volume 4, no. 1, 1972

- 36 - BORNEO RESEARCH BULLET] However, t h i s p o l i c y of no-charge a r e a s i s a sound one, i t seems t o me, a s o therwise many who now r e c e i v e t h e BRB, and who a r e Vol. 4 , No. 1 June, i n t i m a t e l y involved i n Borneo r e s e a r c h , w o u l d n o t be a b l e t o cont inue r e c e i v i n g i t on a s u b s c r i p t i o n b a s i s because of t h e h igh c o s t of f o r e i g n exchange. To h e l p meet t h i s a s p e c t o f t h e p r o - Report from t h e E d i t o r : The F i n a n c i a l S t a t u s of t h e BRB jec ted d e f i c i t , t h e BRC w i l l consequent ly have t o seek o t h e r f i n a n c i a l support . Therefore , i f any r e a d e r s of t h e BRB know of a source of f i n a n c i a l suppor t f o r t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f FFE BRB and BRC e i t h e r Research Notes through foundat ion s o u r c e s , c o r p o r a t i o n s , o r i n E i d u a l s , t h e ............... e d i t o r would be deeply a p p r e c i a t i v e of h e a r i n g of them. I t seems The Belaga D i s t r i c t of Sarawak J6r6me Rousseai ..... r a t h e r c l e a r t h a t t h e BRC w i l l have t o t u r n t o such s o u r c e s i f i t Pioneer S e t t l e m e n t i n Southern and E a s t Kal imantan. . . . ........................................ i s t o cont inue i t s a c t i v i t i e s of f u r t h e r i n g r e s e a r c h i n t h e s o c i a l , D e n P. F i t z g e r a l c b i o l o g i c a l , and medical s c i e n c e s i n Borneo. Otherwise i t s Report of L i n g u i s t i c F i e l d Work Undertaken i n Sarawak. . . . . . a c t i v i t i e s w i l l have t o be c u r t a i l e d . ........................................... R o b e A . Blusl .............. A Study o f S n a k e b i t e i n Sarawak... Yoshio Sawa: One of t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s of t h e c o n t i n u i n g d e f i c i t i n t h e BRB i s A S e l e c t Bib l iography o f Publ i shed Works i n E n g l i s h With ............... . t h a t i n a d d i t i o n t o reduc ing c o s t s t h e r e w i l l a l s o have t o e a Relevance t o Bornean H i s t o r y Col in Cr i sswel ; reduc t ion i n coverage of t h e BRB and t h e number of pages t h a t can Melanau S t u d i e s ........................... I . F. C. S. Clyarf be p r i n t e d p e r i s s u e . We a r e h o l d i n g t h e s i z e of t h i s i s s u e t o 36 pages and hope t o reduce a l l f u r t h e r i s s u e s t o 32 pages. To enable us t o do t h i s , we a r e c o n s i d e r i n g e l i m i n a t i n g t h e l i s t of B r i e f Communications Fellows, l i s t i n g s of c u r r e n t p u b l i c a t i o n s , a b s t r a c t s of d i s s e r - ....... t a t i o n s , and book reviews. I f r a n k l y need guidance i n t h e s e m a t t e r s Conference on t h e Peoples o f t h e Southern P h i l i p p i n e s .............................................. and would welcome s u g g e s t i o n s from t h e r e a d e r s a s t o which of Caro l Molon) these a r e t h e mos t .usefu1 t o them and should t h e r e f o r e n o t be e l im- Research on t h e N a t u r a l H i s t o r y o f Sabah by t h e Sabah Museur a n f ~ e d . These a c t l o n s , however, w i l l no t comple te ly e l i m i n a t e t h e ..................................

e ~ c l t . Henry C. Tsen Khin Sionl

Again, l e t me u r g ~ a l l o f you who know o f any p o s s i b l e source of f i n a n c i a l suppor t f o r t h e BRB and t h e BRC t o p l e a s e c o n t a c t me i n News and Announcements t h i s regard s o t h a t we m a y t a k e t h e a p p r o p r i a t e a c t i o n . And f i n a l l y , l e t me aga in t h i s y e a r e x p r e s s our d e e p e s t thanks and A n t h r o p o l o g i s t s I n t e r e s t e d i n Bornean Research To Meet I n a p p r e c i a t i o n f o f those who have made c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e c o s t s Toronto a t t h e American Anthropolog ica l A s s o c i a t i o n of the E. Meetings ..................................................

Research on I s l a m i c i z a t i o n and M a l a y i z a t i o n and a Request f o r In format ion . . . ........................................

C o n t r i b u t i o n s Rece ived : G . N. Appe l l , D r . J. R. Audy, I . D. Black, News and P u b l i c a t i o n s o f t h e Malaysian Branch Royal A s i a t i c ................................................. J. D. Boles , R. I n g e r , Margaret Rof f , R. R u s s e l l , J. 0 . S u t t e r , S o c i e t y . . Wang Gung-wu, and .J. R. Wortmann. U n i v e r s i t i S a i n s Malays ia , Penang , Announces Academic

I- Appoints Vacant i n t h e School o f Comparative S o c i a l .................................................. S c i e n c e s

DELINQUENT OR UNRETURNED SUBSCRIPTION AND FELLOWSHIP NOTICES

P a r t of the d e f i c i t of t h e BRB i s a t t r i b u t a b l e t o t h e c o s t s o f ca r ry ing on our d i s t r i b u t i o n T i s t t h o s e i n d i v i d u a l s who a r e d e l i n - quent i n r e t u r n i n g t h e i r s u b s c r i p t i o n o r Fe l lowship n o t i c e s . We a r e t h e r e f o r e unable t o e l i m i n a t e t h o s e from t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n l i s t who a r e n o t i n t e r e s t e d i n r e c e i v i n g t h e BRB and who a s a conse- quence do not b o t h e r t o r e t u r n t h e n o t i c e s . To e l i m i n a t e t h e c o s t s of sending t h e BRB t o t h o s e who do n o t wish t o r e c e i v e it any longer o r t o a d z s s e s t h a t a r e f a u l t y ar o u t - o f - d a t e , we a r e sending a f i n a l n o t i c e w i t h t h i s i s s u e t o a l l t h o s e who have n o t a s y e t r e t u r n e d t h e i r n o t i c e s . Let me urge a l l who wish t o con- t i n u e r e c e i v i n g t h e BRB, p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e i n t h e no-charge a r e a s , t o r e t u r n t h i s f i n a l n o t i c e a s soon a s p o s s i b l e .

Borneo News

Book Reviews, A b s t r a c t s , and B i b l i o g r a p h y

Wilson: Wright:

Budu , The Or

o r Twenty Years i n Sarawak (Cobbe) ........... i g i n s of B r i t i s h Borneo ( P r i n g l e ) ............

The Rori D e c e G inqui r ic - ..

neo Research B u l l e t i n i s p u b l i s h e d t w i c e y e a r l y (Junr r) by t h e Borneo Research Counc i l . P l e a s e a d d r e s s a1 es and c o n t r i b u t i o n s f o r p u b l i c a t i o n t o G . N . Appe l l ,

L d l t o r , Borneo Research B u l l e t i n , P h i l l i p s , Maine 04966, U . 5 S i n g l e i-~$2.50.

Warren: The North Borneo Char te red Company's Adminis t ra t ion of t h e Bajau, 1878-1909: The P a c i f i c a t i o n o f a Mari t ime, Nomadic People (Sa ther ) ............................................... 33

Pol la rd : The Assoc ia t ion of Southeas t A s i a (ASA), 1961-1967; Regionalism, Ideology, and D e c l a r a t o r y Fore ign P o l i c y .................................................... (Abs t rac t ) 34

REPORT FROM THE EDITOR: THE FINANCIAL STATUS OF THE BRB B

The new format of t h i s i s s u e r e f l e c t s t h e d i f f i c u l t f i n a n c i a l s t a t u s I

1 of t h e BRB. For Volume 3 (1971) we i n c u r r e d a d e f i c i t o f $520.22. This d e E i t was met by a one- t ime-only , anonymous c o n t r i b u t i o n , which w i l l no t be r e p e a t e d f o r Volume 4. Consequently, we have taken d r a s t i c s t e p s t o c u t t h e c o s t s o f t h e BRB i n o r d e r t o minimize t h i s p r o j e c t e d d e f i c i t . Before d e t a i l i n g t h e s e , however, l e t me f i r s t review t h e f i n a n c i a l s i t u a t i o n .

For the 1971 volume, income was a s f o l l o w s ( a l l i n U.S. d o l l a r s ) : Fellowships, $511.94; S u b s c r i p t i o n s , $375.94; and C o n t r i b u t i o n s , $112.49. Expenses were: P r i n t i n g . $633.74; S e c r e t a r i a l S e r v i c e s . $565.20; a n d m # a i l i n g ( i n c l u d i n g enve lopes , p o s t a l c h a r g e s , e t c . ) , $321.65. This r e s u l t e d i n a d e f i c i t o f $520.22.

Mailing and p r i n t i n g c o s t s a r e t h e o n l y ones t h a t a r e amenable t o c o n t r o l and r e d u c t i o n , a s s e c r e t a r i a l c o s t s r e f l e c t s p r i m a r i l y t h e amount of correspqndence t h a t t h i s o f f i c e h a s t o d e a l w i t h , keeping t h e mail ing l i s t s u p - t o - d a t e , handl ing s u b s c r i p t i o n s , and bookkeep- ing. To reduce mai l ing c o s t s , we have chosen t h e l i g h t e r paper on whlch t h i s i s s u e is p r i n t e d , which w i l l r e s u l t i n an e s t i m a t e d savings of $150 p e r y e a r . By reduc ing t h e s i z e of o u r p r i n t b about one t h i r d and moving t o t h e new page s i z e , we e s t i m a t e t l a t we can a l s o save about $150 i n p r i n t i n g c o s t s (con t inued on p. 35)

THE BORNEO RESEARCH COUNCIL L

I The Borneo Research Counci l was founded i n 1968 and i t s membership i s composed o f Fel lows, an i n t e r n a t i o n a l group o f s c h o l a r s p ro- f e s s i o n a l l y engaged i n r e s e a r c h i n Borneo. The g o a l s o f t h e Council a r e (1) t o promote s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h i n t h e s o c i a l , b i o - 1 l o g i c a l , and medical s c i e n c e s i n Borneo; (2) t o p e r m i t t h e r e s e a r c h community, i n t e r e s t e d Borneo government depar tments , and o t h e r s t o keep a b r e a s t of ongoing r e s e a r c h and i t s r e s u l t s ; (3) t o s e r v e a s a veh ic le f o r drawing a t t e n t i o n t o u r g e n t r e s e a r c h problems; (4 ) t o coordinate t h e flow of i n f o r m a t i o n on Borneo r e s e a r c h a r i s i n g from many d i v e r s e sources ; (5) t o disseminat* r a p i d l y t h e i n i t i a l r e s u l t s of r e s e a r c h a c t i v i t y ; and (6) t o f a c i l i t a t e r e s e a r c h by r e p o r t i n g on c u r r e n t c o n d i t i o n s . I n a d d i t i o n t o p u b l i s h i n g t h e Borneo Research B u l l e t i n t h e f u n c t i o n s o f t h e Counci l a l s o i n c l u d e providing counsel and a s s i s t a n c e t o r e s e a r c h endeavors , c o n s e r v a t i o n a c t i v i t i e s , and t h e p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f r e s e a r c h r e s u l t s . i

R E S E A R C H N O T E S

THE BELAGA DISTRICT OF SARAWAK

J6r6me Rousseau Cambridge U n i v e r s i t y

With 7400 square m i l e s (19000 kmz), t h e Belaga d i s t r i c t i s t h e l a r g e s t i n Sarawak, b u t it i s s p a r s e l y popula ted w i t h approximately 9300 persons . Most o f t h e a r e a i s over t h e a l t i t u d e of 1000 f t . , bu t t h e p o p u l a i i o n l i v e s l a r g e l y i n t h e v a l l e y s under t h i s a l t i t u d e . Mountains l i m i t s t r o n g l y communications w i t h o t h e r a r e a s , excep t t o t h e e a s t by t h e Rejang-Baluy r i v e r and th rough t h e h i l l s between t h e Belaga and Tubau a r e a s . To t h e n o r t h i s a r a t h e r arduous r o u t e t o t h e Baram. I n s i d e t h e a r e a communications a r e d i f f i c u l t a s t h e r i v e r s a r e c u t by many r a p i d s , and, d e s p i t e t h e s m a l l po u l a t i o n , t h e r e i s a l a r g e number of e t h n i c g roups , who c u l t i v a t e Rill p a d i and l i v e i n long-houses. I n t h e h i g h l a n d s , l i v e t h e nomadic Punan.

I n t h e Belaga d i s t r i c t , t h e name "Baluyt' i s g i v e n t o t h e Rejang r i v e r . A s e r i e s of r a p i d s , t h e b e s t known o f which i s c a l l e d "Bakun," d i v i d e s t h e r i v e r i n t o two p a t t s . I t i s p r a c t i c a l t o d i v i d e t h i s s t r e t c h over t h e Bakun i n t o two p a r t s a g a i n , t h e middle Baluy, and t h e h i g h e r Baluy. The s e t t l e d p o p u l a t i o n i s formed by t h r e e main groups: t h e Kayan, t h e Kenyah, and t h e Kajang ( s e e Map 1 ) .

The Kayan (pop. 2508) a r e t h e l a r g e s t u n i t a r y group, s h a r i n g t h e same language and c u l t u r e , w i t h s m a l l d i f f e r e n c e s from one long-house t o t h e n e x t . They form 9 long-houses i n t h e middle Baluy and 5 long- houses i n t h e lower Baluy. They came t o t h e Baluy and Baram v a l l e y s from t h e Kayan r i v e r , i n what i s now Indones ian Bornec) 150-200 y e a r s ago. They a r e s t i l l numerous i n Kalimantan.

The Kenyah (pop. 3734) a r e l i n g u i s t i c a l l y and c u l t u r a l l y d i v i d e d i n t o s e v e r a l groups b u t recognize themselves and a r e recognized by o t h e r s a s having some k ind o f u n i t y , a l t h o u g h n o t i n t h e same degree a s t h e Kayan. They a r e a l s o much more s c a t t e r e d and migra ted t o Sarawak a t v a r i o u s p e r i o d s , some o f them a t t h e same t ime a s t h e Kayan, o t h e r s much l a t e r . There a r e i n t h e Belaga r i v e r t w o b n g - houses speak ing t h e same language (Sambup), w i t h a few d i a l e c t a l d i f f e r e n c e s . They have c l o s e r e l a t i v e s i n t h e Baram. I n t h e middle Baluy i s Uma Kelap, t h e o n l y example h e r e of a group r e p r e s e n t e d a l s o i n t h e Baram and Kalimantan (Uma Pawa, Uma Timei) . I n ' f h e upper Baluy a r e two l a r g e v i l l a g e s , speak ing d i f f e r e n t d i a l e c t s : Uma Baka (pop. 458) and Uma K u l i t (pop 745). The Uma K u l i t migrated t o Sarawak i n 1941; t h e Uma Baka i n 1945. There a r e s t i l l i n Kalimantan long-houses belonging t o t h e s e groups. Both v i l l a g e s a r e formed by s e v e r a l long-houses w i t h one c h i e f f o r t h e whole v i l l a g e , a s i t u a t i o n which i s v e r y r a r e among Kayan and Kajang.

