an analysis of co-management fisheries in west sumatra province

1Proceedings of the International Workshop on Fisheries Co-management

AN ANALYSIS OF CO-MANAGEMENT FISHERIES IN WEST SUMATRA PROVINCE, INDONESIA:

A CASE STUDY OF IKAN LARANGAN

INDAH SUSILOWATI Faculty of Economics, Diponegoro University

ABSTRACT

Several traditional Community-based Fisheries Resource Management (CBFRM) systems are still practised in Indonesia. Besides the traditional system, there are non-traditional ikan larangan system practised in West Padang, Sumatra in Indonesia. Ikan larangan is a kind of fisheries management system that applies closing seasons to fishing in a portion of river or canal for a certain period. The main objective of the study is to identify the condition for successful application of co-management fisheries or ikan larangan in West Sumatra. The institutional analysis as recommended by ICLARM (Pomeroy 1993) is employed as the research framework. There are three types of fisheries management: (1) traditional; (2) semi-traditional; and (3) modern. This classification is based on whether there is involvement of a religious leader (local term: pawang or buya) who employs magic to border the homerange of fish and/ or whether the fish reared in ikan larangan is marketable. For traditional ikan larangan, fish is considered a sacred creature and thus is not permitted to be killed. Local community believes that fish is endowed with magic and is not edible. They believe that if someone violates the rules (taking the fish) by chance or purposely, the person will receive a curse or other social or cultural punishment. While the modern ikan larangan is similar to the fish-farming system using a portion of river or irrigation canal, the system does not use modern equipment and technology. The semi-traditional system still employs a pawang but the fish can be sold. The total sample of 99 household respondents were drawn from the three sites of ikan larangan, i.e.,: (1) Lubuk Landur (traditional, n=19); (2) Kayu Tanam (semi-traditional, n=20); (3) Pasir Lawas (modern, n=60). The study emphasizes more on the modern system. This is an attempt to find out the possibility of implementing this system in other places in Indonesia as an alternative resource management and for food security purpose, as well as for enhancing the fisheries sector and regional country developments. The semi-traditional system was mostly found during the field survey in May 1999. The traditional system tends to decline in number since people nowadays become more practical for economic reasons. The preliminary analysis indicates that the modern ikan larangan will provide good prospects for implementation in Indonesia. However, collaboration between stakeholders, i.e., community and government in the study area is still very minimal. Moreover, the academic society and other stakeholders in the region where ikan larangan exists perhaps are not aware of the potency of the system as the new paradigm for fisheries resource management.


Introduction Background Indonesia is an archipelago which comprises more than 17 000 islands with various tribes under 27 provinces (BPS 1996). Each tribe has its unique customs. The major tribes (local term: suku) are Java, Minangkabau, Batak, Bugis, Ambon, Madura, etc. At present, these tribes are still practicing their customs (local term: adat) with different intensities. There are several traditional Community-based Fisheries Resource Management (CBFRM) systems that are still practised in Indonesia such as sasi (in Maluku), panglima laut (in Aceh), lubuk larangan (in North Sumatra). Some traditional practices, with their inherent believes or taboos also exist in Java like jum'at kliwonan, badhan, sedekah laut, terang bulanan, and orang tua (Susilowati 1996). Among those systems, sasi in Maluku is considered the most successful one, while the other systems seem to be weakening as reflected in reduced practice, like panglima laut and lubuk larangan. Besides these traditional systems, there are non-traditional CBFRMs operated by certain communities in Indonesia. There is a successful CBFRM system called ikan larangan that is practised by the Minangkabau tribe until now. Ikan means fish and larangan means forbidden to do something. Thereafter ikan larangan means a closed season for taking fish from a portion of a river, pond, or other fisheries resources in certain places in Minangkabau communities. The closed and opened seasons for ikan larangan is directed by a tokoh masyarakat (community leader). There are three types of ikan larangan, namely: traditional, semi-traditional, and modern. Modern ikan larangan was introduced in 1990s. Here the local community uses traditional ways to manage the system. Physically, the ikan larangan system is similar to lubuk larangan in North Sumatra (see Wahyono et al. 1992). Perhaps people are being inspired by the traditional system such as lubuk larangan or other opened and closed season systems such as sasi. Given available resource constraints and endowments, people have found survival strategies to meet basic family needs in the short run (Pomeroy 1991). Since there are many potential fisheries resource (i.e., rivers and/ or lakes) in West Sumatra, the community has adopted ikan larangan as one of the fish-farming systems as well as for recreational purposes recently. Many researchers have explored the sasi system. However, there is hardly any research conducted on community-based fisheries resource management for ikan larangan in West Sumatra. It is timely to investigate the success of the Minangkabau community in managing the ikan larangan resource as an indigenous co-management system especially in the fisheries sector. Objectives of the Study The overall objective of the study is to identify the conditions for successful application of co-management fisheries or the ikan larangan system in Minangkabau, West Sumatra. The specific objectives are: (1) To explore the characteristics of the ikan larangan system with respect to:

a. Physical and biological attributes of fishery in the study area; b. Market attributes (demand and supply) of the resource’s products; c. Community attributes such as socioeconomic profiles of the resource users; d. Rule-in-use to manage the system; e. Institutional and organizational arrangements between government and local community which lead to

the success of the ikan larangan system in the study area; f. External institutional arrangement, like organizations above village level, fisheries policy, and

government management system; g. Pattern of interaction in sharing responsibility and authority to manage the fisheries such as

collaboration among fisher community and/ or fisher households and/ or the authority. (2) To evaluate the performance of overall co-management system in the study area; (3) To measure the contribution of the ikan larangan system to the fisheries sector and to regional country

developments.


Methodology The Study Area There are about seven big ikan larangan systems in West Sumatra Province, which are spread out in Padang Pariaman, Pasaman, and Agam districts. A list of ikan larangan sites is explored during field survey as shown in Table 1. The ikan larangan sites were selected in Lubuk Landur (Pasaman district) to represent the traditional system, while in Kayu Tanam and Pasir Lawas (Padang Pariaman district) were taken as samples for semi-traditional and modern systems, respectively. These three selected sites are considered the most successful in applying the co-management regime to manage the ikan larangan. Selection of the study areas was arrived at after field surveys and discussions with the competent people. Data and Sampling There are two types of data collected for this study, i.e., primary and secondary data. The primary data was taken from a household survey, informal discussions with key persons, and focus group discussions with the competent persons. Ninety-nine household samples were drawn from the three selected sites using purposive random sampling (see Table 1). The face-to-face interviews was applied to survey the household respondents. Interviews with respondents were carried out by the students of the Fisheries Faculty of Bung Hatta University, Padang, West Sumatra. Training was given to all enumerators before they undertook the survey. The researchers supervised the survey. A standardized questionnaire was used to collect data from the respondents. The secondary data were collected from the concerned institutions (Fisheries Office, Central Bureau of Statistics of West Sumatra Province, and the Provincial Local Government Offices) and various related publications. Table 1. A list of ikan larangan sites in West Sumatra

No.

