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The History of ManagementThought
MGT 336
Week 7 NotesMike Bejtlich
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Chapter Thirteen
The Hawthorne Studies
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Hawthorne Studies Hawthorne Plant of Western Electric
Subsidiary of the American Telephone andTelegraph Company
“The Social Person” was not invented bythese studies, but was brought to a widerrecognition by those who interpreted theresults.
The studies have been widely publicized,misinterpreted, praised, and criticized overthe many years since the event.
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Hawthorne Plant History
& Time Line 1905: Western Electric moved to Cicero, Illinois
Founder: Enos Barton
“The Biggest Little Railway in the World” 1914: Absorbed operations from New York &
Chicago Main manufacturer for Bell Telephone Laboratories
Hawthorne Works included over 100 buildings Hawthorne Works was Western Electric’s only
manufacturing facility.
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Hawthorne Plant History
& Time Line
1924-1933: Hawthorne Studies
1932-1938: Harvard researchers continuedresearch “Human Element” is critical
1940: Peak production with 42,000 workersemployed
1958: Western Electric Statistical QualityControl Handbook Hawthorne Plant History
& Time Line
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Illumination Studies:
1924-1927 The original research
issue was the effect of workplace illuminationon worker productivity.Those who cameinitially to Hawthornewere electrical
engineers from MIT.
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Illumination Studies:
1924-1927 After establishing
performance baselinesin three departments,the researchers variedthe level of illumination.
Their conclusion:Illumination appeared
to have no influence oninput.
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Illumination Studies:
1924-1927 Another attempt was made with a control group
and a variable group, placed in separate
buildings. Again: In this case output went up in both
groups.
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Illumination Studies:
1924-1927 The illumination research was abandoned in
1927.
One of the researchers, Charles E. Snow of MIT, concluded there were too many variablesand the “psychology of the human individual” could have been the most important one.
Charles E. Snow
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The Relay Assembly Test
Room: 1927-1933 The studies could have been trashed at this point, but
Homer Hibarger one of he researchers fromHawthorne, and George Pennock, assistant worksmanager of Hawthorne, pushed for further study.
Homer Hibarger
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The Relay Assembly Test
Room: 1927-1933
Pennock had an
excellent insight:Supervision was abetter explanation.
George Pennock
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The Relay Assembly Test
Room: 1927-1933 The participants were volunteers, knew the
objectives of the study, and were observed
for a short period in their regular departmentprior to going to a separate room with theirobserver.
After eight months into the experiment, two
of the original participants were replaced.TheRelay Assembly Test Room: 1927-1933
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The Relay Assembly Test
Room: 1927-1933 A number of changes were introduced
The incentive payment plan was changed such
that the relay assembly group was rewarded ontheir output rather than on the output of thelarger relay assembly department.
Participants were told they could make moremoney under this arrangement.
Participants were allowed to talk to each otherduring the work day.The Relay – one variation
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The Relay Assembly Test
Room: 1927-1933 Rest periods were introduced.
After eight months, two operators quit and two newones were selected.
Work-day and work-week changed.
Lunch and refreshments were provided by thecompany.
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The Relay Assembly Test
Room: 1927-1933
Over a year after the studies began, all of these “privileges,” except the small grouppayment plan, were removed.
While output varied, the overall trend wasincreased output.
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Dr. Clair Turner, MIT:
Early Interpretation Dr. Clair Turner of MIT had an interpretation
of the test results:
The small group resulted in more esprit decorps.
Difference in the style of supervision – “relaxed and friendly” in the test room vs. “hewas mean…he died; I didn’t even go to seehim.” (Theresa Layman speaking of regularroom supervisor Frank Platenka)
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Dr. Clair Turner, MIT:
Early Interpretation
Increased earnings: average wage went from
$16 to $28-50 per week while in the TestRoom.
The novelty of the experiment.
The attention given to the operators byothers at the plant.
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Second Relay Group A second relay group was formed by Turner in an
effort to test the pay for performance effects. Average earnings per week had increased
significantly. The second relay group was formed and taken from
the large group payment plan to the small group one.Initially, output went up and then leveled off. Thestudy only lasted nine weeks. The group was then
returned to the original payment plan, outputdropped. That was the end of the secondgroup.Mica Splitting Tests: 1928-1930
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Mica Splitting Tests:
1928-1930 Mica splitters had always been on individual
pay incentives and this group was studies for
14 months. In this group, average hourly output went up
during this period.
Turner concluded that pay incentives wereone factor, but not the only one, although itwas of “appreciable importance.”MicaSplitting Tests:
1928-1930
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The Interviewing Program:
1929-1930 Snow and Hibarger started asking the workers directed
questions about their feelings.
Elton Mayo (1880-1949) made a contribution bychanging the interviewing program to a nondirectiveapproach. He believed that supervisors need to listenmore.