Two l a r g e v i l l a g e s , one i n t h e Linau r i v e r (pop. 801) , t h e o t h e r i n t h e upper reaches of t h e Baluy (pop. 1120) , belong t o t h e Badang

group. The Badang o f t h e Linau have been i n t h e a r e a f o r a long time; those o f the upper Baluy moved i n t o Sarawak j u s t a few y e a r s ago. Very few Badang a r e l e f t i n Kalimantan (probably l e s s than 100).

Except f o r Uma Kelap, a l l t h e Kenyah v i l l a g e s a r e f a r u p r i v e r o r 1 i n r i v e r s d i f f i c u l t of a c c e s s and have few c o n t a c t s w i t h each o ther . There a r e l a r g e numbers o f v a r i o u s groups of Kenyah i n the Baram and i n Kalimantan.

.? The Kajang (pap. 2062) a r e e a r l i e r occupants of t h e Belaga D i s t r i c t and were pushed downriver by t h e immigrat ing Kayan. T h e i r name i comes from t h e Kajang River , a t r i b u t a r y o f t h e Linau. They a r e d iv ided i n t o 4 c u l t u r a l groups. The Kejaman, Sekapan and Lahanan speak d i f f e r e n t d i a l e c t s of t h e same language, Sekapan and Kejaman being more c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o each o t h e r . The s o - c a l l e d Punan Ba speak a completely d i f f e r e n t language and have no r e l a t i o n w i t h the nomadic Punan. I t i s s imply a m a t t e r o f co inc idence t h a t bo th groups have the same name. T h i s i n c l u s i o n of t h e Punan Ba i n t h e Kajang ca tegory makes it a somewhat a r t i f i c a l grouping w i t h t h e Kajang being those who a r e n e i t h e r Kayan n o r Kenyah b u t who s t i l l belong t o t h e super-group c a l l e d Kayan-Kenyah-Kajang (KKK) by Leach. Some in formants i n c l u d e a l s o t h e S ihan and t h e Seping i n the Kajang, b u t most do n o t , and, when t h e y a r e inc luded . t h i s i s merely because they a r e m i n o r i t y groups. There used t o be a Seping long-house i n t h e Belaga River , b u t it moved i n t o t h e Baram, and only 6 i n d i v i d u a l s a r e l e f t he re . Some in formants i n c l u d e them i n t h e Kenyah. (For t h e S ihan , s e e below.)

Except f o r thefmajor Lahanan long-house, which i s i n t h e middle Baluy and has been much i n f l u e n c e d by t h e Kayan, a l l t h e Kajang l i v e i n t h e lower Baluy, where t h e r e a r e 3 Punan Ba, 2 Sekapan, 1 Lahanan, and 2 Kejaman long-houses. Among t h e Kajang, o n l y t h e Punan Ba a r e r e p r e s e n t e d i n a n o t h e r a r e a ; they form 4 long-houses i n t h e Tubau-Kakus a r e a (accord ing t o Needham).

The Kajang ( I d o n ! know i f t h i s a p p l i e s t o t h e Punan Ba) were i n t h e p a s t sago c u l t i v a t o r s , b u t f o r a long t ime t h e i r main c r o p has been r i c e , a l though they s t i l l c u l t i v a t e some sago.

The Sihan and t h e Uki t a r e two smal l groups, each r e p r e s e n t e d by one v i l l a g e (Sihan, pop. 77 ; Uki t , pop. 125) . who were fo rmer ly nomadic. The S ihan s e t t l e d v e r y long ago, and t h e Uki t a f t e r t h e beginning of t h i s cen tury . The S ihan a r e i n t h e lower Baluy a r e a . . but on a smal l non-navigable r i v e r . They formed f o u r v i l l a g e s i n 1882 b u t were decimated by headhunting and epidemics. I t i s d i f f i - c u l t t o p r e d i c t t h e i r f u t u r e . They might be a s s i m i l a t e d by t h e ex-nomadic Punan, w i t h whom t h e y have. most a f f i n i t i e s and contac t s . . i - The Ukit belong t o t h e same group a s t h e Baketan, on t h e Rejang a t

Nanga Merit. They used t o l i v e i n t h e Baleh b u t r a n away from I

headhunting Iban. They w i l l p robably be a s s i m i l a t e d by t h e Kayan. 1 They a r e cons idered i n f e r i o r by t h e Kayan and Kenyah. I

THE BELAGA DISTRICT

River I 0 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 Mi les

1 1 1 I I I , ,

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e Impassable r a p i d

8 Kayan

A Kenyah

n Kajang

P Punan

S S i h a n

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The Kenyah and Kayan ho ld t h e same a t t i t u d e towards t h e nomadic Punan, who i n t h e Belaga D i s t r i c t a r e d i v i d e d i n two groups, one' of them, t h e Punan Busang (pop. 120) , forms a s i n g l e band. This group i s a l s o r e p r e s e n t e d i n Kalimantan. Most Punan a r e s e t t l i n g now, t h e f i r s t of them d i d s o more than 10 y e a r s ago. Some o f them c u l t i v a t e only manioc, b u t most of them make h i l l p a d i , and t h e government encourages them i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n . Besides t h e Punan Busang, t h e r e a r e approximately 600 o t h e r Punan, most o f whom l i v e f a r in land i n a r e a s d i f f i c u l t o f access . They l i v e i n s m a l l e r groups and b u i l d long-houses o f l e s s d u r a b l e m a t e r i a l t h a n theCKKK.

The Kayan, Kenyah and Kajang s h a r e much o f t h e same s o c i a l organ- i z a t i o n , and they r e a d i l y recognize t h e i r u n i t y i n o p p o s i t i o n t o , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e Iban. The Kayan and Kenyah f e e l c l o s e r c u l t u r a l l y t h e r e a r e l i n g u i s t i c s i m i l a r i t i e s , a community of o r i g i n ( t h e Kayan River a r e a ) , and many r i t u a l s i m i l a r i t i e s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , because many Kenyah groups a r e l a t e r immigrants and l i v e f a r u p r i v e r , r e l a t i o n s between Kayan and Kajang have been much c l o s e r and extended over a l o n g e r p e r i o d . The e x c e p t i o n is Uma Kelap, s i t u a t e d i n a Kayan a r e a , which has been much Kayanized.

According t o de M a r t i n o i r , t h e Kayan imposed Kayan wives on Kajang c h i e f s , and t h e r e f o r e , t h e Kajang a r i s t o c r a c y h a s been much Kayanized a l s o .

In t h e whole a r e a , Kayan and Kajang c h i e f s a r e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d by l i n k s of kinshi!p and marr iage , and t h i s has much i n f l u e n c e on i n t e r v i l l a g e r e l a t i o n s h i p s . Of course , t h e communities be ing u s u a l l y r a t h e r i s o l a t e d , t h e y w i l l n o t have s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n - s h i p s wi th more than 3 t o 5 long-houses.

Before Brooke r u l e , t h e r e were no i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d paramount c h i e f s , b u t a few long-houses wie lded much power, and i f one o f them had a c h i e f w i t h t h e proper p e r s o n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , ' he could e a s i l y become a de f a c t o paramount c h i e f . These n a j o r long- houses have s t i l l much i n f l u e n c e nowadays. There a r e now two reg iona l c h i e f s , one f o r t h e lower Baluy. and t h e o t h e r f o r t h e middle and h i g h e r ~ a l u y , appoin ted by t h e government i n c o n s u l t a - t i o n with t h e long-house c h i e f s . But t h e y have l o s t much of t h e i r importance i n t h e l a s t few y e a r s .

The Kayan, Kenyah and Kajang a r e d i v i d e d i n t o two c l a s s e s o f a r i s t o c r a t s , one o f commoners, and one o f s l a v e s . T h i s l a s t c l a s s has almost e n t i r e l y d i sappeared , be ing now a s s i m i l a t e d among t h e commoners. Only t h e h i g h e r a r i s t o c r a t s had s l a v e s , and t h e c h i e f i s always chosen from amongst t h e i r rank. I f a c h i e f l y f a m i l y d i e s o u t , a long-house w i l l s e e k a h i g h e r a r i s t o c r a t from a n o t h e r long-house,even a d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r a l . group, t o become c h i e f . Women a r i s t o c r a t s have much i n f l u e n c e , a n d among t h e Kayan, some o f them acceded t o c h i e f t a d h i p . In o t h e r c l a s s e s , women have an i n f e r i o r s t a t u s and p a r t i c i p a t e l i t t l e i n community d e c i s i o n s .

The lower a r i s t o c r a t s and commoners c u l t i v a t e t h e farms of t h e c h i e f l y group and do most of t h e o t h e r hard work f o r them. The

Kayan, and a t l e a s t some o f t h e Kenyah, c o o p e r a t e i n farm work, bu t amonst t h e Kajang each f a m i l y works independent ly a t t h e i r farm. Each f a m i l y u s u a l l y h a s two o r more f i e l d s . A f i e l d i s sometimes used two y e a r s i n s u c c e s s i o n , b u t i t i s u s u a l l y al lowed t o r e s t s e v e r a l y e a r s b e f o r e be ing r e u s e d . Except i n t h e lower Baluy, t h e l and i s p l e n t i f u l , and a f a m i l y may e a s i l y r e l i n g u i s h t h e i r r i g h t s t o l and t h e y had used p r e v i o u s l y . On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e v i l l a g e t e r r i t o r y i s c l e a r l y d e f i n e d , and in f r ingement from a n p t h e r v i l l a g e w i l l l e a d t o c o n f l i c t . I n t h e p a s t , long- house cpmmunities s t a y e d l e s s t h a n a g e n e r a t i o n i n a p a r t i c u l a r a r e a , and q u e s t i o n s of l and t e n u r e were t h u s un impor tan t . With t h e p r e s e n t s e d e n t a r i z a t i o n and demographic expans ion , t h e s i t u a t i o n w i l l . c h a n g e , and h a s a l r e a d y changed i n t h e lower Baluy.

Among t h e Kayan and Kajang, u x o r i l o c a l i t y i s dominant (approx. 75% of c a s e s ) , excep t among t h e c h i e f l y c l a s s . T h i s i s due t o t h e p resence of a b r i d e - p r i c e i n t h e c a s e o f v i r i l o c a l i t y and i t s absence o therwise . I n a l l mar r iages t h e r e i s a t l e a s t a p e r i o d of one y e a r of u x o r i l o c a l i t y ; on ly t h e n , and u s u a l l y much l a t e r , can one pay t h e b r i d e - p r i c e and b r i n g back h i s w i f e t o h i s room. V i r i l o c a l i t y i s a more p r e s t i g i o u s form o f r e s i d e n c e and i s u s u a l amongst c h i e f l y f a m i l i e s . For them t h e b r i d e - p r i c e i s very h igh , and t h e whole community h e l p s t o pay i t .

Marriage between c l a s s e s i s p o s s i b l e , and t h e c h i l d r e n belong t o t h e c l a s s o f t h e room i n which they l i v e . Marr iage i s p r o h i b i t e d wi th r e l a t i v e s up t o second c o u s i n s f o r Kayan (and t h i r d c o u s i n s f o r Kejaman and Sekapan accord ing to ' de M a r t i n o i r ) . About two- t h i r d s of a l l t h e mar r iages a r e between members o f t h e same v i l l a g e . The m a j o r i t y of i n t e r v i l l a g e mar r iages end i n d i v o r c e ( a t l e a s t f o r t h e Kayan), sometimes a f t e r s e v e r a l y e a r s of mar r iage and t h e b i r t h of s e v e r a l c h i l d r e n . Divorce is e a s y and f r e q u e n t . Only t h e h i g h e r a r i s t o c r a t s have l a r g e f i n e s t o pay i n t h a t c a s e . Never the less , i t i s among them t h a t t h e i n c i d e n c e o f d i v o r c e i s high'est.

The Kenyah have no b r i d e - p r i c e , and t h e r e seems t o be a ba lance between u x o r i - and v i r i l o c a l i t y , b u t t h e r e a r e no d a t a on t h i s . I n t h e t h r e e groups t h e k i n s h i p o r g a n i z a t i o n i s b i l a t e r a l and t h e r e a r e no d e s c e n t groups. The "room" (cor responding t o t h e Iban b i l e k ) i s a j u r a l e n t i t y w i t h a c o n t i n u i t y i n t ime , a s peopl-n i t by b i r t h , adopt ion , mar r iage o r o t h e r w i s e . I t i s t h e room which has v i r t u a l l y a l l p r o p e r t y and ownership r i g h t s , and t h e s e a r e l o s t by an i n d i v i d u a l who m a r r i e s away. A f f i n e s l i v i n g i n t h e room have e q u a l r i g h t s i n i t , even i f t h e i r spouses have d ied .

The Kayan, Kenyah and Kajang r e l i g i o n s a r e complex w i t h a l a r g e number of r i t u a l s . U n t i l t h e Bungan r e l i g i o u s reform about 25 y e a r s ago, t aboos and a u g u r i e s had much i n f l u e n c e on everyday l i f e , and t h e main impor t of t h e re form,was t h e i r d i s p e r s i o n . U n t i l i t was s topped by t h e Brookes, headhunt ing was impor tan t and p r a c t i c e d f o r r i t u a l r e a s o n s . Headhunting r i t u a l s a r e s t i l l performed nowadays.

Outside i n f l u e n c e has i n c r e a s e d much r e c e n t l y . A t t h e end of t h e l a s t cen tury , t h e two most impor tan t changes were t h e pro- h i b i t i o n of headhunting and t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of t h e Belaga bazaar . Otherwise, they were l e f t much t o themselves u n t i l t h e Japanese invas ion i n 1941. A f t e r t h e war t h e changes came f a s t e r , with schools , d i s p e n s a r i e s , and a more d i r e c t government involve- ment. The popula t ion s t a r t e d t o expand i n t h e l a t e f i f t i e s . The v i l l a g e s o f t h e lower Baluy, n e a r t h e Belaga bazaar , were most in f luenced , a l though t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f ou tboard motors reduced a l s o t h e i s o l a t i o n of t h e u p r i v e r groups. They bought these , and o t h e r implements ( sho tguns , sewing machines, e t c . ) with s u r p l u s r i c e , v a r i o u s j u n g l e p roduces , and o c c a s i o n a l work f o r t imber companies. This has brought more a f f l u e n c e , b u t few changes i n t h e ways of l i f e . They s t i l l p r a c t i c e a sub- s i s t e n c e economy, and t h e ou t look i s s t i l l t r a d i t i o n a l . For - - - - - - - - - - - i n s t a n c e , a l though each fami ly has a shotgun, t h e s p e a r i s s t i l l p r e f e r r e d .