Sites

Type

Location

No. of Households Sampled

1 Salibutan Semi-traditional Desa Silabutan Kec. Lubuk Aling Kab. Padang Pariaman

2 Pasir Lawas Modern Desa Pasir Lawas Selected as the Kec. Lubuk Simatung study area (n=60) Kab. Padang Pariaman

3 Titian Panjang Semi-traditional Desa Palambaran Selected as the (Kayu Tanam) Kec. 2x16 Lingkung study area (n=20) Kab. Padang Pariaman

4 Sungai Jernih Traditional Desa Sungai Jernih Kec. Baso Kab. Agam

5 Sungai Jaring Semi-traditional Desa Pauh Kembar Desa Padang Kandang Kec. Nansa Baris Kab. Padang Pariaman

6 Sungai Silambu Traditional Desa Sepakat Langgam Kec. Kenali Kab. Pasaman

7 Lubuk Landur Traditional Desa Lubuk Landur Selected as the Kec. Pasaman study area (n=19) Kab. Pasaman


8* IPBS Semi-traditional Desa Kapundung Kec. Kenali Kab. Pasaman

9* Ikan Baruduh Semi-traditional Desa Padang Sawah Kec. Lubuk Basung Kab. Agam

Note:Desa = village; Kec.= subdistrict; Kab.= district. * = small in scale.

Analysis A research framework for institutional analysis as recommended by ICLARM (Pomeroy 1993) was applied in the study. The framework of analysis is outlined in Appendix 1. Output of Research A research report, a seminar paper, and a journal article constitute the output. Significance of the Study The findings of the study are expected to provide understanding of the application of co-management to manage the fisheries resource in the Indonesian context. The salient characteristics of co-management from ikan larangan should be adopted as resource management in other parts of Indonesia. The findings of the study are expected to encourage the government to legalize ikan larangan. Profiles of the Study Area West Sumatra in Brief West Sumatra Province lies between 0o 54’ north latitude and 3o 30’ south latitude and 98o 36’ and 101o 63’ east longitude. The highest elevation is 927 meters above sea level in Bukit Tinggi and the lowest one is in Padang (2 m above sea level). It is bordered by North Sumatra and Riau Provinces in the north and the east, while in the west is the Indian Ocean. Jambi and Bengkulu Provinces are in the south. The total area of West Sumatra is about 42 200 km2 which is almost 2.17% of Indonesia. The population of West Sumatra in 1997 is about 4.45 million with average annual growth rate of 1.45% (BPS 1998). West Sumatra Province comprises 8 regencies (districts), 6 municipalities and 1 urban administrative center. The largest regency is Pasaman with about 7 800 km2 while, Padang Panjang municipality has the smallest area with 23.0 km2. The capital city of West Sumatra Province is Padang. About 60% of land in this province are covered with tropical rainforest and only 25% of the area is used for farming. There are four big lakes –Singkarak (12 011 ha), Diatas (3 150 ha), Dibawah (1 400 ha), and Maninjau (9 950 ha). The topography of West Sumatra is mostly mountainous and hilly (about 200 to 3 800 meters. West Sumatra is crossed by Bukit Barisan plateau which spreads from the north to the south of Sumatra Island. The Mentawai islands are also part of this province (Fisheries Office 1999). With high rainfall throughout the year, West Sumatra has abundant water for fish culture (pond, paddy field, and open water). The extended total coastline of West Sumatra with Exclusive Economic Zone (Regulation No. 5/ 1983 re: EEZ) covers 138 750 km2 and the Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) was 538 457 ton/year (survey carried out by Department Of Fisheries Indonesia 1991). As of now, only 38% of the fisheries resource capacity in West Sumatra has been exploited. Ikan Larangan Objectives. At least four objectives of ikan larangan can be identified in this study as shown in Table 2. Ikan larangan is one of the revived traditions in West Sumatra originally aimed at conserving the food sources for the community. The situation is similar to the tradition of lumbung padi system in Java of a long time ago. The lumbung padi is a kind of paddy storage for community members in one village. Everybody has an obligation to


store certain quantity of paddy and it will be redistributed to the villager during unfavorable seasons or difficult times. Thereafter, the original purpose of ikan larangan was for food security for the community. But now, ikan larangan has many purposes. For the environmental purpose, ikan larangan helps in cleaning up the river of wastes and conserves fisheries and natural resources along the river. From the economic side lately ikan larangan serves in generating the income of the community as well as the region and it provides good employment and business opportunities. Empowering the community for productive work could be the result of encouraging co-management among the related parties involved. Lastly, by creating a sense of ownership among the people, the system could enhance the political stability in the region. People will have a sense of unity and share their problems and benefits. This is a very useful asset to ensure social cohesion. Characteristics. There are three general types of ikan larangan in West Sumatera, i.e., traditional, semi-traditional, and modern. The classification is mainly based on whether there is a pawang influence. Most of the ikan larangan that existed a long time ago (since Dutch colonial times) has employed a pawang. Ikan larangan that were established lately (in 1990s) do not use a pawang but operate rather like a farming system. The latter one then is called a modern system. Table 2. Objectives of ikan larangan system viewed from different aspects

No.

Aspects

Descriptions

1 Environment - to clean up the river of domestic garbage - to conserve fisheries and natural resources along the location of ikan larangan system

2 Economic - for food security of the community - help in increasing local community's income and its regional development where ikan larangan are located - provide employment and spread economic effects

3 Social - to revive the tradition of ikan larangan in West Sumatra - to encourage co-management working-team system (kemitraan) among the stakeholders - to empower community with productive goals

4 Political - to enhance political stability through emphasizing the sense of unity and sharing problems and benefits among the members of community

The most unique characteristic found in every ikan larangan system in West Sumatra (traditional to modern) is that the community member voluntarily provides a very high commitment to surveillance and to manage the resource. This very excellent awareness is hardly found in the other places of Indonesia. A summary of salient characteristics of ikan larangan in West Sumatra, Indonesia, is shown in Table 3.

Table 3. Summary of ikan larangan characteristics by type

No. Description Traditional 1/ Semi-traditional Modern 1/

(n=19) (n=20) (n=60) 1 Establishment 1990s 1990s

Long time ago since Dutch colonial era

2 Pawang (full) Pawang Village organizer

Leader of ikan larangan system (to determine closing and opening season) 2/

3 Main purpose of ikan larangan Follow tradition

To get economic and environment benefits

To get economic and environment benefits

4 Boundary

Natural boundary with magic (spell)

Natural boundary with magic (spell)

Natural and man-made boundaries

5 Organizer 3/ Mosque, village, and KAN Mosque, village, and KAN Village and KAN 6 Fish species reared Gariang, baran (Hampala spp), Gariang, raya (lambroides sp),

Gariang (labeobarbus) and kulari (Lissochilus spp) Rasbora macrolepidata, and mas (lambaocyprinusscarpio)

Rasbora lariatriata 7 Opening frequency Once per year Twice per year Twice per year 8 The big harvest

After fasting month celebration (Idhul Fitri)

After Haj celebration (Idhul Adha)