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The Interviewing Program:
1929-1930 With the nondirective approach the length of
the interviews and the information gatheredincreased. There appeared to be a cathartic effect. After a
worker complained, follow-up interviews revealedthat the complaint was gone. The workers feltbetter even though no change in conditions hadoccurred.
“Fact” and “sentiment” had to be separated.
Two levels of complaints: Manifest – what the employee said
Latent – the psychological content of the complaint
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The Interviewing Program:
1929-1930 Complaints were symptoms to be
explored.
“Pessimistic reveries” (negative
attitudes held by employees that couldinterfere with their performance – according to Mayo) could be reduced if supervisors were concerned andlistened to their employees.
Group Behavior: Bank Wiring Test Room(1931-1932)
Elton Mayo
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Group Behavior: Bank Wiring
Test Room (1931-1932) Concerned observation, but not
intervention, with male workers
assembling switches for central officeswitchboards.
Restriction with output was a surprising
finding to Turner and W. Lloyd Warnereven though restriction of output hadbeen described by others.
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Group Behavior: Bank Wiring
Test Room (1931-1932) Workers had established an output norm that
was lower than management’s standard or
the “bogey.” In the informal organization, there were two
cliques, each having norms about appropriatein-group behavior, such as the practice of
“binging.”
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Group Behavior: Bank Wiring
Test Room (1931-1932) Researchers found that work groups:
Deliberately restricted output
Smoothed out production Developed intragroup disciplinary methods
Some workers were isolates , not in a clique,because of various factors
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Group Behavior: Bank Wiring
Test Room (1931-1932)
Rules for clique membership:
Do not work too fast. (“Rate buster”)
Do not work too slowly. (“Rate chiseler”)
Do not “squeal” on a member of your group.
Do not act officious or be socially distant.
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Group Behavior: Bank Wiring
Test Room (1931-1932) Factory as a social organization; work groups
served to protect the workers within theirgroup, and to protect the group from outsiders.
The workers: Viewed technologists and managers as following a “logic of efficiency” which interfered with groupactivities.
Were apprehensive of authority and followed a “logic of sentiments” which reflected their feelingsand attitudes toward outsiders.
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“The Hawthorne Effect” The Hawthorne Effect has been a part of human
relations folklore for years.
Allegedly, the findings were biased because theexperimenters became personally involved in thesocial-work situation.
Theresa Layman, one of the participants, rebuttedthis; so did Don Chipman, one of the observer
experimenters. The Hawthorne Effect is widely referenced, but is
a dubious explanation of the Hawthorne results.
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Human Relations “Pessimistic reveries” were one type of
blockage which arose out of personal, social,
and industrial problems and became manifestin apprehension of authority, restriction of output, etc.
Anomie, borrowed by Mayo from Emile
Durkheim to describe the break-up of traditional society, leaving people withoutnorms.
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What Happened to AT&T’s Bell
System and Western Electric?
November 20, 1974: Antitrust suit chargingmonopolization and conspiracy to monopolize.
1984: AT&T was ordered to divest its BellSystem and Western Electric divisions.
Lucent Technologies
Bell Laboratories
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Current Use of Hawthorne
Works 1983: Hawthorne Works converted into retail
space:
Hawthorne Works Plaza Super K-Mart
Dominick’s Grocery Store
The tower and a portion of the plant remains.
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Leadership In the view of Elton Mayo and Fritz
Roethlisberger, leadership neededstrengthening by social and human skills from
the leader. Influenced by Chester Barnard, Mayo concluded
that authority had to be based on social skills insecuring cooperation.
Management needed to focus more on buildinggroup integrity and solidarity.
First line supervisors were particularly important ingood worker-manager relations.
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Motivation Motivation in the human relations literature
evolved and became more Mayo and
Roethlisberger’s advocacy rather thanbased on what happened at the HawthornePlant.
Fritz J. Roethlisberger
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Motivation Early reports, such as Clair Turner’s
report and Mark Putnam’s statement
to Business Week , placed money asimportant.
The test room participants stated they
liked the fact they were able to makemore money.
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Motivation As time passed, the Mayo-Roethlisberger
theme shifted:
Roethlisberger’s memo that Mayo would be happybecause of some evidence that physiological, noteconomic, factors were related to output.
More emphasis in later writings is placed on social
belonging needs, being accepted by the group. A later quote regarding discarding “economic
man.” (See Wren text for further discussion of thispoint).
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Summary The Hawthorne Studies, began as an investigation
into the relationship between illumination andworker productivity, evolved into a study of theincreased output unrelated to lighting.
Improved performance was due to
Incentive payments
Style of the supervisor.
The human relations-oriented supervisor couldsatisfy the social needs of humans and theeconomic needs of the organization.
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