Schools have n o t had much i n f l u e n c e y e t ; a few c h i l d r e n a r e j u s t s t a r t i n g t o go t o secondary school . M i s s i o n a r i e s have had more success wi th t h e Kenyah t h a n t h e Kayan and Kajang, among which on ly a smal l m i n o r i t y h a s been conver ted , w i t h t h e except ion of two long-houses. Transformat ions w i l l p robably go on tak ing p l a c e a t an a c c l e r a t e d pace, w i t h t h e development of a secondary cash economy and t h e probable appearance o f i r r i g a t e d r i c e under demographic p r e s s u r e . But a s u b s i s t e n c e economy i s l i k e l y t o dominate f o r a long t ime , and t h e long-house mode of res idence and t h t power of a r i s t o c r a t i c c h i e f s show no s i g n o f changing. On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n has probably j u s t a few y e a r s of e x i s t e n c e l e f t .

With regard t o # t h e c u r r e n t s t a t u s of r e s e a r c h , t h e r e a r e numerous d a t a on t h e Kayan and Kenyah groups of t h e Baram and Kalimantan i n t h e p u b l i c a t i o n s of e a r l y a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s (Nieuwenhuis, Furness , Hose and McDougall, E l shout , e t c . ) , b u t many more d a t a a r e needed basea on modern t h e o r i e s and techniques . One impor tan t reason f o r s tudying t h e s e groups now i s t h a t t h e y s t i l l l a r g e l y f u n c t i o n i n ways l i t t l e i n f l u e n c e d by t h e o u t s i d e . I n 1961-63, M r . Br ian de M a r t i n o i r made 9' s o c i o - a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l s t u d y o f t h e Kejaman and Sekapan of t h e lower Baluy, b u t h i s r e p o r t has n o t been published y e t . I am p r e s e n t l y doing f i e l d work i n a Kayan v i l l a g e of t h e middle Baluy, making a s t u d y o f t h e s o c i a l organ- i z a t i o n and r e l i g i o n . An h i s t o r i a n , Mr. Kazuhiro Fuse, i n t e n d s t o spend one y e a r among t h e nomadic ( o r ex-nomadic) Punan. The groups among which r e s e a r c h i s most needed and would be most rewarding a r e : downriver , t h e s o - c a l l e d Punan Ba; and u p r i v e r , the Badang and t h e Kenyah Urna K u l i t and Urna Baka. Because o f t h e much l a r g e r s i z e o f t h e i r s e t t l e m e n t s , t h e r e a r e p robably s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e i r s o c i z l o r g a n i z a t i o n . The most i n t e r e s t i n g group of t h e s e w o u l d g r o b a b l y be t h e Badang.

PIONEER SETTLEMENT IN SOUTHERN AND EAST KALIMANTAN

Denis P. F i t z g e r a l d C a r l e t o n U n i v e r s i t y

I n s o u t h e r n and e a s t Kalimantan s i n c e t h e end o f World War 11, most t r a n s m i g r a t i o n o r p i o n e e r i n g a c t i v i t y i s t a k i n g p l a c e e i t h e r on, o r c l o s e t o , t h e t i d a l swamp l a n d s o f t h e B a r i t o River Basin of Kalimantan S e l e t a n and Tengah and, more r e c e n t l y , i n Kalimantan Timur e i t h e r a d j a c e n t t o o r n o t f a r removed from t h a t s t r e t c h of t h e ~ a h b k a m River between Samarinda and Tenggarong and, f u r t h e r upstream i n t h e Longiram a r e a . Some minor a c t i v i t y i s a l s o found along t h e Kedang Rantau and Kedang Kapala r i v e r s and t h e i r t r i b - u t a r i e s a s w e l l a s i n t h e Bal ikpapan a r e a . E i g h t c a t e g o r i e s of p i o n e e r i n g may be d i s t i n g u i s h e d , a l l of them a s s o c i a t e d w i t h v e r y c o n s i d e r a b l e , i f n o t t o t a l , government commitments. Three t y p e s involve t h e movement of t r a n s m i g r a n t s from v a r i o u s p a r t s of J a v a , whi le t h e o t h e r s a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h m i g r a t i o n p r o c e s s e s t a k i n g p l a c e e s p e c i a l l y w i t h i n Kalimantan Timur. The r o l e o f t h e army and navy i n some of t h e s e movements i s s i g n i f i c a n t . I n e a s t Kal- imantan t h e ranks of p i o n e e r fa rmers a r e b e i n g augmented by t h e m i g r a t i o n o f v a r i o u s i n t e r i o r p e o p l e s , p r i n c i p a l l y Land Dayak and some Kenyah and Kayan, t o permanent homes, e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e middle Mahakam Basin. Although t r a n s m i g r a t i o n under Dutch a u s p i c e s h a s been f a i r l y w e l l documented ( P e l z e r , 1945) , a p a r t from a few b r i e f government r e p o r t s developments o v e r t h e p a s t two decades o r s o remain l a r g e l y unrecorded.

My c u r r e n t r e s e a r c h i n Kalimantan i s p a r t o f a wider s t u d y a t t e m p t - i n g t o ana lyze p i o n e e r s e t t l e m e n t p r o c e s s e s i n c a r e f u l l y s e l e c t e d s t u d y a r e a s i n A s i a i n which envi ronmenta l and c u l t u r a l c o n d i t i o n s and approaches t o s e t t l e m e n t c o n t r a s t s t r o n g l y w i t h one another . S e t t l e m e n t advances, and r e t r e a t s i f t h e s e have o c c u r r e d , w i l l be t r a c e d and mapped. The n a t u r a l env i ronmenta l and t h e c u l t u r a l , s o c i a l , economic and p o l i t i c a l c o n d i t i o n s under which s e t t l e m e n t i s proceed ing i s being examined i n d e t a i l . I t i s n e c e s s a r y t o ana lyze c l o s e l y t h e development of t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y of marke ts , e d u c a t i o n a l and h e a l t h s e r v i c e s , and t h e r o l e o f l o c a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s . The c h a r a c t e r , e x t e n t , and t y p e o f p r e - c o l o n i z a t i o n occupance needs c o n s i d e r a t i o n . I t i s hoped t o demons t ra te , a t l e a s t i n an Asian c o n t e x t , t h a t many a t t r i b u t e s and problems of newly s e t t l e d l a n d s a r e v e r y s i m i l a r . P a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n i s be ing p a i d t o t h e g o a l s of i n d i v i d u a l p i o n e e r s o r c o l o n i z e r s i n each a r e a . As Bowman (1931) s o f r e q u e n t l y s t r e s s e d , and a s F i t z g e r a l d (1967) h a s shown, s u c c e s s o r f a i l u r e i n a new ho,me i s i n t i m a t e l y l i n k e d w i t h an i n d i v i d u a l ' s r e a s o n s f o r coming an/d h i s thoughts , hopes and ambi t ions d u r i n g t h e f i r s t y e a r s of s e t t l e m e n t .

I n Kalimantan i t i s , o f c o u r s e , d i f f i c u l t t o o b t a i n r e l i a b l e s t a t - i s t i c a l d a t a . The Department of Transmigra t ion keeps f a i r l y a c c u r a t e r e c o r d s o f t h e p i o n e e r f a m i l i e s which p a s s th rough i t s hands, b u t t h e numbers involved i n "spontaneous" t y p e s o f t r a n s m i g r a t i o n a r e d i f f i c u l t t o a s s e s s . Much r e l i a n c e h a s been p l a c e d on t h e h e l p o f

v i l l a g e c h i e f s and sometimes, where t h e r e was no a l t e r n a t i v e , o r f o r purposes of double-checking, on such i n d i v i d u a l s a s t h e l o c a l member o f t h e p r o v i n c i a l l e g i s l a t u r e , school t e a c h e r s , o r h a d j i s .

Some land-use maps have been p u b l i s h e d f o r t h e immediate Bal ikpapan a r e a of Eas t Kalimantan and s c a t t e r e d s h e e t s f o r South Kalimantan.. Apart from t h e s e , and some some s h e e t s r e l a t i n g t o s o i l s and water problems i n s o u t h e r n Kalimantan, p repared dur ing t h e DutcK, per iod , t o g e t h e r w i t h a few sketch-maps o f t h e s o i l s of Kalimantan Timur, no good maps a r e a v a i l a b l e t o a s s i s t i n any d e t a i l e d a s q e s s - ment of t h e n a t u r a l environment. The s o i l s o f Kalimantan remain poorly known and understood. I n o r d e r t o overcome t h i s problem, t h e one o r more p h y s i c a l problems a s seen through t h e eyes o f s e t t l e r s themselves have been mapped. Sometimes, of c o u r s e , con- s i d e r a b l e misconcept ions occur . T h i s approach, however, does much t o add t o a p i o n e e r ' s own a p p r e c i a t i o n o f h i s a c t i v i t i e s .

The o r i g i n a l f i e l d i n t e r v i e w p l a n c a l l e d f o r a 25% sample o f a l l p ioneer heads o f f a m i l i e s i n e a c h a r e a and t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f a f l e x i b l e and open-ended i n t e r v i e w schedule , p r i m a r i l y r e q u e s t i n g some account of p e r s o n a l backgrounds and a r e a s of o r i g i n , i n i t i a l problems on a r r i v a l , r a t e o f l a n d c l e a r a n c e , in format ion on land t i t l e s , v i l l a g e p l a n s , r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h government o f f i c e r s and neighbors , c u r r e n t endeavors , e x t e n t o f innova t ions and o t h e r p e r t i n e n t d a t a . A r a t h e r heavy emphasis was p laced on t h e views, op in ions , and a s p i r a t i o n s o f p i o n e e r s themselves. Sometimes i t was p o s s i b l e t o d i r e c t q u e s t i o n s t o an i n d i v i d u a l , b u t more f r e q u e n t l y a v i l l a g e meeting was c a l l e d ; i n a s e n s e t h i s made p o s s i b l e more rap id p r o g r e s s and t ime l o s t due t o t r a n s p o r t a t i o n d i f f i c u l t i e s could be recovered. Under t h e guidance o f an e n e r g e t i c v i l l a g e c h i e f much d a t a was ga thered . Although t h i s method may be thought n o t t o r e v e a l Gnpopular o p i n i o n s and m i n o r i t y views o f a s e t t l e m e n t , it was p o s s i b l e , e i t h e r i n t h e even ing , o r on a Fr iday , t o d i s c u s s mat te r s f u r t h e r .

From a p r e l i m i n a r y examinat ion o f t h e d a t a c o l l e c t e d i t i s apparen t t h a t t h e p ioneer ing p o p u l a t i o n s o f t h r e e o f t h e f o u r Kalimantan provinces r e p r e s e n t on ly a s m a l l p a r t o f t h e t o t a l o f each. F r o n t i e r a g r i c u l t u * may, t h e r e f o r e , appear unimportant . However, i n Kalimantan Timur, f o r example, such endeavors i n c l u d e a h i g h percentage of a l l t h e a c t i v e l y f a m e d l a n d from which p r o d u c t s a r e r e g u l a r l y s o l d , a p a r t from t i n y garden p l o t s . I n Kalimantan Tengah t h e o n l y land c o n t i n u o u s l y worked on a commercial s c a l e i s found i n t h e t i d a l sawah o f t h e s o u t h e a s t and o p e r a t e d l a r g e l y by p ioneer farmers .

The c o n t r i b u t i o n s of r i c e , cassava , and o t h e r c r o p s t o t h e t o t a l a g r i c u l t u r a l p roduc t ion o f Kalimantan S e l e t a n from t i d a l swamp lands , p r i n c i p a l l y rec la imed s i n c e World War 11, a r e s m a l l , no more than 10% a t t h e most. I n t h e view,'.however, of many e x p e r t s , these lands have t h e h i g h e s t p o t e n t i a r o f any i n t h e p rov ince and probably Kalimantan a s a whole. Success h e r e , which h a s s o f a r been r a t h e r d i s a p p o i n t i n g . would perhaps pave t h e way t o t h e r a p i d development of t h e Kapuas Basin and t i d a l swamplands i n s o u t h e r n

Kalimantan. he r e l a t i v e l y g r e a t e r remoteness o f t h e s e l a s t a r e a s from J a v a , Sulawesi and o t h e r s o u r c e s o f m i g r a t i o n h a s up u n t i l t h e p r e s e n t d i scouraged even spontaneous t r a n s m i g r a n t s .

F r o n t i e r s e t t l e m e n t i n Kalimantan, a t l e a s t o v e r t h e p a s t two decades, v e r y c o n s i d e r a b l y i n v o l v e s c e n t r a l and p r o v i n c i a l government p a r t i c i p a t i o n . F i n a n c i a l r e s o u r c e s remain meager and l i t t l e a s s i s t a n c e can be g iven s e t t l e r s . With o n l y s imple t o o l s a v a i l - a b l e most p i o n e e r s can s u c c e s s f u l l y o p e r a t e no more t h a n two hecta ,res of l and . Most t r a n s m i g r a n t s a r e l a n d l e s s and u s u a l l y regard Kalimantan a s a second choice i n t h e i r s e a r c h f o r a new home; many a r e d i s a p p o i n t e d t h a t they d i d n o t r e a c h Sumatra. Government- sponsored s e t t l e r s u s u a l l y l e a v e J a v a o r B a l i persuaded by propagand of v a r i o u s t y p e s , w h i l e t h e spontaneous m i g r a n t is much encouraged i n i t i a l l y by v i s i t s back t o t h e o l d home a r e a by r e l a t i v e s o r o t h e r s who have been s u c c e s s f u l i n t h e i r new home. Local m i g r a t i o n movements r e s u l t s p r i n c i p a l l y from government a t t e m p t s t o p r e v e n t t h e development of f r o n t i e r slum c o n d i t i o n s , o r f o r p o l i t i c a l reasons such a s t h e s e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e movement of people from t h e I n t e r i o r o r , i n t h e p a s t , from r a t h e r a r b i t r a r y m i l i t a r y d e c i s i o n s .