Time is not specified

9 Allowable fishing equipment used Net, scoop, trap, spear, etc. (electric is not allowed)

Day 1-3: Long line with bait; Day 4-7: Net, trap, scoop, spear, etc. (including electric)

Day 1-3: Long line with bait;Day 4-7: Net, trap, scoop, spear, etc. (water is dried out)

10 Technology applied None None

Using stocking rate for the fry

11 Selling system Tender with advertisement Fishing bait competition with advertisement

Fishing bait competition with advertisement

12 Marketing distribution Wholesale to retailer in market; Wholesaler to vendor; and Wholesaler to consumers

Fish collector/trader to retailer in market; Fish collector/trader to vendor or consumers; and Fisher to consumers

Fish collector/trader to retailer in market; Fish collector/trader to vendor or consumers; and Fisher to consumers

13

Enforcement, Compliance, and Sanction/Penalty

Self-enforced by community; High compliance; and Tradition sanction and mystic curse

Self-enforced by community; High compliance; Mystic curse and natural or monetary penalty

Self-enforced by community; High compliance; Mystic curse and natural or monetary penalty

14 Positive impact

Increase local community's income and regional development; good prospect for recreational objectives



15

Prospect for legal structure of ikan larangan

No written ordinance from the Government



16 Very high Very high Very high

Community commitment to ikan larangan

Note: 1/ Traditional system (local term: ikan diniatkan) where in operation follows myth or legend and tradition. Modern system (local term: lubuk larangan) where its operation is not governed by myth or legend and tradition

but using modern rules such as technology, etc. In this study, the both systems are called ikan larangan as commonly simplified by the community.

2/ Determine closing and opening season of ikan larangan. 3/ There is permanent organizer of ikan larangan in West Sumatra (Fisheries Office 1999). All of the traditional

fisheries resource management should obey the local custom rule (Kerapatan Adat Negeri, KAN).

Proceedings of the International Workshop on Fisheries Co-management 8

Attributes of Ikan Larangan Biological Attributes The biological attributes of the three types of ikan larangan, i.e., traditional, semi-traditional, and modern are explained in this section. Traditional: Lubuk Landur Fish species. Ikan larangan Lubuk Landur is located in the body of Batang Haluan river. There are three sections – the upper and lower sections of the ikan larangan are utilized for fish farming while the middle section is used as a fish pond for recreation only. There are two fish species in this site. One of the fish genus of Lubuk Landur is labeobarbus. Identification of the fish species was not possible during field survey as the ikan larangan was still in closed season so that fish was not permitted to be taken by anyone. The local name of this type of fish is called ikan gariang. Besides this species, there is also Lissochilus spp. (local name: ikan kulari). From visual observation, these two species differ in morphology shape and several organs. On average, the weight of gariang fish is about 2.5 kg to 3.5 kg per head while the kulari fish is smaller (0.25 kg to 2.0 kg per head). The external color of fish is influenced by its habitat, for gariang and kulari are black-blue and black-gray, respectively. Ecology. From the ecological point of view, the purpose of ikan larangan is mainly for maintaining the sustainability of resource since fish can clean up the domestic waste in the river. Hence the community in the adjacent river can utilize the river for washing and bathing because the water is clear enough. Besides that river is also used for rearing fish for food reserve and for recreation as well. People are not allowed to fish in certain places (closing area) and/ or at certain times (closing season). The person that regulates the opening area or season in traditional ikan larangan is the religious leader who has supernatural capability (local term: pawang or inyiak or buya). Briefly, ikan larangan helps to maintain the water quality of the river. The river water becomes clean in terms of visibility, odor, taste and turbidity, thereafter this water is feasible for wudlu (cleaning up the body before praying in Islamic religion). The gariang and kulari fishes need specific habitat: clear or transparent water with the diluted oxygen of 7 ppm and water pH of 6.8 close to normal, the land surface of the river is not muddy and the fish prefer stony localities with fast-flowing water. The fish population stays in schools. Feeding habit of the two fish species are omnivora in nature, however the recruitment will be faster when there is additional feeding with cassava leaves and maize, etc. Habitat. The most amazing nature of traditional ikan larangan is that the homerange of the fish can be set by the buya (religious leader) by using jampi-jampi (spells). In Lubuk Landur, the boundary is set about 2 600 meters which is divided into three sections of upper and lower (for each 1 000 meters), and 600 m for the middle section. The middle section of ikan larangan known as ikan sakti faces the big mosque of the buya in Lubuk Landur. During rainy season when the water level is high and the current strong fish will go to the bend of the river and sometimes away from the homerange. However, the buya's spell power somehow will attract the fish to the homerange again. The two types of ikan larangan in Lubuk Landur site are: (1) Ikan sakti (sacred fish). The ikan larangan which is located in the middle section, near the mosque (length: 600 m; width: 30 m; depth: 1 m to 1.5 m) is called ikan sakti. The fish in this range is not edible as the community believe they contain spell or magic. The fish species are ikan gariang and kulari. (2) Ikan larangan: The Ikan larangan in upper and lower sections contain ikan gariang and kulari. These fish are edible when harvested during the opened season (during closed season, the fish contains magic spell). Therefore, it is strongly believed that people who fish during closed season will get cursed as a sanction. Semi-traditional: Kayu Tanam Fish species. Ikan larangan Kayu Tanam has a length of 2 km and the width of 30 m and depth 1m to 1.5 m. Several species of fish are found here. Among them are: ikan gariang (Labeobarbus spp), ikan baran (Hampald spp), Rasbora macrolepidola spp. and Rasbora lariatriata spp. They breed naturally and are not easy to culture. After the fish are harvested, the fingerlings are available naturally. People believe


