week 2 3 - organizations and groups
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7/21/2019 Week 2 3 - Organizations and Groups
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People and Organizations
Professor
Yiannis Gabriel
University of Bath
Weeks 2 & 3
Organizations and groups
The aim of this session is to:
• Understand the importance of groups fororganizational and social life
• Appreciate some of the effects of groupson their members
• Learn about different types of groups
• Assess some group synergies anddysfunctions
• Compare individual and group decisionmaking processes
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Human Relations
School
Western Electric, Hawthorne Works, Chicago
Human Relations
School
Hawthorne Experiments• The illumination experiments
• Control and experimental groups
Hawthorne Effect -- i.e. a person's behaviour changeswhen he/she is being observed, especially as theobject of an experiment
Elton Mayo (1880-1949)• The relay assembly experiments
Group cohesion and group-norms.
• Why do men and women work hard?
• Taylor – financial incentives
• Mayo – membership of cohesive groups
The Importance of NormsExamples
• Clothing and dressing
• Speaking
• Eating and drinking
• Sexual and socializing
• …
Norms are not rules
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Some differences between Human Relations
and Scientific Management
• Motivation (economic vs social being)• Rationality and emotion
• The role of management
• The nature of organizations
• Their legacies
And some similarities!
The increasing emphasis on teams
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Groups and organizations
Rationality and emotionality -- individual andgroup
Are organizations groups? Any differences?
Groups, teams and committees, (the Camel)
Formal and informal groups
Groups -- friends or enemies of organizations?
Pro:
- synergy, (theatrical troupe)
- motivation,
- ‘man’ as social animal,
- pooling of talents,
- cross-fertilization
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Cons:
• conformity
• lowering of intelligence
• bickering, rivalries -- intensification of
emotion
• contagion and suggestibility• incapacity of moderation and restraint
• Risky shift
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Group boundaries: inclusion - exclusion
• Group experience and individual experience;the group mind
Solomon Asch’s experiment (1951)
x
So, which line is the same as line
X?
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Groupthink -- Janis
Groupthink is a phenomenon sometimes occurring
in very highly cohesive groups in which group
members are more concerned with maintaining
group spirit then in making the most realistic
decisions. The major symptoms of groupthink are
listed and described here. (Source: Adapted from
Janis, 1972)
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Symptom Description
1. I llusion of invulnerabi li ty Ignoring obvious danger signals, being
overly optimistic, and taking extreme
risks
2. Col lect ive rat ional izat ion Discredit ing or ignoring warnings that
run contrary to group thinking
3. Unquesti oned mora lit y Beli ev ing the groups positi on is e th ical
and moral while all others are
inherently evil
4. Excessive negative stereotyping Viewing the opposing side as too negative
to warrant serious consideration
5. Strong conformity pressure Discouraging the expression of
dissenting opinions under the threat
of expulsion for disloyalty
6. Self-censorship of dissenting ideas Withholding dissenting ideas and
counterarguments; keeping these to
oneself
7. Illu sion o f u nanimity Sh arin g th e fal se b elief th at ev eryo ne
agrees with the group’s judgments
8. Self -appointed mindguards Protect ing the group from the influx of
adverse information that might threaten
group complacency
Risk – The risky shift
How Risky Are You? Decide for Yourself
On questionnaire items such as this, it has been found that groups tend to make riskier decisions thanindividuals, a phenomenon known as the risky shift. (Source: Adapted from Kogan & Wallach, Risk Taking, New
York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston, 1964.)
Mr. A, an electrical engineer, who is married and had one child, has been working for a large electronics
corporation since graduating from college five years ago. He is assured of a lifetime job with a modest, thoughadequate, salary, and liberal pension benefits upon retirement. On the other hand, it is very unlikely that his
salary will increase much before he retires. While attending a convention, Mr. A is offered a job with a small,
newly founded company which has a highly uncertain future. The new job would pay more to start and would
offer the possibility of a share in the ownership if the company survived the competition of the larger firms.
Imagine that you are advising Mr. A. Listed below are several probabilities or odds of the new company’s proving
financially sound.
Please check the lowest probability that you would consider acceptable to make it worthwhile for Mr. A to takethe new job.
_ The chances are 1 in 10 that the company will prove financially sound.
_ The chances are 3 in 10 that the company will prove financially sound.
_ The chances are 5 in 10 that the company will prove financially sound.
_ The chances are 7 in 10 that the company will prove financially sound.
_ The chances are 9 in 10 that the company will prove financially sound.
_ Place a check her if you think Mr. A should not take the new job no matter what the probabilities.
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Quality of Decision-making in groups
Advantages of working in groups:
• pooling of resources
• Stimulation
• Specialization
Disadvantages:
• waste of time and energy
• Intimidation
• free-rider
• disagreement / conflict / compromise
Other ‘dysfunctional groups’
Wilfred Bion
The work
group
The task
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Basic assumptions:
group operates 'as if'.
It is taken over by powerful emotions, loses
sight of task.
Basic assumptions group
• Group is overwhelmed by powerful
emotions, especially anxiety
• Group loses sight of task
• Group loses ability to think rationally
• Group is gripped by fantasy
• Group operates ‘as if’ something is going
on …
The three types of ‘basic
assumption’ group
• baD -- dependency; the leader will protect
us, solve our problems etc. The leader is 'a
genius', but eventually disappoints.
• baF -- Fight or flight. The leader important
in determining response
• baP -- pairing; a messiah (person or idea)
will be born out of getting together of two
people/companies/nations.
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The importance of anxiety and its
management
• Individual anxiety• Group anxiety
… and its management
Containment of anxiety
• Talk and communicate – do not allow anxieties to mount
• Do not allow taboo subjects
• Structures, procedures, timetables, boundaries (including
procedures for appointing leader)
• A flexible approach to plan
• Diversions – socializing, doing things outside of the task,
entertainment, exercise, having some fun• Jokes and humour
• Leader exercises anxiety-containment, soaking up anxiety
(toxic leaders) and relieving followers
• Respect individual anxiety-coping strategies, e.g. soft toys,
private rituals, superstitions etc. provided that …
Are there leaderless groups?
• Are such groups possible?
• If so, for what types of tasks?
• Are they desirable?
Some preliminary thoughts on leaders and groups
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