There i s l i t t l e doubt t h a t s e t t l e r s n o t o n l y a t t e m p t t o b r i n g t h e i r v a r i e d c u l t u r a l and s o c i a l ways w i t h them, whether from B a l i , a p a r t i c u l a r p a r t of J a v a o r e l sewhere , b u t they a l s o c l i n g t o t h e s e f o r many y e a r s , however a n a c h r o n i s t i c . Adjustments t o bo th t h e p h y s i c a l environment and t o a f u l l y , o r p a r t l y a l i e n c u l t u r a l m i l i e u , a r e v e r y slow. Most Javanese p i o n e e r s f i n d l i f e i n t h e t i d a l sawah ex t remely hard . Some have l e f t , f o r example, f o r t h e more f a m i l i a r , d r i e r and h i l l i e r , b u t a g r i c u l t u r a l l y p o o r e r l a n d s , s o u t h of Martapura. R e l i g i o u s and c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s between peoples p l a c e d i n t h e same a r e a have caused many problems, a s w e l l a s between army m i g r a n t s and c i v i l i a n s , and Dyak and o t h e r indigenou p e o p l e s , and t h e Javanese . O f f i c i a l d e c l a r a t i o n s t h a t l adang unun i s n o t p a r t of t h e developmental program f o r a p a r t i c u l a r area- t h e r e f o r e , p i o n e e r s should be e x p e l l e d , have l e a d t o c o n f r o n t a t i o n s wi th p r o v i n c i a l governments. An i n s i s t e n c e by f o r e i g n o r g a n i z a t i o n s and c o u n t r i e s t h a t t h e i r a s s i s t a n c e be used i n a p a r t i c u l a r way, perhaps involv ing machinery which i s t o t a l l y u n s u i t a b l e , has a l s o provoked s e t t l e r s . Land d i s p u t e s between p i o n e e r s and l o n g e r - s e t t l e d f a m i l i e s , and w i t h t h e Department of F o r e s t r y , have caused f u r t h e r d i f f i c u l t i e s . M i l i t a r y d i c t a t e s have r e s u l t e d i n t h e placement of s e t t l e r s i n i s o l a t e d i n t e r i o r a r e a s , f o r example t h e Longiram I reg ion , w i t h l i t t l e o r no concern f o r t h e i r s o c i a l well-being and economic development.

F i e l d ev idence s u g g e s t s v e r y s t r o n g l y t h a t t h e most s u c c e s s f u l s e t t l e r s a r e t h o s e p i o n e e r i n g l a r g e l y a s a r e s u l t of t h e i r own i n i t i a t i v e and i n d i v i d u a l d e c i s i o n s , and who moved i n t o a r e a s which o f f e r o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o p r a c t i c e a v e r y b r o a d l y based type of a g r i c u l t u r e , i n c l u d i n g bush and t r e e c r o p s . A l l advantages must be s e i z e d very e a r l y i n a g r i c u l t u r a l development. The l e a s t s u c c e s s f u l p i o n e e r s would seem t o be government-sponsored, t h o s e who e x p e c t t o r e l y almost e n t i r e l y on r i c e p r o d u c t i o n , f o l l o w i n g t h e Javanese p a t t e r n f o r t h e i r w e l l - b e i n g , and who a l s o expec t

continued government he lp . Many o t h e r f a c t o r s , some c o n t r a d i c t o r y , documented i n f i e l d d a t a , have c o n t r i b u t e d t o f a i l u r e o r success . There i s l i t t l e doubt t h a t Kal imantan 's b e s t fa rmlands , whether t i d a l sawah, reclaimed al;;ga;uigf, r i v e r bank o r i n t e r i o r f o r e s t c l e a r i n g s , p r e s e n t a t o t a y e r e n t p h y s i c a l environment t o t h e s e t t l e r from J a v a , s t i l l t h e s o u r c e o f t h e l a r g e s t number of pioneers .

Pioneering i n Kalimantan s i n c e World War I1 h a s been t a k i n g p l a c e on a haphazard b a s i s d e s p i t e t h e e f f o r t s o f t h e c e n t r a l governpent and a minimum of f i n a n c i a l , h e a l t h o r e d u c a t i o n a l a s s i s t a n c e and s c i e n t i f i c guidance. S e t t l e r s have been l e f t l a r g e l y t o t h e i r own dev ices . Only r e c e n t l y h a s a c o n c e r t e d e f f o r t been made t o i n c o r p o r a t e them i n t o t h e l i f e o f t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e p r o v i n c e s and, through t h e i r a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s , t o c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e economic well-being of Indones ia , p r i n c i p a l l y by sending r i c e t o t h e r i c e - d e f i c i e n t p a r t s of t h e count ry , u s u a l l y Java . The o u t e r i s l a n d s of Indonesia r a r e l y regarded today a s a p r i n c i p a l s o l u t i o n t o the popula t ion problems of Java . Many mis takes have c e r t a i n l y been made i n s e t t l i n g p i o n e e r s , and it i s s u r p r i s i n g , u n l e s s viewed a g a i n s t t h e r a t h e r d e s p e r a t e a l t e r n a t i v e l i f e a v a i l a b l e e s p e c i a l l y on Java, t h a t more s e t t l e r s have n o t g iven up. Attempts t o l i s t e n t o p ioneers by government, t o work w i t h them a t t h e g r a s s r o o t s l e v e l , and even i n t h e absence of funds f o r r e s e a r c h t o experiment a t a very modest s c a l e , t o encourage t h e use of o t h e r r e s o u r c e s , t o develop h a n d i c r a f t i n d u s t r i e s and f i s h i n g , a r e a l l beginning t o pay d iv idends , whi le a l s o r e f l e c t i n g of course t h e vary ing a b i l - i t i e s of l o c a l b f f i c i a l s . The exper iences of Kalimantan p i o n e e r s suggest t h a t much can be achieved i n a g r i c u l t u r e w i t h t h e parang and changkul i n t h e f i r s t p e r i o d of s e t t l e m e n t b u t i n subsequent years more s o p h i s t i c a t e d approaches a r e n e c e s s a r y i f p r o g r e s s i s t o con t inue beyond a mediocre, o r even s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t , l e v e l .

Bibliography: Bowman, I s a i a h , 1931, The P ioneer F r i n g e , New York; P e l z e r , Kar l , 1945, P ioneer S e t t l e m e n t i n t h e A s i a t i c T r o p i c s , New York; F i t z g e r a l d , Denis P., 1967, P ioneer S e t t l e m e n t i n Canada, Toronto.

REPORT OF LINGUISTIC FIELD WORK UNDERTAKEN I N SARAWAK

Robert A. B l u s t U n i v e r s i t y o f Hawaii

GENERAL BACKGROUND: A number o f languages i n n o r t h e r n Sarawak and ad jacen t a r e a s i n Brunei and Kalimantan e x h i b i t two s e t s o f r e f l e x e s f o r PAN (Proto-Austronesian) *b, *d, *D, *j and *Z. I n one o f these languages, t h e Bar io d i a l e c t o f ' K e l a b i t , t h e d i s c r e p a n t r e f l e x it always a member of a s e r i e s o f ~ h o n e m i c vo iced a s p i r a t e s bh, dh, g . A t t e n t i o n h a s been drawn t o t h e s e f a c t s r e c e n t l y (Blus tT 19b9), and a hypothes i s c a l e d t h e "vowel d e l e t i o n hypothes iS1expresses a claim t h a t B.K. b i , dh, gh (and t h e cor responding d i s c r e p a n t ' segment i n cognate-worzs i n o t h e r languages) a r o s e a s t h e r e s u l t of a s e r i e s of changes t h a t commenced when t h e f i r s t o f l i k e vowels

f l a n k i n g t h e r e f l e x of PAN *S was r e g u l a r l y l o s t i f i t s t o o d b e f o r e t h e r e f l e x of PAN *b, *d, *D, *j o r *Z. Because o f i t s complexi ty, it i s more r e a s o n a b l e t o assume t h a t t h e vowel d e l e t i o n r u l e was added o n l y once r a t h e r t h a n on s e v e r a l o c c a s i o n s independent ly i n t h e e a r l i e r s t a g e s of t h e s e languages . I t f o l l o w s t h a t a l l languages which r e v e a l t h e e f f e c t s o f t h i s change a r e descended from a p r o t o - language a n c e s t r a l t o them b u t . n o t t o c e r t a i n o t h e r Aus t rones ian

: I languages t h a t do n o t e x h i b i t cor responding d i s c r e p a n c i e s .

1 P U R P O S ~ OF THE FIELDWORK: A s t h e vowel d e l e t i o n h y p o t h e s i s was con- s t r u c t e d on t h e b a s i s of f i r s t - h a n d work w i t h o n l y one language ( t h e

: Bar io d i a l e c t of K e l a b i t ) , t h e r e was a need t o supplement o r r e p l a c e t h e second-hdnd m a t e r i a l s a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e o t h e r l anguages w i t h f i r s t - h a n d d a t a r e l e v a n t t o t e s t i n g t h e s p e c i f i c c l a i m s t h a t had been advanced. Thus, f i e l d work was under taken i n t h e Miri and Baram D i s t r i c t s , Four th D i v i s i o n , Sarawak, from A p r i l t o November, 1971. The purpose of t h i s f i e l d work was t o c o l l e c t d a t a f o r t h e s e o t h e r languages and, through t h i s m a t e r i a l , t o t e s t t h e adequacy of t h e o r i g i n a l h y p o t h e s i s . Toward t h i s end my w i f e and I s p e n t t h r e e months i n Miri, where I worked l a r g e l y w i t h s t u d e n t s a t t h e Kolej Tun Datu Tuanku H a j i Bujang, and s u b s e q u e n t l y f o u r months i n Marudi, where I worked f o r t h e most p a r t w i t h s t u d e n t s a t t h e Marudi Government Secondary School and a t S t . Mark's School . Language coverage i n c l u d e s 3 Kayan d i a l e c : ~ , Murik, 7 speech communities u s u a l l y r e f e r r e d t o a s "Melanau, 10 Kenyah d i a l e c t s , 3 Penan d i a l e c t s , 4 K e l a b i t d i a l e c . t s , 1 Lun Bawang ("Southern Murut") d i a l e c t , Saban, 3 Berawan d i a l e c t s , Kipu t , Narum, Miri and 2 d i a - l e c t s of Bisaya.

I RESULTS OF THE FIELD WORK: I t i s now p o s s i b l e t o say w i t h a h igh degree of c e r t a i n t y t h a t a l l of t h e c o a s t a l languages between B i n t u l u i n t h e sou th and Tutong i n t h e n o r t h , and a l l of t h e non-Kayan languages of t h e Baram a r e descended from a language i n which t h e f i r s t of l i k e vowels f l a n k i n g t h e r e f l e x of PAN *S was r e g u l a r l y l o s t i f i t fol lowed t h e r e f l e x of PAN *b, *d , *D, *J o r *Z. I use t h e term "North Sarawak" f o r t h i s proposed subgroup. The North Sarawak subgroup i n t u r n d i v i d e s i n t o f o u r major subgroups ( t h e c o n ~ p l e t e membership o f c e r t a i n subgroups i n c l u d e s a c o n s i d e r a b l y l a r g e r number of speech communities t h a n i n d i c a t e d h e r e ; i n g e n e r a l names l i s t e d r e f e r o n l y t o t h o s e groups f o r which I was a b l e t o

I a c q u i r e d a t a ) : (1) K e l a b i t - Lun Bawang - Saban; ( 2 ) Kenyah; (3) Lower Baram; and (4) B i n t u l u .

I The Kenyah subgroup f u r t h e r s u b d i v i d e s i n t o a t . l e a s t t h r e e major subgroups a s fo l lows: (1) Long Wat. Sebop, Long Labid (Peri-an), Long Lamai (Penan) and Long Merigam (Penan); (2) Long Nawang, Long Jeeh , Long Anap, Long Atun; and (3) Long S e l a ' a n , Long San, Long Ikang and Long Dunin. I n c o n f l i c t w i t h most t r a d i t i o n a l o p i n i o n (wi th t h e n o t a b l e e x c e p t i o n o f U r q u h a r t ) , it was d i s c o v e r e d t h a t t h e r e a r e no l i n g u i s t i c grounds f o r r e g a r d i n g Penan d i a l e c t s a s d i s t i n c t from Kenyah.

The Lower Baram Subgroup comprises t h e Berawan d i a l e c t s (Long Terawan, Batu Belah, Long Teru and Long J e g a n ) , Kipu t , Narum (spoken

i n Kampung Narum, j u s t below Marudi) , Lelak and Lemeting, D a l i ' (spoken on t h e Bakong t r i b u t a r y of t h e Baram), Miri (spoken i n t h e kampungs ne ighbor ing M i r i - - i n P u j u t , Luak Bay and Bakam), B e l a i t (spoken i n t h e kampung a r e a s of Kuala B e l a i t ) , and Tutong ( i n Brunei).

While t h e r e appears t o be s l i g h t , b u t d e f i n i t e ev idence t h a t t h e Melanau- -Kaj ang languages ( t h e c o a s t a l languages from Bal ing ian i n t h e n o r t h t o Rejang v i l l a g e i n t h e s o u t h , Kanowit and Kajang com- ! plex i n the Ba lu i ) a r e n o t members of t h e proposed North Saraw.ak subgroup, t h e p o s i t i o n of Kayan--Murik ( a subgroup composed of a t l e a s t t h e Kayan d i a l e c t s and Murik) remains u n c l e a r . For some- 1 what d i f f e r e n t r e a s o n s , t h e r e i s a l s o s t i l l some u n c e r t a i n t y w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e languages o f Sabah. I was a b l e t o c o l l e c t f i r s t - h a n d d a t a f o r two d i a l e c t s o f Bisaya (Bisaya Buki t and the Limbang d i a l e c t ) . These d a t a , t o g e t h e r w i t h publ i shed m a t e r i a l s a v a i l a b l e f o r Kadazan (Antonissen) , Rungus Dusun (Appel l) and Timugon Murut ( P r e n t i c e ) l e a v e no doubt t h a t some, perhaps

i most of the languages of Sabah show ev idence of d e s c e n t from a language i n which t h e p r e v i o u s l y d e s c r i b e d vowel d e l e t i o n took p lace . I t i s n o t c l e a r how t h e s e f a c t s a r e t o be most reasonably i n t e r p r e t e d . Taken a t f a c e v a l u e , however, they sugges t t h a t t h e North Sarawak subgroup a s a l r e a d y d e f i n e d i s o n l y one of two coord ina te branches o f a l a r g e r subgroup t h a t a l s o i n c l u d e s many

of t h e languages of Sabah. I

; ~ Z i o q ~ a p h y : & t o n i s s e n , A . , 1958, Kadazan-English and Engl i sh- a azan Dictionary, Canberra , Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e ; AppeIT,

George N . and Laura W. R. Appe l l , 1961, A P r o v i s i o n a l F i e l d Dic t ionary o f t h e Rungus Dusun Language of North Borneo, Mimeo- graphed; Blus't, Robert A . , 1969, Some New Pro to-Aus t rones ian T r i s y l l a b l e s , Oceanic L i n g u i s t i c s 8:85-104; P r e n t i c e , D. J . , n.d., The Murut Lan uages of Sabah, unpubl i shed d o c t o r a l d i s s e r - t a t i o n . Canberra. A E s t r a l i a n N a t i o n a l U n i v e r s i t y ; Urquhar t , I . A. 1959, Nomadic ~ u n a n s and Pennans, in Tom t ta r r i skon (ed.) , The Peoples of Sarawak, Kuching, The Sarawak Museum. I

A STUDY OW SNAKEBITE IN SARAWAK

Yoshio Sawai Div is ion o f T r o p i c a l Epidemiology.