that the buya can call the fingerlings from the down-and upstream of the river to the ikan larangan boundary. The harvest is once or twice a year, depending on the decision given by buya or pawang. Feeding habit. The fish feeds on the domestic waste in the river. From observations after harvest (3 weeks time) of fish has weight of 0.25 kg to 2 kg, they get fed by people who throw peanut, maize, cracker and other food. Habitat. The fish of Kayu Tanam live in the stony parts of the river with strong current. The fish usually accumulate under the shadow of trees or bridge. This might be due to people feeding them from the bridge or they prefer the cooler water temperature under the shade. Modern: Pasir Lawas Fish species. The modern ikan larangan is normally located in irrigated water or fishpond like in Pasir Lawas. This system does not use the influence of a buya or pawang but uses self-enforcement among the community for surveillance of the fisheries resource. The fish is not cursed by a power spell and is safe to be consumed during the closed season. However, the community shows their high compliance in not taking fish during the closed season. There are two fish species in Pasir Lawas, i.e., ikan mas (Cyprinus scarpio spp) with local name of ikan rayo which is the most dominant, and ikan gariang (Labeobardus lambroides spp) with local name of ikan lambau. It should be noted that ikan mas breeding in West Sumatra is introduced with floating net, cage and ponds. On the average, the weight of fish is about 2 kg to 3 kg per head. Along the body of the irrigation canal (about 4 km to 5 km) Pasir Lawas was developed since 1990s. The fingerlings are naturally spawned and besides the village organizer also adds the fingerlings after the harvest time with stocking rate of 90% for rayo and 10% for gariang. Ecology. Although ikan larangan is managed in different ways (traditional, semi-traditional, and modern), the ecological aspect remains similar. Feeding habit. Laboratory results and observations show that the fish feeds on a kind of grass called jariamun. It grows in the bottom and banks of the river. This type of grass will be a good habitat for animal organism (Ephermeroptera and Dyptera) including for fish. The external food such as cassava, crackers, maize, rice, etc., is usually fed by people who come to see the schooling fish for recreation. Habitat. The habitat for ikan larangan is usually in irrigation facilities. Ikan larangan Pasir Lawas is using ANAI secondary irrigation that are 1m to 2.5 m in depth. The water is fairly clear and the stream passes two hamlets (Pondok and Kalawi) in Pasir Lawas village. The water flow is regulated with valves in order to protect fish from unfiltered water. Market Attributes This section describes market attributes of the three types of ikan larangan (traditional, semi-traditional, and modern, namely supply, demand, price determination, marketing and others. Traditional: Lubuk Landur The fish cultivated in ikan larangan Lubuk Landur is a single specie (ikan gariang). The system has been started since the last five generations. The buya (religion leader), Tuanku Kalifah Sutan Sayidina Buya Haji Bahari determines the opening and closing season. The opening season usually takes placed in Haj festive day (Idhul Adha). There are three sections in the stream of Batang Haluan river. The middle section is about 600 m x 100 m. The specie is ikan sakti (sacred fish). People believe that fish in ikan sakti range is poisonous. In the southern and northern parts of ikan sakti with 1 000 m length each are considered as ikan larangan. In these two sections of ikan larangan, the community can harvest the fish once in a year. The youth village organization helps in managing fish harvest with tender system. The revenue earned then is allocated for mosques and village development. There are about 1 400 persons who benefit from ikan larangan in the study area. Tender. News on the opening of ikan larangan are spread through radio, newspaper, leaflet and from word of mouth. After a buya officially opens the ikan larangan with traditional ritual ceremony, the tender process is started. There are six lubuks (some kind of well in the river) in the northern ikan larangan and five lubuks in the southern ikan larangan. Fish school in the lubuk, thus the numbers of


fish in lubuk are more than in the river stream. Only the lubuk is tendered out while the river stream (local term: alahan or aliran sungai) is allocated for the local community. The buyers will observe number of fish in lubuk then estimate its value. The auction process begins with the biggest lubuk then it moves to the smaller ones. The highest value offered by the buyer will be taken as the winner of the tender. Last year's record showed that on average the price of one lubuk was about Rp300 000 (US$1 = 8 000 Indonesian rupiah). Payment is settled with the organizer. After that, the winner (buyer) starts to harvest the fish using his own equipment and hired labor. The tender takes place in the first day and the following two or three days; the tender slots belong to the public (community nearby and people from outside). All fishing equipment such as hand net, scoop, spear, traps, long line bait, etc., are allowed except electric equipment, poison and dynamite (explosives). The tender system was started since the last five generation of the buya. The opened ikan larangan season is a festive three days. Lubuk Landur village is crowded with visitors including foreign tourists. Food and gifts vendors throng the sites. Supply and demand. The winners of ikan larangan tenders usually are professional fish traders (wholesalers). They will sell the fish to the visitors and to the fish retailer in the downtown market. Many visitors come just for buying the fish since ikan larangan fish is quite fresh. In the last harvest, the price of fish per kilogram was about Rp12 000 in ikan larangan Lubuk Landur. The potential demand for fish is quite high since people in West Sumatra are fisheaters. On the other hand, the local fish supply from the region is relatively smaller than the demand. West Sumatra has many rivers, lakes and ponds, therefore it will be a good prospect to develop ikan larangan system for ensuring the fish supply and in order to revive the tradition of empowering the community for commercial purpose. Marketing distribution. The distribution of fish from ikan larangan site requires three channels: (1) direct selling to the consumers; (2) wholesaler to fish vendors; and (3) wholesaler sell to the retailers in fish market. The fish is not preserved as they can be absorbed by the local market easily. The transactions in these three channels are settled on a cash basis. Others. Based on the discussion with social leaders and the stakeholders, it is concluded that as of now they lack support and collaboration from the government (i.e., Fisheries Office and the local government) and academic society. Management of ikan larangan is fully supported by the local community. The system of ikan larangan operates without influence of technology. Hence, it is traditional. Semi-traditional: Kayu Tanam The fry of ikan larangan Kayu Tanam was planted the first time in 1991 by a buya or pawang from Padang Pariaman, West Sumatra. The idea for establishing ikan larangan in this place was initiated by the youth community in the village. The harvest is twice in a year. Pawang set the boundary of ikan larangan along the river with the length of 3 km. Small articles that are empowered with spell by the pawang are planted to border the ikan larangan area. Within this range, fish are caged by magic. Therefore, although the river has strong flood but the fish and the fingerlings will be back to the homerange bordered by the pawang. The opening and closing season of this ikan larangan is announced seven times through the mosque near the location during Friday prayers. A letter issued by the concerned village office also circulates to the local community and the adjacent villages through the head of village (kepala desa). The opening ceremony is usually inaugurated by the Head of Regency, accompanied by social and religious leaders (including pawang). Fishing with bait and tender. The opening season usually takes place for seven days from 6 am to 5 pm. The first day to the third day are open for fishing with bait and in the fourth to seventh day are open to tender. All equipments are allowed to be used including electric tools. The prices of bait for visitors from outside are Rp20 000; Rp15 000; and Rp10 000 in the first to third days, subsequently. The local community gets half-price entrance tickets. In the last day of opening, the neighboring villagers of ikan larangan are given one coupon for one household. This coupon can be replaced by the village organizer with 1.5 kg of fish gathered from the ikan larangan. About 600 coupons have been distributed to the local community. About 100 persons benefit from ikan larangan in this region.


