or in an ice bath.
Reading the ThermometerDetermine the readings as shown below on Celsius thermometers:
_ _ . _ C _ _ . _ C8 7 4 3 5 0
Measuring Mass - The Beam Balance
Our balances have 4 beams – the uncertain digit is the thousandths place ( _ _ _ . _ _ X)
Balance Rules In order to protect the balances and ensure accurate results, a number of rules should be followed:
Always check that the balance is level and zeroed before using it. Never weigh directly on the balance pan. Always use a piece of weighing paper to protect it. Do not weigh hot or cold objects. Clean up any spills around the balance immediately.
Mass and Significant Figureso Determine the mass by reading the riders on the beams at eye level.o Read the mass by using all certain digits and one uncertain digit.
oThe uncertain digit (the last digit of the reading) is estimated. o On our balances, the hundredths place is uncertain.
Determining Mass 1. Place
object on pan
2. Move riders along beam, starting with the largest, until the pointer is at the zero mark
Check to see that the balance scale is at zero
Read Mass
_ _ _ . _ _ _1 1 4 ? ? ?
Read Mass More Closely
_ _ _ . _ _ _1 1 4 4 9 7
Uncertainty in Measurement
• A A digit that must be digit that must be estimatedestimated is is called called uncertainuncertain. A . A measurementmeasurement always has some degree of uncertainty.always has some degree of uncertainty.
Why Is there Uncertainty? Measurements are performed with instruments No instrument can read to an infinite number of decimal placesWhich of these balances has the greatest
uncertainty in measurement?
Precision and AccuracyAccuracy Accuracy refers to the agreement of a refers to the agreement of a
particular value with the particular value with the truetrue value.value.
PrecisionPrecision refers to the degree of agreement refers to the degree of agreement among several measurements made in among several measurements made in the same manner.the same manner.
Neither accurate nor
precise
Precise but not accurate
Precise AND accurate
Rules for Counting Significant Figures - Details
• Nonzero integersNonzero integers always always count as significant figures.count as significant figures.
• 34563456 hashas • 44 sig figs.sig figs.
Rules for Counting Significant Figures - Details
• ZerosZeros• Leading zerosLeading zeros do not count as do not count as
significant figuressignificant figures..
• 0.04860.0486 has has• 33 sig figs. sig figs.
Rules for Counting Significant Figures - Details
• ZerosZerosCaptive zerosCaptive zeros always count asalways count as
significant figures.significant figures.
• 16.0716.07 hashas• 4 4 sig figs.sig figs.
Rules for Counting Significant Figures - Details
• ZerosZeros• Trailing zerosTrailing zeros are significant are significant
only if the number contains a only if the number contains a decimal point.decimal point.
• 9.3009.300 has has• 44 sig figs. sig figs.
Rules for Counting Significant Figures - Details
• Exact numbersExact numbers have an infinite have an infinite number of significant figures.number of significant figures.
• 11 inch = inch = 2.542.54 cm, exactlycm, exactly
Sig Fig Practice #1How many significant figures in each of the following?1.0070 m
5 sig figs
17.10 kg 4 sig figs
100,890 L 5 sig figs
3.29 x 103 s 3 sig figs0.0054 cm 2 sig figs3,200,000 2 sig figs
Rules for Significant Figures in Mathematical Operations
• Multiplication and DivisionMultiplication and Division:: # sig # sig figs in the result equals the number figs in the result equals the number in the least precise measurement in the least precise measurement used in the calculation.used in the calculation.
• 6.38 x 6.38 x 2.02.0 = =• 12.76 12.76 13 (2 sig figs)13 (2 sig figs)
Sig Fig Practice #2
3.24 m x 7.0 mCalculation Calculator says: Answer
22.68 m2 23 m2
100.0 g ÷ 23.7 cm3 4.219409283 g/cm3 4.22 g/cm3
0.02 cm x 2.371 cm 0.04742 cm2 0.05 cm2
710 m ÷ 3.0 s 236.6666667 m/s 240 m/s1818.2 lb x 3.23 ft 5872.786 lb·ft 5870 lb·ft
1.030 g ÷ 2.87 mL 2.9561 g/mL 2.96 g/mL
Rules for Significant Figures in Mathematical Operations
• Addition and SubtractionAddition and Subtraction: The : The number of decimal places in the result number of decimal places in the result equals the number of decimal places equals the number of decimal places in the least precise measurement.in the least precise measurement.