I n s t i t u t e o f Medical s c i e n c e , u n i v e r s i t y - of Tokyo

This r e p o r t i s a p a r t o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f s n a k e b i t e i n South- e a s t Asia , i n c l u d i n g Taiwan, t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , Tha i land and Malaysia, which has been c a r r i e d o u t , from January through March, 1971, by t h e s c i e n t i s t s o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Tokyo under t h e s p o n s o r s h i p of t h e Japanese governmeht.

Hai le (1968) r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e r e a r e cobra , k i n g cobra , k r a i t , Wagler's p i t v i p e r and s e a snakes i n Borneo.

I n February. 19711 , two of t h e members of t h e p a r t y v i s i t e d t h e genera l h o s p i t a l s o f Kuching and S ibu and i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e snake- b i t e p a t i e n t s w i t h t h e a i d o f D r . Chong, C . H . , Medical Headquar te rs , Kuching, and D r . T. C. Whitlam, Medical Department, S ibu . Seventy- n i n e p a t i e n t s w i t h s n a k e b i t e were a d m i t t e d t o t h e g e n e r a l h o s p i t a l i n Kuching dur ing t h e y e a r s from 1966-70, and f i v e p a t i e n t s (one e v e n t u a l l y d i e d ) were found i n t h e Lau King Howe h o s p i t a l , S i b u , i n 1969. These inc luded 30 Chinese, 25 Malay, 24 yak, 3 Melanau, and 2 Javanese. F i f t y p e r c e n t of b i t e s o c c u r r e d d u r i n g t h e months from Mqrch t o June . F i f t y o u t of 84 c a s e s were male. S n a k e b i t e s i n t h e 'lower e x t r e m i t i e s were f o u r t imes a s f r e q u e n t a s t h o s e i n upper e x t r e m i t i e s . I n lower e x t r e m i t i e s , f i f t y p e r c e n t of b i t e s occur red i n t h e f o o t .

Most of t h e snakes were n o t i d e n t i f i e d e x c e p t t h r e e c a s e s of snake- b i t e by s s a snake and one c a s e by a k i n g cobra . F i f t y - s i x c a s e s (66.7 p e r c e n t of c a s e s ) showed l o c a l s w e l l i n g o f which seven c a s e s were no ted of c e l l u l i t i s and n e c r o s i s a t t h e l o c u s of b i t e . However, i t i s noteworthy t h a t t h r e e c a s e s o f s n a k e b i t e by s e a snakes and one l e t h a l c a s e o f b i t e by an u n i d e n t i f i e d snake showed no s i g n of s w e l l i n g a t t h e l o c u s of b i t e .

Two f ishermen were b i t t e n by a s e a snake w h i l e f i s h i n g i n sha l low water i n Goebi l t . Severe p a r a l y t i c symptoms such a s d i f f i c u l t y of speak ing and movement o r semiconsciousness appeared a few hours a f t e r t h e b i t e . a l t h o u e h thev recovered from t h e i n t o x i c a t i o n a f t e r t r e a t m e n t i n t 6 e h o s p i r a l . ?he e s t a b l i s h m e n t of e d u c a t i o n a l t echniques f o r t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f snakes and more d e t a i l e d o b s e r v a t i o n o f t h e s n a k e b i t e s need f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

Bibliography: N a i l e , N. S . , 1958, The Snakes o f Borneo, w i t h a Key t o t h e S p e c i e s , Sarawak Museum J o u r n a l 8:741-771.

A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PUBLISHED WORKS I N ENGLISH

C o l i n C r i s s w e l l

INTRODUCTION: This b i b l i o g r a p h y , which s o f a r a s I know i s t h e on ly one of i t s k ind , was compiled i n connec t ion w i t h t h e r e s e a r c h which I d i d on my Ph,D. t h e s i s , "The Es tab l i shment o f a R e s i d e n c y j n Borneo 1881-1905." The m a t e r i a l d i v i d e s i t s e l f b r o a d l y i n t o p r i - mary works, t h a t i s eye w i t n e s s a c c o u n t s , memoirs and commentaries by p e r s o n a l i t i e s involved i n Bornean h i s t o r y , and i n t o a r t i c l e s and books drawing upon t h e s e p r i n t e d s o u r c e s and upon t h e mass of unpublished m a t e r i a l , much o f which i s t o be found i n t h e P u b l i c Record O f f i c e , London. Consequently, t l i e r e i s v e r y l i t t l e b e f o r e Lord S t a n l e y ' s e d i t i o n of P i g a f e t t a ' s d e s c r i p t i o n of h i s v i s i t t o Brunei i n 1521 and t h e bulk i s concerned w i t h t h e mid-e igh teen th cen tury t o t h e p r e s e n t day. However, I have i n c l u d e d one o r two

i tems d e a l i n g w i t h t h e p e r i o d b e f o r e w r i t t e n s o u r c e s commence, such a s Tom H a r r i s s o n ' s "Kota Batu i n Brunei," which I cons idered usefu l i n e s t a b l i s h i n g a l i n k w i t h what might be c a l l e d Bornean p r e h i s t o r y . S ince I have conf ined myself t o works i n E n g l i s h , most of t h e m a t e r i a l h e r e i s concerned w i t h n o r t h e r n Borneo.

I have endeavored t o i n c l u d e a l l t h e e s s e n t i a l pr imary works, such a s those w r i t t e n by t h e Brooke fami ly , Crawfurd, Darlrympie, Keppel, Be lcher , Mundy, Treacher and Spenser S t . John, many o f which repay read ing even by t h o s e f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e modern commentaries. The b o r d e r l i n e between h i s t o r y and o t h e r d i s c i b l i n e s i s no t a c l e a r one, b u t a l l t h e works h e r e seemed t o me t o have some bear ing on Bornean h i s t o r y . Thus E v e r e t t ' s "Notes on t h e D i s t r i b u t i o n of Useful Minera l s i n Sarawak" i s inc luded because of t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e which t h e s e a r c h f o r minera l s by E v e r e t t and o t h e r s had upon t h e a t t i t u d e of i n t e r e s t e d p a r t i e s t o n o r t h e r n Borneo i n t h e l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . Some a r e even l e s s obvious. Owen R u t t e r l s Triumphant P i l g r i m q e would perhaps seem t o have l i t t l e o r no r e l e v a n c e it one d i d n o t know t h a t t h e t h i n l v f i c t i o n a l i z e d "hero" was based c l o s e l y on an i n f l u e n t i a l 3 r i e n d of Rajah Vyner Brooke. With r e g a r d t o t h e secondary works I have s e l e c t e d those which I cons idered had some o r i g i n a l c o n t r i b u t i o n t o make. I have made a few e x c e p t i o n s t o t h i s r u l e i n t h e c a s e of reasonably sound b u t u n o r i g i n a l books which a r e . however, r e l a t i v e l y e a s i l y o b t a i n a b l e , e.g. Emily Hahn's James Brooke of Sarawak. Works l i k e Baring-Gould 's H i s t o r of Sarawa publ i shed m, a r e n p w somewhat d a t e d b u t s t i l l :emain of b?sic importance a s much f o r t h e a t t i t u d e s of t h e a u t h o r s a s f o r t h e f a c t u a l m a t e r i a l . I n r e c e n t y e a r s a l o t of v a l u a b l e new m a t e r i a l has been publ i shed and I have t r i e d t o i n c l u d e a l l t h e impor tan t a r t i c l e s by Contemporary h i s t o r i a n s l i k e Leigh Wright, T a r l i n g , Tregonning, and Brown. A number o f t h e s e a r e i n f a i r l y obscure publ ica t ions , and I may have i n a d v e r t e n t l y o m i t t e d one o r two i tems bu t none, I t h i n k , of major importance. No s e r i o u s s t u d e n t could omit t o read ~ r i n g l e ' s Centur Borneo, Leigh d a i n , t h e publ i shed i n r e n t y e a r s . Tregonning ' s f r e q u e n t l y r e p r i n t e d (and r e t i t l e d ) under- Char te red Company Rule I have- found t o be n o t very r e l i a b l e .

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American Trading Company of Borneo: Organized Under S p e c i a l Concession From H i s Highness t h e S u l t a n o f Borneo.. . 1868. New York.

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Mala s i a . ua a Lumpur i n p r e s s . Wurtzburg+ l9:4, 'Raf f les o! t h e E a s i e r n I s l e s . London.

MELANAU STUDIES - I . F. C . S. Clayre

U n i v e r s i t y o f Edinburgh

Under the g e n e r a l d i r e c t i o n of D r . H . S. Morr i s , of t h e Department of Anthropology, London School o f Economics, an i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y

s t u d y of Melanau r e l i g i o n , s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e , and language has been pursued over t h e l a s t two y e a r s . Morr i s ' aim i s t h e comple- t i o n of two major works on t h i s people who have been t h e s u b j e c t of h i s s t u d i e s f o r twenty y e a r s . C l a y r e f s is more modest: a d e s c r i p t i o n o f language a t a l l l e v e l s (phonology, morphology, syn tax , semant ics and s t y l e ) which w i l l l e a d t o a d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n .

I n t h e course of my work, I have produced a number of smal l a r t - i c l e s on v a r i o u s a s p e c t s of t h e language i n t h e Sarawak Museum J o u r n a l , and i n p r e s s f o r Anthropolog ica l Lingui-uage. The phonolog ica l s t r u c t u r e i s s e t o u t i n t h e SMJ; AL c a r r i e s a note .on t h e system of s p a t i a l d e i x i s which i s t i e d i n a most i n t e r e s t i n g way t o t h e Likou, t h e r i v e r which forms t h e main f e a t u r e of t h e h a b i t a t o f a l l Melanau groups , w h i l e i n Language t h e no te d e a l s w i t h t h e o p e r a t i o n of f o c u s and emphasis i n t h e language. Appearing i n Sarawak G a z e t t e s i n c e October 1970 has a l s o been a s e t i e s o f e t h n o g r a p h i c n o t e s on t h e customs and b e l i e f 5

The Melanau verb s t r u c t u r e i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t i n g i n t h a t i t s t r a n s i t i v e v e r b c l a s s i s d i v i d e d i n t o two comple te ly d i f f e r e n t types of verb s tem, t a k i n g d i f f e r e n t i n f l e c t i o n . I n b r i e f , t h e r e i s a l a r g e s e t of stems which a r e p r e f i x e d w i t h me-, n e ; , E- p r e f i x e s (a l lowing o f some m e t a t h e s i s t o -em- a n r - e n - i n f i x e s , b u t never * - e ~ - ) denot ing b r o a d l y S u b j e c t E c u s Dynamic (SFDyn), 0 b j e c t . F o c u s Dynamic (OFDyn), and S u b j e c t Focus S t a t i c ( S F S t a t ) . The s a m e ' t h r e e f o c a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s a r e s i g n a l l e d on t h e o t h e r s e t of stems by verb a b l a u t , such t h a t -u- s i g n a l s SFDyn, -i- OFDyn and - e - SFSta t . There a r e many f l o u i i s h e s t o t h i s b a s i c system, but tFie paradigms w i l l make i t s o p e r a t i o n c l e a r :

t i n o u "burn o f f " (a farm): meninou, t e n i n o u , p e t i n o u .

1 - l o u "wait f o r " : l u l o u , l i l o u , l e l o u .

Much confus ion a r i s e s from a homophonous p r e f i x pe: o f r e f l e x i v e a c t i o n which can a t t a c h t o UIE s tems , b u t s u b s t i t u t e i n MNP, thus :

emu1 " k i s s i n g each o t h e r , " p e l e l o u " w a i t i n g f o r each o t h e r . " p r e f i x i s a problem i n many Rornean languages . )

I A s we l l a s t h i s work of a major n a t u r e , Morris and Clayre p l a n an encyc lopaedic d i c t i o n a r y of t h e Melanau language, and I am under

I o b l i g a t i o n t o produce a book o f Melanau f o l k l o r e i n t h e d i a l e c t s I from which I o b t a i n e d t h e m a t e r i a l , an or thography having been

dev ised t o r e p r e s e n t a d e q u a t e l y each of t h o s e s t u d i e d . '/

Rela ted t o t h e s e s t u d i e s , Clayre and C l a y r e p l a n , funds and a s u i t a b l e base be ing made a v a i l a b l e , t o pursue a f u r t h e r r e l a t e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t o t h e Punan B a t , Sekapan, Kejaman and Lahanan

I languages, and i n v e s t i g a t e t h e h i s t o r y and p r e s e n t s t a t e of t h e i r e x t e n s i v e monumental c u l t u r e . T h i s h a s had t h e o v e r a l l approval of t h e Museum i n Kuching, bu t a t p r e s e n t t h e r e i s no movement I on t h e n e c e s s a r y l o g i s t i c s .

B R I E F C O M M U N I C A T I O N S

CONFERENCE ON THE PEOPLES OF THE SOUTHERN PHILIPPINES

From Caro l Molony S t a n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y

The Coordinated I n v e s t i g a t i o n of Su lu C u l t u r e (CISC) hos ted an i'n- formal conference on c u r r e n t r e s e a r c h on t h e peoples o f t h e southern P h i l i p p i n e s a t Notre Dame o f J o l o Col lege , S u l u , August 15-18, 1971. Twenty-four a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s , l i n g u i s t s , and s o c i o - l o g i s t s who were engaged i n r e s e a r c h i n t h e a r e a a t t e n d e d t h e meetings organized by Gerard M. Rixhon, O . M . I . , D i r e c t o r o f t h e CISC, and sponsored by Notre Dame and t h e Asia Foundation.