The tender for ikan larangan in Kayu Tanam was valued at Rp3.5 million in the last harvest. The tender mechanism is similar to the tender in Lubuk Landur. A winning tender usually is the fish wholesaler. The revenue earned from tender usually is allocated for mosque and village development as well as for supporting youth organizations in the village. Supply and demand. The fish caught from ikan larangan Kayu Tanam mostly are ikan gariang. There is price discrimination here, for local people the fish is sold for Rp10 000 per kg but for the visitors the price is higher (Rp15 000 per kg). The fish resource is growing naturally. There is no re-planting of fish fry in ikan larangan of Kayu Tanam. Fingerling was planted only in the first time when ikan larangan was set by the pawang. After that the fry are available naturally. People believe that the fry would grow again when the pawang fixes the spiritual cage boundary of ikan larangan with spell (local term: azimat or jampi-jampi). By nature, therefore, fish will return to the homerange. The closing season is imposed after one month of harvest, that is, after the great day of Moslem victory (local term: Idhul Fitri). Similar to the other ikan larangan, closing and opening seasons are regulated by the pawang and village organizer. Approximately, 100 persons purchase for fishing-with-bait in the first day of opening. Subsequently, about 80 and 50 persons for the second and third days. In the last harvest, each person could bring home about 6 kg to 10 kg for one day's fishing with bait. Many of the fishers came continuously for three days. Many parties benefit from the celebration of opening ikan larangan in West Sumatra. It was not only fish traders (wholesalers, retailers, and vendors) but also food and gift vendors and other business like amusement, transportation, etc. The economic spread of the festival could give extra economic and environment benefits to the community and the region. With ikan larangan, the domestic garbage in the river is cleaned, and local community could earn some additional income; and the village where ikan larangan is located becomes popular to visitors. Thereafter, all of these advantages may open business opportunities to the community. The expenses per season of ikan larangan in Kayu Tanam amount to Rp100 000 and the operational cost for fishing competition for about Rp250 000, and some amount for river maintenance. The net income generated is used for village development purposes. The fish caught from ikan larangan could be easily absorbed by local market and visitors since people in West Sumatra have a high demand for fish. Marketing distribution. Fish caught is distributed to the three channels similar to other ikan larangan in West Sumatra, namely: (1) fishers sell to consumers directly on the spot; (2) fishers sell to fish vendors; and (3) fishers brought the fish to retailers in local or downtown market nearby. There the fishers store the fish harvested into the small pond before transporting to the market or waiting for profitable prices. This system is only undertaken by the risktaker. Conventionally, most of the fishers sell the fish as soon as possible to avoid the losses since the fish stocks are limited. Others. The village organizer expects government and researchers from the university in the region to help in developing the ikan larangan system into a business opportunity. As of now, there is no significant support provided by these two parties concerned. The people involved believe that ikan larangan can provide good employment to the local community and uplift the economy of the place. An important thing is they are aware of the need to maintain the tradition of rearing fish using ikan larangan system as their ninik-mamak (ancestors) have done. Modern: Pasir Lawas In Pasir Lawas village, ikan larangan uses ANAI irrigation since the 1990s. It is operated without the help of pawang (magic). Ikan larangan in this village is managed like fish-farming system using irrigation canal. The fish species in Pasir Lawas are raya and gariang with stocking rate composition of 90:10 for raya and gariang, respectively. The management of ikan larangan in the study area is led by the head of village (local term: kepala desa). Ikan larangan Pasir Lawas usually harvests once to twice in a year. Fishing with bait. The opening season of ikan larangan is announced through word of mouth by the community and/or advertised via radio, newspaper or leaflet. The grand opening season usually takes place after the Haj festive day. People are welcomed to fish with long-line bait (local term: pancing). In the first day of opening the ticket for fishing entrance is Rp15 000 per bait. While in the second and third


days, it decreases to Rp10 000 per bait. In the fourth day, ikan larangan is opened free for the community. After the third day all fishing gears are allowed including hand net, scoop, etc. On the last day the village organizer dries out the water to sweep the fish and distribute to all community in the three villages nearby. Each household will receive about 0.5 kg. The net revenue earned from ticketing is managed by the village organizer and used for development efforts such as for infrastructure, mosques, and others. After about seven days of harvest, the fingerlings are planted with given stocking rate by the village organizer. There is no special tradition or ceremony held during closing and opening of ikan larangan. Supply. The fish which are caught could be brought home by the amateur fishers but the professional fishers usually sell the fish to the fish traders or to individual persons who come to see the opening ikan larangan. The number of fish caught is quite small compared to the regular fish demanded by consumers. The fish supplied by ikan larangan system has not been able to fulfill the food security for local community. Unless, there are several sites of ikan larangan with different times of harvest, it can not ensure the routine supply of fish to consumers. Most of the fish are consumed without processing. The fishers sold fish directly to the buyer with price of between Rp7 000 to Rp20 000 per kg. The demand for fish in the study area is potentially high since fish is central to their daily diet. Price. The operation costs of ikan larangan include fry, labor (during opening and planting of fish), maintenance for irrigation canal, and advertisement of fishing competition in the first three days of opening. There is no cost spent for fertilizer. Overall, the cost spent by ikan larangan committee for one season is about Rp200 000. The community members should contribute Rp2 500 per household for buying the fry. The fish price depends on the freshness and quantity supplied in the market. In the adjacent market, prices of raya and gariang fish are about Rp15 000 and Rp20 000 per kg, respectively. As of now, there is no subsidy or grant given by the authorities. All expenditures and other responsibilities of ikan larangan are under the management of the local community. Self-enforcement for surveillance of the resource is also in the hands of the community. Marketing distribution. Fish is an important food item of the Minangkabau tribe in West Sumatra. The popular fish dishes are called gulai ikan, balado ikan, kapau ikan, pepes ikan, etc. People in West Sumatra prefer to consume fish from fresh or salty water. There is almost no brackish water pond available in West Sumatra. There are only three channels of fish distribution in Pasir Lawas, namely: (1) fishers to consumers, (2) fishers to fish traders, and (3) fishers to vendors. Only fresh fish is sold throughout the marketing channels above. The demand for fish is greater that its supply, therefore fish is usually sold out in a short time and there is no need to process or preserve them. Thus, there is no storage facility in the study area. Fish traders (vendors) usually walk around the village to sell the fish. Fish buyers will pay their transactions with cash. From the estimate made by the village officer, there area about 2 000 persons who benefit from ikan larangan in the study area, while about 200 persons utilize the lake or river to fish and about 1 000 persons cultivate fish in the ponds. The idea of ikan larangan was initiated originally by the local community in the study area. Others. The Irrigation Office of the Department of Public Works in West Sumatra Province permits the local community to use the irrigation canals for rearing fish. This should be encouraged and perhaps followed by the other local governments in Indonesia like in Java which has many irrigation facilities. Moreover, participation from all parties of government, community leaders, stakeholders and academic society are necessary to undertake co-management activities successfully. Community Attributes This section explains the community attributes in the study areas. There are seven profiles, i.e., socioeconomic, culture and habit, perception of ikan larangan, prospect of the region, awareness and facilities. The community attributes were gathered from a household survey near the sites of Lubuk Landur (traditional, n=19), Kayu Tanam (semi-traditional, n=20), and Pasir Lawas (modern, n=60). Summary of these attributes is shown in Table 4.