• 6.8 + 11.934 =6.8 + 11.934 =• 18.734 18.734 18.7 ( 18.7 (3 sig figs3 sig figs))
Sig Fig Practice #3
3.24 m + 7.0 mCalculation Calculator says: Answer
10.24 m 10.2 m100.0 g - 23.73 g 76.27 g 76.3 g
0.02 cm + 2.371 cm 2.391 cm 2.39 cm713.1 L - 3.872 L 709.228 L 709.2 L1818.2 lb + 3.37 lb 1821.57 lb 1821.6
lb2.030 mL - 1.870 mL 0.16 mL 0.160 mL
In science, we deal with some In science, we deal with some very very LARGELARGE numbers: numbers:
1 mole = 6020000000000000000000001 mole = 602000000000000000000000
In science, we deal with some In science, we deal with some very very SMALLSMALL numbers: numbers:
Mass of an electron =Mass of an electron =0.000000000000000000000000000000091 kg0.000000000000000000000000000000091 kg
Scientific NotationScientific Notation
Imagine the difficulty of Imagine the difficulty of calculating the mass of 1 mole calculating the mass of 1 mole of electrons!of electrons!
0.00000000000000000000000000000000.000000000000000000000000000000091 kg91 kg x 602000000000000000000000x 602000000000000000000000
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Scientific Scientific Notation:Notation:A method of representing very large A method of representing very large
or very small numbers in the or very small numbers in the form:form:
M x 10nM x 10n MM is a number between is a number between 11 and and 1010 nn is an integer is an integer
2 500 000 000
Step #1: Insert an understood decimal pointStep #1: Insert an understood decimal point
.Step #2: Decide where the decimal Step #2: Decide where the decimal must end must end up so that one number is to its up so that one number is to its leftleftStep #3: Count how many places you Step #3: Count how many places you bounce bounce the decimal pointthe decimal point
123456789
Step #4: Re-write in the form M x 10Step #4: Re-write in the form M x 10nn
2.5 x 102.5 x 1099
The exponent is the number of places we moved the decimal.
0.00005790.0000579
Step #2: Decide where the decimal Step #2: Decide where the decimal must end must end up so that one number is to its up so that one number is to its leftleftStep #3: Count how many places you Step #3: Count how many places you bounce bounce the decimal pointthe decimal pointStep #4: Re-write in the form M x 10Step #4: Re-write in the form M x 10nn
1 2 3 4 5
5.79 x 105.79 x 10-5-5
The exponent is negative because the number we started with was less than 1.
ReviewReview::Scientific notation Scientific notation expresses a number in the expresses a number in the form:form: M x 10M x 10nn
1 1 M M 1010
n is an n is an integerinteger
Calculator instructions
2 x 106 is entered as 2 2nd EE 6EE means x 10
If you see E on your calculator screen, it also means x 10
Try…
2 x 1014 / 3 x 10-3 = ?
2 x 10-34 x 3 x 1023
4.5 x 1023 / 5.26 x 10-14
The Fundamental SI Units (le Système International, SI)
Physical Quantity Name Abbreviation Mass kilogram kg Length meter m Time second s Temperature Kelvin K Volume Liter L Amount of Substance mole mol
Metric System Prefixes (use with standard base units)
Kilo 103 1000 KINGHecta 102 100 HENRYDeca 101 10 DIEDUnit 100 1
UNEXPECTEDLYDeci 10-1 0.1 DRINKINGCenti 10-2 0.01 CHOCOLATEMilli 10-3 0.001 MILK
Conversion Unit Examples
1 L = 1000 mL 1 Hm = ______ m
1 m = ____ cm 1 Dm = _____ m
1 kg = 1000 g ___ dm = 1 m
Metric System Prefixes (use with standard base units)
Tera 1012 1,000,000,000,000 THEGiga 109 1,000,000,000 GREATMega 106 1,000,000 MIGHTYKilo 103 1000 KINGHecta 102 100 HENRYDeca 101 10 DIEDUnit 100 1 UNEXPECTEDLYDeci 10-1 0.1 DRINKINGCenti 10-2 0.01 CHOCOLATEMilli 10-3 0.001 MILKMicro 10-6 0.000001 MAYBENano 10-9 0.000000001 NOTPico 10-12 0.000000000001 PASTUERIZED?
Conversion Unit Examples
1 L = 1000 mL 1 m = ______ nm
1 m = ____ cm 1 Dm = _____ m
1 kg = 1000 g ___ dm = 1 m
1 Mm = _____ m1 Gb = _____ byte
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