The p a r t i c i p a n t s (from t h e P h i l i p p i n e s u n l e s s o therwise s t a t e d ) included: Wilgredo F. Arce, Ateneo de Manila , Quezon C i t y ; David Baradas, Mindanao S t a t e U . , Marawi C i t y ; Die t lende Behrens, Summer I n s t i t u t e of L i n g u i s t i c s (SIL), B a s i l a n C i t y ; Franc isco Demetrio, S . J . , Xavier U., Cagayan de Oro C i t y ; Car los Fernadez 11, Ateneo de Manila, Quezon C i t y ; Char les 0. Frake, S t a n f o r d U . , U.S.A.; Samuel Gaabucayan, De La S a l l e C o l l e g e , Manila; W i l l i a m Geoghegan, U. of C a l i f o r n i a a t Berke ley , U.S.A.; Karen Larson, U. o f C a l i f o r n i a a t Berkeley, U.S.A.; Frank Lynch, S . J . , Ateneo de Manila , Quezon City; Charles Macponald, U . of t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , Diliman; Nicole MacDonald, U. of t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , Diliman; Marcel ino Maceda, U. of San Car los , Cebu C i t y ; Carol Molony, S t a n f o r d U . , U.S.A.; J a n e t Pack, SIL, Bas i lan C i t y ; Kemp P a l l e s o n , SIL, S i a s i , Su lu ; Robert Randall, U. of k 'a l i fornia a t Berke ley , U.S.A.; Nancy Randa l l , U. of C a l i f o r n i a a t Berkeley, U.S.A.; H a r r i e t Reynolds, S i l iman U . , Dumaguete Ci ty ; Hubert Reynolds, S i l l i m a n U . , Dumaguete C i t y ; Gerard Rixhon, Notre Dame of J o l o Col lege , Su lu ; S t u a r t A. S c h l e g e l , U. of C a l i f o r n i a a t S a n t a Cruz, U.S.A.; John P. Thorp, C.S.C., Notre Dame Col lege , Dacca, P a k i s t a n ; and John Wolff, C o r n e l l U . , U.S.A. .- A s i n g l e morning d i s c u s s i o n meet ing was h e l d each day of t h e conference. The f i r s t d a y ' s meet ing, c h a i r e d by Char les Frake, b

was about the Samalan-speaking peoples o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s and i t s v i c i n i t y . The second, c h a i r e d by David Baradas, was on concepts I

of law and j u s t i c e among s e l e c t e d peoples of S u l u , Mindanao, and Palawan. Frank Lynch c h a i r e d t h e f i n a l s e s s i o n , which f e a t u r e d a review of a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h underway i n P h i l i p p i n e I i n s t i t u t i o n s and a d i s c u s s i o n o f ways i n which v i s i t i n g s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s could p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e development of t h e s e i n s t i t - u t ions .

The s e s s i o n on Samalan languages provi&d' an o p p o r t u n i t y t o 1 reassess problems of t h e o r i g i n , d i s t r i b u t i o n and u n i t y of Samalan-speaking peoples by b r i n g i n g t o g e t h e r a number of i n v e s - t i g a t o r s who have made r e c e n t independent s t u d i e s o f t h e s e languages. i

Kemp P a l l e s o n of t h e Summer I n s t i t u t e o f L i n g u i s t i c s r e p o r t e d on a r e c e n t l y completed survey o f Samalan languages i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . The survey had two aims: f i r s t , t o a s s e s s r e l a t i v e mutual i n t e l l - i g i b i l i t y o f Samalan languages ; and second , t o i n v e s t i g a t e problems of l i n g u i s t i c d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n u s i n g cogna te c o u n t s and t e x t a n a l y s i s Among t h e f i n d i n g s of g r e a t i n t e r e s t was t h a t t h e peoples commonly termed Badjao i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s (Sama D i l a u t ) speak a s i n g l e language th roughout Su lu and Zamboanga d e l S u r . T h i s language most c l o s e l y a f f i l i a t e d w i t h Samal of t h e S i a s i a r e a . P a l l e s o n sugges ted t h a t :the S i a s i a r e a appeared t o t h e d i s p e r s a l p o i n t o f Samalan languages i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . P a l l e s o n a l s o r e p o r t e d t h e e x i s t e n c e of a Samal-speaking upland a g r i c u l t u r a l p e o p l e , d i s t i n c t from t h e Yakan,. i n t h e Sibuku a r e a of Zamboanga d e l Norte . Both P a l l e s o n and John Wolff had i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e Samal spoken on Kapul I s l a n d , o f f Samar, by C h r i s t i a n s .

William Geoghegan r e p o r t e d on work i n p r o g r e s s on B a l i n g i n g i Samal by h imse l f and t h r e e s t u d e n t s p r e s e n t a t t h e conference : Bob Randa l l , Nancy Randa l l , and Karen Larson.

Carol Molony and C h a r l e s Frake r e p o r t e d on a Samal language spoken on Kajoa I s l a n d , n e a r T e r n a t e i n t h e Northern Moluccas, Indones ia . The Samal language of t h i s a r e a e x h i b i t s a r e d u c t i o n o f f i n a l consonants c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f Celebes l anguages and a l e s s complex i n f l e c t i o n a l system t h a n P h i l i p p i n e Samal languages.

The r e p o r t s of t h i s s e s s i o n make i t c l e a r t h a t Samalan i s a c l o s e l y r e l a t e d group of languages and d i a l e c t s w i t h a u n i q u e l y widespread and s c a t t e r e d d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e s o u t h e r n P h i l i p p i n e s , North Borneo E a s t e r n Celebes , and North Moluccas. None of t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s had r e l i a b l e in format ion on t h e e x i s t e n c e o f Samal l anguages i n Malaya o r Western Indones ia , b u t what i s known s o f a r p o i n t s t o a Su lu o r i g i n f o r t h e Samalan group. I t i s i n Su lu t h a t we f i n d t h e g r e a t e s t l i n g u i s t i c d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n and t h e l a r g e s t con t iguous b lock o f speakers . There is no s u p p o r t f o r l o c a l t r a d i t i o n s t h a t have t h e Samal coming e n masse from J o h o r e i n r e l a t i v e l y r e c e n t t imes. C e r t a i n l y i t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e Taw Sug r e p r e s e n t a r e c e n t i n t r u s i o n from t h e Bisayas i n t o a Samal-speaking a r e a .

The p a r t i c i p a n t s no ted t h e need f o r f u r t h e r l i n g u i s t i c work i n a r e a s no t y e t i n v e s t i g a t e d i n o r d e r t o de te rmine t h e f u l l range of Samalan languages arid t o de te rmine t h e p l a c e of Samalan a s a whole wi th r e s p e c t t o c o o r d i n a t e sub-groups of A u s t r o n e s i a n languages . Samalan-speaking p e o p l e s , be ing of common l i n g u i s t i c o r i g i n , y e t e x h i b i t i n g a wide v a r i e t y o f e c o l o g i c a l a d a p t a t i o n s , a lsor-provide a n i c e c o n t e x t f o r c o n t r o l l e d comparison s t u d i e s i n c u l t u r a l anthropology.

This s e s s i o n c l e a r l y r e v e a l e d t h a t we a r e on t h e b r i n k o f a major reassessment of t h e r o l e of Samalan-speaking p e o p l e s i n Su lu c u l t u r a l h i s t o r y .

During t h e second s e s s i o n s e v e r a l a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s d i s c u s s e d r e c e n t r e s e a r c h on law and j u s t i c e . Gerard Rixhon read p o r t i o n s o f

Thomas K i e f e r ' s for thcoming book on t h e Tausug l e g a l system, David,Baradas r e p o r t e d a t l e n g t h on t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e of t h e Maranao and t h e manner i n which it i s mani fes ted by j u d i c i a l d e c i s i o n s , and Char les MacDonald d i s c u s s e d t h e i d e a s o f law and j u s t i c e among t h e Palawan. Some of t h e p o i n t s brought o u t - - p a r - t i c u l a r l y t h e symbolic c h a r a c t e r of f i n e s , t h e c o e x i s t e n c e of dua l t h e o r i e s of j u s t i c e i n t h e s e s o c i e t i e s , and t h e absence of i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d power i n s e v e r a l groups from t h e s o u t h e r n Phi l ipp ines - -were summarized by S t u a r t S c h l e g e l , and i l l u s t r a t e d by r e f e r e n c e t o t h e T i r u r a y . 1

The f i n a l s e s s i o n began w i t h a r e p o r t on c u r r e n t r e s e a r c h and teaching a t each of t h e P h i l i p p i n e i n s t i t u t i o n s r e p r e s e n t e d a t t h e conference. C a t e g o r i e s sugges ted f o r t h e extemporaneous r e p o r t s were (a) s t a f f , (b) d e g r e e s o f f e r e d , (c ) number and l e v e l of s t u d e n t s c o n t a c t e d , (d) p r o j e c t , and (e) p u b l i c a t i o n s . The p i c t u r e which emerged from t h e n l n e l o c a l i n s t i t u t i o n s r e p o r t e d on was one of small s t a f f s working on l a r g e numbers of r e l a t i v e l y p r a c t i c a l p r o j e c t s . With t h e e x c e p t i o n of t h o s e of t h e I n s t i t u t e of P h i l i p p i n e C u l t u r e (Ateneo de Mani la ) , which i s n a t i o n a l l y involved as w e l l , the p r o j e c t s t e n d t o be r e g i o n a l o r l o c a l - p a r t o f t h e i n s t i t u t i o n ' s c o n t r i b u t i o n t o i t s community.

Af te r t h e s e p r e s e n t a t i o n s , comments were s o l i c i t e d from t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s of t h e f i r s t 12 recommendations found i n Richard N. Adams' " R e s p o n s i b i l i t y of t h e Foreign S c h o l a r t o t h e Local Schola r ly Community" (Cur ren t Anthropology 12:335-39) . There seemed t o be agreement t h a t Aaams' f i r s t 12 recommendations and commen- t a r i e s , though prepared f o r t h e L a t i n American c o n t e x t , were r e l e v a n t and u s e f u l f o r t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . The p o s s i b l e r o l e of the newly i n c o ~ p o r a t e d (1968) S o c i a l Sc ience Counci l and t h e P h i l i p i n e S o c i o l o g i c a l Review ( s i n c e 1953 t h e q u a r t e r l y review of Phi!ippine soc io logy and an thropology) was d i s c u s s e d , p a r - t i c u l a r l y i n r e g a r d t o t h e v i s i t i n g s c h o l a r ' s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o r e p o r t l o c a l 1 on h i s r e s e a r c h p r o g r e s s and conc lus ions . I f t h e v i s i t i n d a r s coopera te r e g u l a r l y i n t h i s manner, and i n o t h e r ways recommended by Adams, i t i s l i k e l y t h a t t h e P h i l i p p i n e S o c i a l Science Council-=a._nons t o c k , n o n p r o f i t , p r i v a t e a s s o c i a t i o n of p r o f e s s i o n a l s o c i a l s c i e n c e a s s o c i a t i o n s - - w i l l r e s i s t w i t h v i g o r any at tempt of government e n t i t i e s t o impose t h e k ind o f mandatory r e g i s t r a t i o n and r e p o r t i n g found i n o t h e r c o u n t r i e s i n s o u t h e a s t Asia. S o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s i n t e r e s t e d i n doing r e s e a r c h i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , o r i n r e p o r t i n g l o c a l l y on r e s e a r c h i n p r o g r e s s o r completed, a r e encouraged t o w r i t e t o D r . Mercedes B. Concepcion. Chairman of t h e Execut ive Board, P h i l i p p i n e S o c i a l Sc ience Counc i l , P. 0. Box 479, Manila, D-406.

Henry C. Tsen Khin Siong A s s i s t a n t C u r a t o r

Sabah Museum

Gunong Alab (6,4'00 f t ) . Gunong Alab can be reached from Kota Kinabalu i n one hour onagood g r a v e l road . I t i s almost u n d i s - tu rbed excep t f o r t h e new Road t o t h e I n t e r i o r , w i t h no major a g r i c u l t u r e , f o r e s t , p a r k , o r kampong a c t i v i t i e s .

The aims of t h e f i e l d s t a t i o n i s f o u r - f o l d , namely:

1. To c o l l e c t sub-montane n a t u r a l h i s t o r y specimens from a t o t a l l y new and u n c o l l e c t e d a r e a f o r r e f e r e n c e c o l l e c t i o n s ;

'<medical r e s e a r c h (wi th IMR) and t h e Medical Department; 'exchange w i t h o t h e r museums, e t c . ; send ing f o r taxonomy purposes (BMNH); school s e r v i c e ; c o n t r i b u t i o n s towards i n t e r - e s t e d b o d i e s , e .g . F o r e s t Department and Kinabalu N a t i o n a l Park, e t c .

2 . To . s tudy some of t h e animals i n c a p t i v i t y , cages w i l l be b u i l t i n t h e n a t u r a l h a b i t a t of t h e animals . This i n t u r n w i l l make l i v e photography a l o t e a s i e r .

3: To s t u d y and observe t h e b e h a v i o r , e t c . , o f t h e an imals i n an a r e a u n d i s t u r b e d and u n s t u d i e d b e f o r e .

4. To prov ide a p l a c e where v i s i t i n g s c i e n t i s t s o r i n t e r e s t e d i n t e l l e c t u a l s cou ld go up f o r a day o r two o r l o n g e r t o observe sub-montane s p e c i e s o f some o f Sabah ' s r i c h f a u n a and f l o r a .

5. To h e l p t o conserve t h e Gunong Alab F o r e s t Reserve.

However, because o f t h e l a c k of funds , I have t o be c o n t e n t w i t h a s imple b u i l d i n g t o work i n and t h e b a r e n e c e s s i t i e s t o s t a r t t h e r e s e a r c h under way. However, I would be v e r y g l a d t o h e l p i n any way i n s t i t u t i o n s i n t e r e s t e d i n o b t a i n i n g n a t u r a l h i s t o r y m a t e r i a l s from Sabah.

N E W S A N D A N N O U N C E M E N T S

ANTHROPOLOGISTS INTERESTED IN BORNEAN RESEARCH TO MEET IN

TORONTO AT THE AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION MEETINGS :.--

The Borneo Research Counci l i s sponsor ing a meet ing of a l l a n t h r o - p o l o g i s t s i n t e r e s t e d i n r e s e a r c h i n Borneo a t t h e annua l meet ings of t h e American Anthropolog ica l A s s o c i a t i o n which w i l l be h e l d i n Toronto. The g a t h e r i n g w i l l be h e l d on F r i d a y , December 1, a t 8 p.m., i n t h e P r i n c e Edward I s l a n d Room o f t h e Royal York Hote l . The meet ing i s open t o a l l i n t e r e s t e d i n r e s e a r c h i n Borneo.

A t p r e s e n t I am s e t t i n g up a n a t u r a l h i s t o r y f i e l d s t a t i o n a t Mile 29 Penampang-Sunsuron Road a t about 4,000 f t . on t h e s l o p e of

RESEARCH ON ISLAMICIZATION AND MALAYIZATION

AND A REQUEST FOR INFORMATION

P e t e r Linde, Im Fischpfad 5 , 69 Heide lberg H'heim, Germany, i s wr i t ing a d i s s e r t a t i o n on t h e Malay iza t ion and I s l a m i c i z a t i o n of the Dayak of Borneo, e s p e c i a l l y o f Kalimantan. He w r i t e s t h a t information on t h e c o a s t a l Malays o f Borneo i s ex t remely l i m i t e d and he i s looking f o r r e f e r e n c e s , m a t e r i a l , and in format ion on the c u l t u r e and s o c i e t y o f t h e s e p e o p l e s and qn t h e process o f I s l a m i c i z a t i o n and Malay iza t ion . Any s u g g e s t i o n s o r c o r r e s - '! pondence on t h e s e problems would be v e r y g r e a t l y a p p r e c i a t e d .