Socioeconomic The average age of respondents is about 38 years old. The higher ages are found in modern to traditional sites, i.e., 39.4 years, 38.1 years and 31.9 years subsequently. The occupations of respondents are mostly farming with an average number of dependents per family at 2.5 persons. The average household in the study area has 4.2 persons. People in ikan larangan Pasir Lawas (modern) has the highest average income (Rp300 000 per month) compared to the other two sites. Meanwhile, respondents’ incomes in traditional and semi-traditional sites are about Rp192 000 and Rp268 000 respectively. All community members in the study area are not migrants. They are relatively homogenous in culture, religion, and economic conditions. People in West Sumatra are mostly Moslem especially in the rural area. Minority religions are found only in the urban area for migrant and other ethnic (not Minangkabau) groups. Minangkabau community still maintains their traditions and customs which are colored by their Islamic religion.. Most of the respondents stay in their own house. The dominant housing pattern in modern ikan larangan site are semi-permanent (68.3%), while more than half of permanent houses are found in the site of traditional ikan larangan (Lubuk Landur). People in Lubuk Landur mostly occupy houses handed down from the parents or the prior generation. On average, the household has moderate furniture. It seems respondents near modern ikan larangan system are more mobile than the traditional and semi-traditional. This is indicated from the availability of their individual transportation facilities like bicycle, motorcycle and car. About 30% of respondents in Pasir Lawas own motor vehicles, while in Lubuk Landur no respondent claims to have a motor vehicle. Telecommunication facilities such as radio and television are widely used by the people in the study area. The survey shows that 45.5% and 68.7% of respondents have radio and television, respectively. Refrigerators, gas stoves and washing machines are considered as luxury goods for respondents in the study area. Culture and Habit The Minangkabau tribe has similar culture with the Malay tribe in Riau, Indonesia and in Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia. They are matrilineal, mother-blood-line relation plays a significant role in the tradition of Minangkabau community. They are tied to a traditional organization Ketua Kerapatan Adat Negeri (KAN). This organization provides customary rules to regulate their tribe from individual matters such as marriage to social matters such as organizing community activities including ikan larangan management. The matrilineal family leader is presented by ninik-mamak (uncle from mother-side) who arranges all traditions and practices in the family. The survey indicates that relaxation such as chatting, watching local orchestra (dangdut), opened-cinema (layar-tancap), and local dancing (serampang duabelas) in the site where the traditional ikan larangan is located are more frequent than in the site where modern ikan larangan is located, as shown in Table 4. Perceptions Overall, about 23.2% of respondents believe that fish from ikan larangan provide enough protein for the community in the study area. About half of the community (48.5%) perceive that the source of protein from ikan larangan is still very small and even about a quarter of respondents think that to date ikan larangan is not considered as a source of animal protein. This is due to the fact that fish harvested from ikan larangan is relatively small in quantity compared to the need of local community. Nevertheless, respondents in Pasir Lawas (36.7%) are more optimistic that ikan larangan could provide enough protein in the future if it is managed properly. Perhaps, community members in Pasir Lawas are more open minded than in the other two areas. Kohlberg (1984) mentioned three levels of moral development, namely: (1) pre-conventional; (2) conventional; and (3) post-conventional. Each level of the individual’s moral development represents a kind of relationship between the individual and social environment based on the individual’s attitude towards society’s conventions. The post-conventionalist tends to be more open minded and has prospective thinking. The more modern the community the more rational they are in decisionmaking. At least about 50% of respondents in Pasir Lawas agree that ikan larangan has a prospect for ensuring the sustainability of fisheries resource in the region. While respondents in Lubuk Landur (traditional ikan larangan) and Kayu Tanam (semi-traditional) perceive that the sustainability of ikan larangan is less


intensive than what is perceived by respondents in Pasir Lawas. Moral development of the modern community (Pasir Lawas) is likely higher than the other two study areas. Table 4. Community attributes

Traditional Semi- Modern No. Variables (n=19) Traditional (n=60) Pooled

(n=20) 1 Socioeconomic:

Age (year) [31.9] [38.1] [39.4] [37.7] Occupation Farmer (68.4%) Farmer (45.0%) Farmer (37.6%) Farmer (44.4%) Nos. of dependents [2.16] [2.35] [2.70] [2.53] School children (person) [0.70] [0.95] [0.72] [0.76] Income - (Rp000) [192.00] [268.00] [300.0] [279.00] Migrant No (100%) No (100%) No (100%) No (100%) Religion Moslem (100%) Moslem (100%) Moslem (100%) Moslem (100%) Member (person) [4.00] [4.60] [4.20] [4.20] House Own (84.2%) Own (75.0%) Own (66.7%) Own (71.7%) Land Yes (94.7%) Yes (75.0%) Yes (82.0%) Yes (82.8%) Yard Yes (89.5%) Yes (65.0%) Yes (80.0%) Yes (78.8%) Permanent Yes (57.9%) Temporary (50.0%) Semi (68.3%) Semi (55.6%) Furniture Moderate (78.9%) Moderate (60.0%) Moderate (65.0%) Moderate (66.7%) Bicycle Yes (5.3%) Yes (15.0%) Yes (15.0%) Yes (13.1%) Motorcycle No (100%) Yes (20.0%) Yes (30.0%) Yes (22.2%) Car No (100%) Yes (10.0%) Yes (3.3%) Yes (4.0%) Gas stove No (100%) Yes (5.0%) Yes (6.7%) Yes (5.1%) Radio Yes (42.1%) Yes (40.0%) Yes (50.0%) Yes (45.5%) Refrigerator No (100%) Yes (15.0%) Yes (28.3%) Yes (20.2%) TV Yes (42.1%) Yes (60.0%) Yes (80.0%) Yes (68.7%) Wash machine No (100%) No (100%) No (100%) No (100%)

2 Culture and Habit: Custom Yes (26.3%) Yes (20.0%) Yes (13.3%) Yes (17.2%) Chat Yes (15.8%) No (100%) Yes (3.3%) Dangdut (orchestra) Yes (36.8%) Yes (5.0%) Yes (5.0%) Yes (11.1%) Cinema Yes (10.5%) No (100%) Yes (3.3%) Yes (4.0%) Serampang 12 (dancing) Yes (10.5%) No (100%) No (100%) Yes (2.0%)

3 Perception on

Ikan Larangan: 1/ Protein 1 (31.6%) 1 (40.0%) 1 (20.0%) 1 (26.3%) 2 (68.4%) 2 (50.0%) 2 (41.7%) 2 (48.5%) 3 (36.7%) 3 (23.2%) Sustain 1 (36.8%) 1 (35.0%) 2 (31.9%) 1 (25.3%) 2 (26.3%) 2 (20.0%) 3 (33.3%) 2 (28.3%) 3 (26.3%) 3 (25.0%) 4 (16.7%) 3 (30.3%) Welfare 1 (78.9%) 1 (75.0%) 1 (58.3%) 1 (65.7%) 2 (21.1%) 2 (20.0%) 2 (33.3%) 2 (28.3%) 3 (5.1%) Efficient 1 (68.4%) 1 (80.0%) 1 (91.7%) 1 (72.7%) 2 (26.3%) 2 (15.0%) 2 (23.3%) 2 (22.2%)

4 Prospect of the Region: 1/

Employment 1 (63.2%) 1 (65.0%) 1 (43.8%) 1 (51.5%) 2 (31.6%) 2 (35.0%) 2 (55.0%) 2 (46.5%) Income 1 (36.8%) 1 (80.0%) 1 (33.3%) 1 (43.4%) 2 (57.9%) 2 (20.0%) 2 (63.3%) 2 (53.5%) Public facility 2 (47.4%) 2 (20.0%) 2 (13.3%) 2 (21.2%) 3 (42.1%) 3 (80.0%) 3 (86.7%) 3 (76.8%)