NEWS AND PUBLICATIONS OF THE MALAYSIAN

BRANCH ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY

Brian Peacock h a s r e c e n t l y r e s i g n e d from t h e p o s t o f lion. S e c r e t a r y of t h e S o c i e t y , and Tan S r i Dato Mubin Sheppard has been appoin ted by t h e Council t o r e p l a c e him. Dato Sheppard a l s o s e r v e s a s Hon. E d i t o r t o t h e S o c i e t y and has brought t h e p u b l i c a t i o n backlog up- to -da te . Volume 43, P a r t s One and Two ( f o r 1970). and Volume 4 4 , P a r t Two (1971), a r e c u r r e n t l y ready f o r p u b l i c a t i o n . M a t e r i a l f o r Volume 45, P a r t 1 ( t h e f i r s t p a r t f o r 1972) , has a l s o been s e n t t o the p r i n t e r .

UNIVERSITI SAWS MALAYS'IA, PENANG, ANNOUNCES ACADEMIC APPOINTS

VACANT IN THE SCHOOL OF COMPARATIVE SOCIAL SCIENCES

Appl ica t ions a r e i n v i t e d f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g p o s t s : S e n i o r L e c t u r e r s o r Lec ture rs i n t h e f i e l d s of Economics, Soc io logy , S o c i a l Psycho- logy, P o l i t i c a l S c i e n c e , and S o c i a l Anthropology. S e n i o r L e c t u r e r s must have a d o c t o r a t e from a recognized u n i v e r s i t y w i t h s e v e r a l years exper ience i n ' y e s e a r c h and t e a c h i n g a t t h e u n i v e r s i t y l e v e l , t o g e t h e r wi th p u b l i c a t i o n s . L e c t u r e r s should have a t l e a s t a Masters degree. S a l a r y range f o r S e n i o r L e c t u r e r is from US$7,932 I

t o US$10,680; f o r L e c t u r e r s US$5,964 t o US$9,420. The medium of i n s t r u c t i o n i s e i t h e r Engl i sh o r Bahasa Malaysia , and t h e t e a c h i n g load i s approximately e q u a l t o o t h e r Malaysian u n i v e r s i t i e s . Research o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s a r e f a i r l y abundant. I

The c l o s i n g d a t e o f a p p l i c a t i o n s i s 1 5 December 1972 a l though i n c e r t a i n c a s e s t h i s may be ex tended . F u r t h e r in format ion may be obtained from: The R e g i s t r a r , U n i v e r s i t i S a i n s Malaysia , Minden, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia.

- 29 -

B O R N E O N E W S

JAY B. CRAIN i s now A s s i s t a n t P r o f e s s o r o f Medical Anthropology, Department of Psychology, U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , D a v i s , and i s a l s o A s s o c i a t e P r o f e s s o r o f Anthropology, a t C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e Uni- v e r s i t y , Sacramento.

GALE DIXON r e t u r n e d from h i s r e s e a r c h i n Sarawak and Kalimantan Bara t t o t h e Department of Geography, U n i v e r s i t y o f Oregon, Eugene, Oregon 97403, f o r t h e academic year of 1971-72. During h i s r e s e a r c h he was a l s o a b l e t o c o l l e c t a word l i s t from t h e Lara i n Kalimantan Bara t .

'F. L. DUNN, Vice-Chairman o f t h e Department o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l H e a l t h , and Chairman, Graduate Group i n Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i San Franc isco , i s c u r r e n t l y engaged i n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f a Borneo biomedical and h e a l t h - b e h a v i o r a l b i b l i o g r a p h y . During t h e academic y e a r of 1972-73, D r . Dunn w i l l be on s a b b a t h i c a l l e a v e , d u r i n g which t ime he w i l l be a t t h e School o f P u b l i c Hea l th , U n i v e r s i t y o f Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822.

SIN-FONG HAN i s A s s i s t a n t P r o f e s s o r i n t h e Department o f Geography, C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e Col lege , Los Angeles , C a l i f o r n i a . He w r i t e s t h a t he i s conduct ing r e s e a r c h on t h e Hai lan Chinese i n Sabah and i s i n t h e p rocess of c o l l e c t i n g d a t a on t h e s e Chinese communities i n Brunei , Sarawak, S ingapore and west Malaysian s t a t e s . He h a s r e c e n t l y d e l i v e r e d a paper e n t i t l e d "A Conceptual Model f o r E t h n i c Group Study" a t t h e 1972 annual meet ings of t h e C a l i f o r n i a Counci l f o r Geographic Educat ion, which was h e l d i n Pasadena on May 5-6 , 1972 In t h e paper Han d e t a i l s t h e conceptua l model f o r e t h n i c group s t u d y t h a t he employed a s an a n a l y t i c a l framework i n h i s s t u d y o f Overseas Chinese i n Malaysia .

BARBARA HARRISSON h a s been appoin ted a S e n i o r Research A s s o c i a t e i n t h e Southeas t Asia Program a t C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y f o r a f u r t h e r p e r i o d of t h r e e y e a r s (1972-75).

MARGARET ROFF r e c e n t l y r e t u r n e d from an ex tended t r i p t o Sabah, Sarawak and Brunei .

C. A. SATHER'S new a d d r e s s i s c /o t h c M i r i - B i n t u l u S tudy , PWD Depot, P u j u t Road, Miri, Sarawak, Malaysia .

RICHARD SHUTLER, J R . , fo rmer ly o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f V i c t o r i a , h a s moved t o t h e Department of Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y o f Iowa, Iowa C i t y , Iowa 52240, U.S.A.

R. 0. WHYTE w r i t e s t h a t i n t h e l a t t e r p a r t of 1971 he s p e n t two months working i n t h e L i b r a r y o f t h e Botan ic Gardens, Singapore, on t h e f i r s t d r a f t on an a r t i c l e f o r Asian P e r s p e c t i v e s on t h e archaeology, h i s t o r y and taxonomic geography o f t h e Gramineae, wild and c u l t i v a t e d , of S o u t h e a s t As ia . He was a l s o a b l e t o make a quick t r i p t o Kuching t o v i s i t t h e Research Branch of t h e Depart- ment of A g r i c u l t u r e and t h e i r farms a t Semongok and T a r a t , n e a r . Ser ian , and t h e pea t rec lamat ion p l o t s o u t s i d e Kuching i n accom- paniment with the Convervator o f F o r e s t s , D r . J . A. R. Anderson.

x JAMES WARREN, Department o f P a c i f i c H i s t o r y , A u s t r a l i a n Nat iona l Univers i ty , Canberra , A u s t r a l i a , i s w r i t i n g a d i s s e r t a t i o n e n t i t l e d "Slavery and t h e S lave Trade i n t h e Malay World: 1 9 t h Century Sulu A Case Study." The geographica l a r e a s t o be cons idered i n t h i s s tudy w i l l be J o l o , B r i t i s h North Borneo, and Dutch Borneo i n t h e 19 th cen tury . Warren's r e s e a r c h w i l l t a k e him t o Spa in , Holland and England r e s p e c t i v e l y , and subsequent ly t o Manila and J o l o as well a s J a k a r t a t o c o n s u l t a r c h i v a l m a t e r i a l s .

Kalirnantan News

FRANK L. COOLEY r e p o r t s t h a t FRIDOLIN UKUR p r e s e n t e d h i s d o c t o r a l a i s s e r t a t i o n e n t i t l e d "Tantang-Djawab Suku Dajak" t o t h e F a c u l t y of the Higher Theolog ica l School i n J a k a r t a and s u c c e s s f u l l y de- fended it on December 20, 1971. The d i s s e r t a t i o n i s s u b t i t l e d i n t r a n s l a t i o n : "A Research i n t o F a c t o r s Surrounding t h e R e j e c t i o n and the Reception of t h e Gospel Among E t h n i c Dajaks Within t h e Framework of t h e H i s t o r y o f t h e Church i n Kalimantan; 1835-1945." Cooley no tes t h a f i t i s t h e f i r s t d o c t o r a t e i n theo logy e v e r g ran ted i n Indonesia and t h a t t h e a u t h o r i s an o r d a i n e d m i n i s t e r o f t h e Evangel ical Church o f Kalimantan. Ukur i s a Maanjan and s e r v e d f o r more than t e n y e a r s a s r e c t o r of t h e T h e o l o g i c a l Academy of t h e Kalimantan Church i n Banjarmasin. He h a s r e c e n t l y been appoin ted Di rec tor of t h e Research and Study I n s t i t u t e , D j l . Salemba Raja 10 , J a k a r t a IV/3, Indopes ia , which h a s been e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e Counci l of Churches i n Indones ia and t o which Cooley h imse l f h a s been r e l a t e d f o r t h e p a s t f i v e y e a r s w h i l e i n i t s embryonic form.

DENIS P. FITZGERALD has r e c e n t l y r e t u r n e d from h i s r e s e a r c h i n S o u t h e a s t A s i a a l i m a n t a n t o t h e Department o f G e o ~ r a p h y . - - Carleton U n i v e r s i t y , Ottawa, Canada.

VICTOR T. (TERRY) KING has a new address : c /o Dja lan P a t t i m u r a 195 Pastoran Kato l ik , Pont ianak , Kalimantan B a r a t , Indones ia . He i s

: laming r e s e a r c h l i n t h e Sg. Emboloh r e g i q n o f t h e Kapuas Hulu a rea . His r e s e a r c h w i l l focus on t h e Maloh p e o p l e s , b u t he a l s o plans t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e Kantu p e o p l e s a s w e l l a s a few o f t h e Iban long-houses t h a t a r e i n t h e a r e a .

STEINER S ~ R E N S E N , Ethnographic Museum, U n i v e r s i t y o f Os lo , is working on t h e m a t e r i a l s t h e r e from t h e Lumholtz e x p e d i t i o n and

has r e c e n t l y p u b l i s h e d an a r t i c l e on t h e s e . He i s a l s o s t u d y i n g Lumholtz's d i a r i e s and n o t e s i n t h e view o f p u b l i s h i n g any r e l e - v a n t e thnographic i n f o r m a t i o n .

Brunei News

TOM HARRISSON w r i t e s t h a t t h e Museum a t Brunei was opened by Her majes ty t h e Queen on 29 th February i n t h e p resence . o f P r i n c e s s Anne and t h e Duke o f Edinburgh and H i s Highness t h e S u l t a n of Brune i , who were conducted by t h e C u r a t o r , P. M . S h a r i f f u d d i n , and Har r i s so : a s Museum Advisor . H a r r i s s o n a l s o n o t e s t h a t t h e Museum has excella r e s e a r c h akcomodations. H.H. t h e S u l t a n o f Brunei h a s c o n f e r r e d on H a r r i s s o n t h e honor o f Dato S e r i L a i l a J a s a f o r h i s s e r v i c e s t o t h e Brunei Museum and p r e h i s t o r i c s t u d i e s . H a r r i s s o n h a s a l s o been appointed S e n i o r Research A s s o c i a t e i n t h e S o u t h e a s t A s i a Program a t C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y f o r a term of t h r e e y e a r s (1972-75).

Sarawak News

CHRISTOPHER COURT w r i t e s t h a t he and Robert Na'en anak Jerman have c o l l a b o r a t e d t o produce an English-Bukar-Sadong Phrase Book f o r t h e Borneo L i t e r a t u r e Bureau. The book u s e s a m o d i f i c a t i o n of miss ion s p e l l i n g t o make i t phonemic, c o n t a i n s a grammatical i n t r o d u c t i o n , and shows a l l p r i n c i p a l p a r t s o f t h e verbs . I n September, 1971. Court a l s o c a r r i e d o u t a b r i e f survey i n t h e Pont ianak r e g i o n and r e p o r t s t h a t Land Dayak d i a l e c t s a r e spoken th roughout t h e Sakajam River a r e a a l though t h e term "Land Dayak" i s unknown on t h e Indonesian s i d e .

I. F. C. S. CLAYRE w r i t e s t h a t h i s w i f e h a s r e c e n t l y p repared a survey of f o c u s i n a dozen o r s o o f t h e Borneo languages ; and a l s o a comparison o f Murut (Sarawak), K e l a b i t and Sa 'ban v o c a b u l a r i e s t o show remarkable d e t a i l s i n an e f f o r t towards e s t a b l i s h i n g a p r o t o - language on o t h e r t h a n s p e c u l a t i o n . Such t r i p l e s a s t h e Sa 'ban seu "hand," " s a l t , " and "stop" a i e shown t o be e q u i v a l e n n t h r e e S e p a r a t e words i n a p ro to- language n o t f a r removed from p r e - s e n t day Murut, d e r i v e d by d i s c r e e t r u l e s of p h o n o l o g i c a l change t o t h e i r p r e s e n t Sa 'ban form. S i m i l a r r u l e s appear t o account reason- a b l y w e l l f o r t h e occur rence i n Sa 'ban o f t h e unusua l geminated s t o p s and v o i c e l e s s - v o i c e d p a i r s such a s nnoen " s t o o l " and hnoen "Penan t r i b e . "

Sabah New8

G. N . APPELL h a s r e c e n t l y r e t u r n e d t o t h e Department o f Anthropolog Brande is U n i v e r s i t y , Waltham, M a s s a c h u s e t t s , from a y e a r a s V i s i t i n P r o f e s s o r t o t h e Department o f Ethnography, Aarhus U n i v e r s i t y , Denmark, under t h e Fu lbr igh t -Hays Program. While i n Europe d u r i n g t h e academic y e a r 1971-72, Appel l was a l s o i n v i t e d t o l e c t u r e a t t h e Department of Anthropology, London School o f Economics; t h e

Department of S o c i a l Anthropology, Manchester U n i v e r s i t y ; t h e I n s t i t u t e f o r Ethnography, U n i v e r s i t y o f Oslo; t h e I n s t i t u t e of S o c i a l Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y o f Bergen; t h e I n s t i t u t e f o r Ethnology and Anthropology and t h e I n s t i t u t e f o r C u l t u r a l Soc io- logy, both of t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Copenhagen; and t h e South-eas t Asia Centre, U n i v e r s i t y of Hul l . He a l s o v i s i t e d a number o f museums t o s e e what Borneo m a t e r i a l s and manuscr ip t s t h e y might have and gave an i l l u s t r a t e d t a l k on Borneo ethnography and research t o t h e Danish Ethnographica l S o c i e t y a t t h e Nat iona l Museum, Copenhagen.

JOHN E. D. FOX'S new a d d r e s s i s c/o Department o f F o r e s t s , P. 0. Box 5055, Boroko, P o r t Moresby, Papua, New Guinea. He w r i t e s t h a t h i s Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , "Natura l Vege ta t ion o f Sabah and Natural Regenerat ion o f t h e D i p t e r o c a r p Fores t , " h a s been accepted by t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Wales.