5 Awareness: 1/


Sustainability 1 (31.6%) 1 (20.0%) 1 (8.3%) 1 (15.2%) 2 (47.4%) 2 (35.0%) 2 (40.0%) 2 (40.4%) 3 (10.5%) 3 (25.0%) 3 (45.0%) 3 (34.3%) Environment 1 (21.1%) 1 (20.0%) 2 (43.3%) 2 (41.4%) 2 (47.4%) 2 (30.0%) 3 (45.0%) 3 (38.4%) 3 (21.1%) 3 (35.0%) 4 (6.7%) Ecology 1 (68.4%) 1 (80.0%) 1 (71.7%) 1 (72.7%) 2 (31.6%) 3 (5.0%) 2 (25.0%) 2 (22.2%) Generation 1 (63.2%) 1 (85.0%) 1 (70.0%) 1 (71.7%) 2 (31.6%) 3 (5.0%) 2 (25.0%) 2 (21.2%) Technology */ 1 (42.1%) 1 (50.0%) 1 (23.3%) 1 (32.3%) 2 (10.5%) 2 (15.0%) 3 (23.3%) 3 (26.3%) 3 (47.4%) 3 (15.0%) 4 (41.7%) 4 (26.3%) Conservation 1 (15.8%) 1 (5.0%) 1 (11.7%) 2 (58.6%) 2 (73.7%) 2 (45.0%) 2 (58.3%) 3 (15.2%) 3 (5.3%) 3 (5.0%) 3 (20.0%) 9 (15.2%) 9 (40.0%)

6 Facilities: 1/ Puskesmas 1 (5.3%) 2 (5.0%) 3 (88.3%) 2 (11.1%) 2 (47.4%) 3 (90.0%) 4 (10.0%) 3 (80.8%) 3 (47.4%) 4 (5.0%) Infrastruture 2 (21.1%) 3 (15.0%) 3 (13.3%) 3 (15.2%) 3 (21.1%) 4 (65.0%) 4 (78.3%) 4 (68.7%) 4 (42.1%) 5 (15.0%) 5 (6.7%) 5 (10.1%) Communication 1 (78.9%) 1 (55.0%) 1 (15.0%) 1 (35.4%) 2 (21.1%) 2 (30.0%) 2 (76.7%) 2 (56.6%) 3 (15.0%) 3 (8.3%) 3 (8.1%) Education facility 1 (42.1%) 2 (15.0%) 2 (20.0%) 1 (10.1%) 2 (36.8%) 3 (70.0%) 3 (75.0%) 2 (22.2%) 3 (21.1%) 4 (10.0%) 4 (3.3%) 3 (63.6%)

7 Others: 1/ Formal **/ 1 (42.1%) 1 (35.0%) 1 (86.7%) 1 (67.7%) 2 (5.3%) 2 (5.0%) 3 (13.3%) 2 (2.0%) 3 (52.6%) 3 (60.0%) 3 (30.3%) Formal OK 2 (21.1%) 2 (15.0%) 3 (16.7%) 4 (33.3%) 3 (63.2%) 3 (10.0%) 4 (47.7%) 5 (6.1%) 4 (10.5%) 4 (15.0%) 5 (10.0%) 9 (35.4%) 9 (60.0%) 9 (18.3%) Tokoh 2 (15.8%) 3 (25.0%) 3 (38.3%) 3 (29.3%) 3 (57.9%) 4 (5.0%) 4 (18.3%) 4 (15.2%) 4 (15.8%) 9 (60.0%) 5 (15.0%) 5 (10.1%) 9 (18.3%) 9 (34.3%) Interaction 2 (25.8%) 3 (25.0%) 3 (26.7%) 3 (22.2%) 3 (57.9%) 4 (5.0%) 4 (30.0%) 4 (22.2%) 4 (15.8%) 9 (65.0%) 5 (22.0%) 5 (18.1%) 9 (18.3%) 9 (35.4%) Reliability Coefficient 0.67 0.73 0.74 0.73 (alpha) of 23 items with Likert scales

Note : […..] = Mean Scale 9 = Missing value 1/ Scale: (1) None; (2) A little; (3) Enough; (4) Good; (5) Very good */ Scale: (1) Strongly disagree; (2) Disagree; (3) Doubtful; (4) Agree; (5) Strongly agree **/ Code: (1) Yes; (2) No; (3) Don't know; Puskesmas is a health center in the village or subdistrict.


It should be noted that about 65% of respondents in all sites of ikan larangan believe that co-management could not be considered as the main means for ensuring welfare equality among the members of the community. However, it is agreed by the respondents that ikan larangan could be set up as a prospective alternative to increase welfare of the community and the region. In addition, as the fisheries resource, ikan larangan also lacks economic efficiency for the community as claimed by 73% of respondents. This might be due to the scale of operation and its management has not been done in a commercial way. Prospect for the Region About 60% of respondents in Lubuk Landur and Kayu Tanam are pessimistic that ikan larangan could provide good employment opportunities to the community. On the other hand, more than half of the respondents in Pasir Lawas are confident that it provides employment opportunities since technology can help to improve productivity. Furthermore, 63% of respondents in the modernized ikan larangan felt that it has potential in increasing the local community’s income. Similarly, this tendency also occurred in traditional ikan larangan of Lubuk Landur since in this site there is a part used for tourism, i.e., ikan sakti Lubuk Landur. The prospect of establishing public facilities such as schools, health centers mosques, etc., in the region as estimated by respondents in the study area is good enough, especially perceived by respondents in Pasir Lawas and Kayu Tanam. Awareness The awareness of the community in the study area towards the sustainability and conservation of the resources and environmental risks is quite high. This is supported by evidence that only 15% of respondents perceive that there is no awareness for sustainability of resources used in the study area as shown in Table 4. Most (73%) of local community in the study area do not have specific ecological knowledge gained from their ancestors that may be transmitted from generation to generation. Perhaps ikan larangan is one of the salient ecological knowledge brought by the previous generation in West Sumatra which up to now is used. Moreover, people in the modern ikan larangan tend to be more flexible in adopting the technology compared to the community who live in traditional and semi-traditional systems as shown in Table 4. Facilities and other Matters The availability of public service facilities in the study areas are pretty good as indicated by the majority of respondents. These facilities cover health centers (puskesmas) and clinics; infrastructures (roads, bridges, and drainage); communication (i.e., public phones, telecommunication kiosks with local term wartel, etc.); and education facilities (schools, tuition centers, bookshops, etc.) as found in Table 4. Although Minangkabau society closely adheres to their traditional organization (Kerapatan Adat Negeri, KAN) and the family leader (ninik-mamak) however, regulation No. 22/1999 remains the formal legislation used to govern the local government in the study areas. In the modern ikan larangan, the formal regulation plays a greater role (as claimed by 87% of respondents in Pasir Lawas) in governing the village than the customary rule (under KAN and ninik-mamak) which are practised by the respondents in traditional and semi-traditional ikan larangan. To date, the role of society leader remains dominant in the study areas like ninik-mamak and buya (mosque leader) to organize the community in non-formal activities. However, collaboration between formal and informal leaders in the study areas needs to be intensified with better understanding. Many of the respondents (35%) hesitate to answer the question regarding the relationships or interactions between the formal and informal leaders in the study areas. This is perhaps people do not want to take risks by giving comments on sensitive issues. It seems there are differences between the two parties. Indeed, it needs to be addressed gradually. The reliability of 23 variables of community attributes which are measured by a Likert scale has been analyzed. The overall reliability of those items is 0.73. This indicates that about 73% of the items are highly reliable. The most reliable data is from Pasir Lawas (modern), Kayu Tanam (semi-traditional), and Lubuk Landur (traditional) for 0.74; 0.73; and 0.67, respectively. This situation perhaps could be interpreted that the more modern society tends to be rational and frank, while society in the hinterland tends to be more traditional and conservative. This type of people tend to report the good things and hide the bad things.