The Wall S t r e e t J o u r n a l (20 September 1972) , a U. S. f i n a n c i a l newspaper , r e c e n t l y c a r r i e d a news a r t i c l e on t h e Orang-utan R e h a b i l i t a t i o n Center founded by G. S. DE SILVA and l o c a t e d i n the Sepi lok F o r e s t Reserve. De S i l v a h a s r e c e n t l y r e p o r t e d on t h i s orang-utan p r o j e c t i n t h e Malay. Nat. J . 2 4 (1971).

I( B O O K R E V I E W S

Budu, o r , Twenty Years i n Saaawak. John K . Wilson. North Berwick, Scot land: T a n t a l l o n P r e s s , 1969. 280 pp.

Reviewed by James H. Cobbe Yale U n i v e r s i t y

Few Westerners who s p e n t much t ime i n Sarawak i n t h e 1950's o r 1960's can have f a i l e d t o have heard o f J. K. Wilson. He was a minor legend i n h i s own t ime , and most o f f i c i a l s i n e d u c a t i o n and o t h e r "development" departments had s t r o n g f e e l i n g s about him, h i s methods, and h i s views, e i t h e r one way o r t h e o t h e r . "JK" has now publ i shed h i s own v e r s i o n o f what he was t r y i n g t o do, what he achieved and why, and why he e v e n t u a l l y l e f t i n 1968. I t is a very persona l s t o r y , n o t w i t h o u t b i a s and s t r o n g o p i n i o n s , but a b s o l u t e l y f a s c i n a t i n g t o anyone i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e s o c i a l , economic and p o l i t i c a l development o f r u r a l Sarawak.

General iz ing from h i s own e x p e r i e n c e s , t h e a u t h o r makes many recommendations f o r t h e conduct o f community development schemes. Unfortunately, i n t e r e s t i n g though t h e y a r e , I doubt i f t h e y w i l l be o f much g e n e r a l a p p l i c a t i o n , s i n c e anyone who e v e r met J K , o r even perhaps who read t h i s book, w i l l be convinced t h a t t h e s u c c e s s of Budu and t h e o t h e r schemes w i t h which J K was a s s o c i a t e d was l a r g e l y a t t r i b u t a b l e t o JK ' s own remarkable p e r s o n a l i t y .

Never the less , t h e book does d e s c r i b e what c a n be done by community development, and g i v e s a v i a b l e , i f t e n d e n t i o u s , d e s c r i p t i o n and e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e development p o l i c i e s o f t h e S t a t e and F e d e r a l governments up t o 1968. The book is b e a u t i f u l l y i l l u s t r a t e d w i t h a l a r g e number o f l i n e drawings d e p i c t i n g Iban l i f e by A r t h u r Thwaites , who a l s o worked a t Budu and who c o n t r i b u t e s a d e s c r i p t i o n of t r a d i t i o n a l Iban l i f e . There a r e i n a d d i t i o n s h o r t p i e c e s on p a r t i c u l a r a s p e c t s o f t h e Budu scheme by f i v e o t h e r p e r s o n s who were connected w i t h it. I t is an ex t remely v a l u a b l e book, w e l l wor th t h e e f f o r t r e q u i r e d t o o b t a i n a copy, and much c r e d i t i s due t h e N u f f i e l d Foundat ion f o r making i t s w r i t i n g p o s s i b l e .

1 The O r i g i n . of B r i t i e h Borneo. L. R. Wright. Hong Kong U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1970. x 237 pp., maps.

Reviewed by Robert P r i n g l e

Leigh Wright p i c k s up approximately where Graham I r w i n ' s Nine teen th Centur Borneo l e f t o f f , t r a c i n g t h e h i s t o r y of c o l o n i a l p o l i c y towardYwhat were t o become t h e B r i t i s h Borneo t e r r i t o r i e s from t h e - - - . . - . . e a r l y 1860 ' s down t o t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of p r o t e c t o r a t e s over Sarawak North Borneo,and Brunei i n 1888. The book r e f l e c t s a t r a d i t i o n a l B r i t i s h academic approach t o s t u d i e s o f c o l o n i a l p o l i c y . Based e n t i r e l y on wes te rn source m a t e r i a l , mos t ly o f f i c i a l f i l e s , i t emphasizes B r i t a i n ' s concern t o f o r e s t a l l a c q u i s a t i v e moves by r i v a l i m p e r i a l powers i n t h e s t r a t e g i c South China Sea a r e a . Dr. Wright does n o t c l a i m t o t a k e i n t o account l o c a l f a c t o r s , and t h e book i s unleavened by a t t e n t i o n t o s o c i o l o g i c a l o r e t h n o g r a p h i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s which were sometimes o f c r u c i a l importance i n d e t e r - mining t h e behavior of key f i g u r e s such a s Rajah Char les Brooke, i f n o t of t h e mandarins of Whi teha l l . But t h i s i s a v e r y s o l i d s tudy of d i p l o m a t i c developments. I t i s a l s o r e a d a b l e , w e l l o rgan- i z e d , and t i g h t l y w r i t t e n . Those who may be c u r i o u s about t h e h i s t o r y of t h e P h i l i p p i n e c l a i m t o Sabah, a s u b j e c t on which D r . Wright is b o t h l u c i d and e x p e r t , w i l l f i n d h e r e a u s e f u l s u c c i n c t review o f t h e s u b j e c t and some i n t e r e s t i n g comments on t h e s e v e r a l contemporary c o u n t e r c l a i m s t o t h a t o f t h e S u l t a n o f S u l u which could be a s s i g n e d e q u a l ( i f dub ious) v a l i d i t y .

The North Borneo Char tered Company's A d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e Bajau, 2878-1 9 0 9 : The P a c i f i c a t i o n o f a Mari t ime, Nomadic Peop te . James F. Warren. Papers i n I n t e r n a t i o n a l S t u d i e s , . S o u t h e a s t Asia S e r i e s , No. 22. Athens, Ohio: Ohio U n i v e r s i t y Cente r f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l S t u d i e s , 1971. x i v 109 pp, appendix. $3.00.

Reviewed by C. A. S a t h e r

In t h i s b r i e f b u t impor tan t s t u d y Warren o u t l i n e s t h e measures t aken by t h e Char te red Company t o s e c u r e c o n t r o l o f t h e mari t ime Bajau o f s o u t h e a s t e r n Sabah and t h e consequences and l o c a l response

provoked by t h e s e measures w i t h i n Bajau s o c i e t y i t s e l f dur ing t h e f i r s t 30 years of Company r u l e .

P a r t of t h e importance of t h i s s t u d y r e s t s i n t h e f a c t t h a t it dea ls with t h e r e l a t i v e l y n e g l e c t e d e a s t c o a s t o f Sabah. In t h i s connection Warren draws a t t e n t i o n t o t h e r a d i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e n o r t h e r n and s o u t h e r n h a l v e s of t h e . coas t and t r a c e s i t s e f f e c t s on t h e subsequent h i s t o r y of t h e two a reas . In g e n e r a l , t h e p o l i t i c a l o r d e r e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e Company c l o s e l y p a r a l l e l e d t h a t which a l r e a d y e x i s t e d among t h e c o a s t a l ! peoples wi th whom it came t o d e a l , w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t t h e y became, a t once, the Company's p r i n c i p a l r i v a l s and t h e c h i e f a g e n t s through whom aworkable system o f l o c a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n was developed. Along the c o a s t n o r t h of Tambesan t h e Sulu s t a t e main ta ined a r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e p o l i t i c a l system based on c o n t r o l of t h e l i t t o r a l and r i v e r i n e procurement t r a d e . By r e c r u i t i n g Tausug d a t u t o i t s s e r v i c e t h e Company was a b l e t o absorb t h i s s y s t e m a n d l e g i t i m i z e i t s presence. Within t h e Darvel Bay a r e a t o t h e s o u t h n o t h i n g s o simple was p o s s i b l e . Here mari t ime Bajau groups enjoyed c o n s i d e r - ab le independence owing t o t h e i r m o b i l i t y and d i s p e r s e d s e t t l e m e n t of the s c a t t e r e d i s l a n d s and broken c o a s t l i n e making up t h e r e g i o n . What Warren d e s c r i b e s a s " p a c i f i c a t i o n " r e f e r s e s s e n t i a l l y t o t h e process by which t h e Company brought t o an end t h e p o l i t i c a l autonomy of t h e s e groups.

The per iod d e s c r i b e d h e r e ends a p p r o p r i a t e l y w i t h t h e f i r , s t formal scheme t o c o n s o l i & t e Bajau s e t t l e m e n t ashore . I n a d d i t i o n , a system of boa t l i c e n s i n g was i n t r o d u c e d t o c u r t a i l t h e movement o f s e a f a r i n g groups and s e c u r e t h e i r r e c o g n i t i o n of Company s o v e r e i g n t y , t axes were imposed, and encouragement was g iven t o t h e development of a cash m a r k e f f o r l o c a l goods. These l a t t e r a c t s were aimed a t a l t e r i n g t r a d i t i o n a l a t t i t u d e s towards l a b o r and t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of goods so a s t o i n c r e a s e Company revenues and weaken t h e former p o l i t i c a l o r d e r by undermining t h e economic b a s i s on which i t was pred ica ted .

Together t h e s e measures s e t i n motion changes t h a t , i n a d v e r t e n t l y o r by des ign , con t inue t o t r a n s f o r m Bajau s o c i e t y down t o t h e p r e s e n t time. While Warren p o i n t s up t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e , he q u i t e r i g h t l y s t r e s s e s t h a t a f u l l unders tand ing of t h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n r e q u i r e s t h a t i t be viewed from t h e Bajau p e r s p e c t i v e through ethnographic and, i n p a r t i c u l a r , e t h n o h i s t o r . i c a 1 r e s e a r c h , i n c l u d - ing the c o l l e c t i o n of o r a l h i s t o r i e s . H i s s t u d y , though based e n t i r e l y on European documentat ion, p r o v i d e s a v a l u a b l e s t a r t i n g po in t f o r such an under tak ing .

A B S T R A C T S . The A s s o c i a t i o n o f S o u t h e a s t A s i a (ASAI, 1962-1967; RegionaZisrn,

IdeoZogy, and D e c l a r a t o r y Fore ign P o l i c y . Vincent Kel ly P o l l a r d . A d i s s e r t a t i o n submi t ted t o t h e F a c u l t y o f t h e D i v i s i o n o f t h e

S o c i a l science;, The U n i v e r s i t y o f Chicago, i n candidacy f o r t h e degree of Master o f A r t s (Committee on I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s ) , December, 1968. i v 86 pp.

The economic and p o l i t i c a l ~ s o u r c e s and m o t i v a t i o n s f o r t h e Assoc- i a t i o n of S o u t h e a s t As ia (ASA) a r e deve loped , w i t h emphasis on t h e i r c o n t e x t i n Sino-American r e l a t i o n s s i n c e 1949. The i m p l i c i t and e x p l i c i t g o a l s of t h e ASA a r e r e l a t e d t o a t r e a t m e n t o f t h e ideo logy o r t h e s e o f " reg iona l i sm" i n i t s c o n t r a d i c t o r y forms. This "regional ism" was v a r i o u s l y unders tood , deve loped , and p r o - jectedl i n t h e d e c l a r a t o r y f o r e i g n p o l i c i e s of t h e former F e d e r a t i o n o f Malaya ( subsequent ly , Malays ia ) , t h e Republ ic o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s .and ThailancP a s t h e s e s t a t e s a l i g n e d and i n t e r a c t e d i n t h e ASA i n 1961, and, a long w i t h Indones ia and S ingapore , i n t h e A s s o c i a t i o n of S o u t h e a s t Asian Nations (ASEAN) i n August o f 1967. The r e s p e c t i v e and c o l l e c t i v e p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e ASA/ASEAN s t a t e s ( i n terms of t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e s e o r g a n i z a t i o n s ) a r e r e l a t e d t o t h e U. S. p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n s . One c e n t r a l frame o f r e f e r e n c e focuses on t h e c o n t i n u i n g d e s i r e s and u n d e r t a k i n g s o f U. S . policymakers t o "conta in1 ' t h e P e o p l e ' s Republ ic o f China. Chapte r I V l o c a t e s t h e renewal o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e c l a i m t o North Borneo (Sabah) i n t h e g e o p o l i t i c a l m a t r i x of B r i t i s h and U . S. p o l i c i e s i n S o u t h e a s t Asia , t h e b i r t h o f Maphil indo, and t h e Indones ian Konfron tas i p o l i c i e s . Observers o f ASA and ASEAN u s u a l l y misunder- s t o o d t h e s e o r g a n i z a t i o n s , p e r c e i v i n g them a s h a r b i n g e r s of meaningful economic and c u l t u r a l c o l l a b o r a t i o n t o t h e b e n e f i t of t h e peoples of t h e f i v e n a t i o n s involved i n s t e a d o f a s v e h i c l e s t h a t tended t o i n t e g r a t e t h e t h r u s t o f t h e s e s t a t e s ' f o r e i g n p o l i c i e s i n t o t h e o r b i t of U. S. f o r e i g n p o l i c y endeavors i n E a s t and S o u t h e a s t Asia .

A c l a s s i f i e d b i b l i o g r a p h y i s found a t pp. 7 5 - 8 6 . I n q u i r i e s con- ce rn ing Xerox (6" x 9" o r 8 1/2" x 11") o r m i c r o f i l m ( p o s t i v e ) cop ies of t h e t h e s i s (T-17304) may be d i r e c t e d t o : Photo- Dupl ica t ion . B-70, The Joseph Regens te in L i b r a r y , 1100 E a s t 57th S t r e e t , Chicago, I l l i n o i s 60637, U.S.A.

REPORT FROM THE EDITOR (Continued)

p e r y e a r . This t o t a l s a v i n g s of $300 s t i l l l e a v e s u s w i t h a p ro- j e c t e d d e f i c i t of approximate ly $ 2 2 0 f o r Volume 4 (1972) o f t h e %. One of t h e reasons t h a t t h e BRB i s o p e r a t i n g a t a d e f i c i t . 3 ~ t h e f a c t t h a t 2 6 4 c o p i e s a r e s e n t w i t h o u t charge t o i n d i v i d u a l s , un iver - s i t i e s and government depar tments i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e I s l a n d s , Malaysi: Indones ia , e t c . I should l i k e t o n o t e h e r e t h a t some o f t h e sub- s c r i b e r s i n t h e s e a r e a s have i n f a c t v e r y t h o u g h t f u l l y s e n t i n con t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e c o s t s of t h e E. And we s i n c e r e l y u rge t h o s e i n t h e s e a r e a s who can a f f o r d t o c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e c o s t s o f p u b l i s h i n g t h e BRB t o do s o . Any s u g g e s t i o n s w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e problem of cur rency exchange and exchange c o s t s would indeed be most g r a t e f u l l y r e c e i v e d by t h e e d i t o r .

volume 4, no. 1, 1972

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