Local Institutional Arrangements Co-management is defined as the sharing of responsibility and/ or authority between the government and local resource users or community to manage the fishery or resource (Pomeroy et al. 1994). The success in implementing co-management in the study area can be illustrated by a hierarchy of co-management arrangements depicted in Figure 1. Fishers have informed the government on the prospects of ikan larangan. However, as of now the government (Fisheries Office) has not responded to the community since the government is still assessing the ikan larangan. Consultation between community members and government have not started. Law implementation and enforcement for ikan larangan remain guided by customary rules and convention agreed by the community. Therefore, the amount of responsibility and/or authority that should be allocated to manage ikan larangan in West Sumatra is differently perceived by government and the community. Pomeroy et al. (1994) claimed that co-management involves various degrees of delegation of management responsibility and authority between the local level (resource users or community) and the state level (national, provincial, and district governments). After discussion with the competent persons in the Fisheries Office, academicians, religious and social leaders in the study area as well as in other places of Indonesia, the researcher can conclude that the level of responsibility shared by government agencies is smaller than the portion shared by community-based management. Delegation of authority given by the central government to the local level has not been done transparently and is even hardly felt although a decentralization policy to lower levels has been authorized by Regulation No. 5, Year 1979 and amended by the Regulation No. 22, Year 1999. B Government-based Management A Community-based Management Fig. 1. The visual hierarchy of co-management arrangements for ikan larangan in West Sumatra, Indonesia Note: A: There is an incentive and willingness on the part of fishers to actively participate with time, effort, and

money in fisheries management. There is an individual or core group who takes leadership responsibility for the management process. B: The government has established formal policy and/ or Laws for decentralization of administrative

functions (Regulation No. 22/1999, amendment Regulation No. 5/1974). However, delegation of management responsibility and/or authority to local government and local group organization levels has not been given.

Source: Using illustration from Berkes (1994) as cited in Pomeroy et al. (1994) with justification of the researcher, 1999. The general role and function of the related institutions of ikan larangan in West Sumatra is listed in Table 5. There are five components that form an ikan larangan institution, namely: (1) subdistrict government level, the head called camat; (2) pemuka adat (KAN), the head called as ninik-mamak; (3) religious leader, called buya; (4) village-government level, the head called kepala desa; and (5) community. The most active institutions to undertake ikan larangan management are ninik-mamak, buya, and community. The formal leader for village and subdistrict level are usually involved indirectly in


managing. All institutions related to ikan larangan (except for subdistrict level) put on a high level of commitment towards its success as evaluated by respondents in the study areas. The religious organization (i.e., mosque) and customary organization (KAN) have an equal position and role in the local government at the village level. These three institutions are considered as catalysts to the community for managing ikan larangan objectives. Buya and ninik-mamak represent the informal executive, while kepala desa represents the formal executive person. All activities of the community can be handled by both informal and formal leaders at the village level. For the purpose of legislation of all activities done by community, then the local government at subdistrict level (kecamatan) is consulted for legal approval and/ or references. So far, the understanding and cooperation among these three parties are quite harmonious. The collaboration or cooperation gap between the informal and formal leaders commonly happen above the village level. General prototype of the institutional arrangements in West Sumatra is depicted in Figure 2. Table 5. Role and function of the related institutions of ikan larangan

No. Subject Role Function Level of

Commitment

1 Head of Subdistrict (Camat)

Formal or governmental supervision

To provide a formal umbrella support for ikan larangan system operated in his authority

Fairly (3)

2 Pemuka Adat – KAN Very good (5) (Ninik-Mamak)

Customary supervision

To provide advice regarding importance of ikan larangan to their matrilineal family, thus will be accepted by their community to determine the penalty or sanction to their family members who violate the rules agreed by them

3 Religion leader (Buya) Very good (5)

Religious supervision

To provide their help in fencing Ikan larangan with spiritual or magic power. Therefore, the fish will always move to their homerange set by the buya. They also determine the closing and opening of the ikan larangan and directing allocation of the income

4 Head of Village (Kepala Desa) Coordinator Very good (5)

To coordinate the operational activities of ikan larangan in the field; from chairing the meeting throughout; dividing the share from fish harvest and allocating the venues for village development

5 Community Members Very good (5)

Community benefits the most from the system. At the same time, they also help in maintaining and forcing the rules and supervising the harvest

Note: * Likert Scale from 1 to 5. Source: Based on discussion with the competent key persons and Fisheries Office (1999).


Local Governments at Subdistrict Level Religious

Local Government Customary Organization Organization at Village Level ** Kekerabatan Adat Negeri *

Community at Village Level Fig. 2. The existing institutional arrangement for ikan larangan in West Sumatra Note: * IL leader for traditional is buya or ninik-mamak; modern IL (head of village or kepala desa); and semi-

modern (combination of buya/ninik-mamak/head of the village. ** The secretary and treasurer are representatives of LKMD and youth organization, respectively. Source: Based on discussion with the competent key persons and Fisheries Office (1999). Several rules and convention agreed by the stakeholders among others are prohibition to fish during closed season. All members of community are responsible for monitoring and surveillance of the fisheries resource. Benefits from ikan larangan should be distributed to the members of community, opening and closing seasons will be ordered by the competent leader, with sanctions and penalties be imposed in the violators. The detailed rights-and-rules system for ikan larangan is found in Table 6. Table 6. Rules and features of ikan larangan system in West Sumatra

No. Variables Descriptions

1 Objectives -

Conservation and sustainability of the fisheries and natural resources in the vicinity of ikan larangan

- Optimal use of open-water resource - Increase the income of villagers - Reviving the tradition of ikan larangan - Provide food security for the villagers

2 Form of the Rules -

Formulation of the rules is unwritten (convention among the members)

3 Rules of Game - Prohibition to fish during closed season - All villagers are considered as members of community.

They have responsibility for monitoring and surveillance of the fisheries resource

-

Community should contribute their time, effort and some money (if necessary) to ikan larangan management

-

Revenue earned from harvest will be reallocated for village developments

- The benefits will be distributed to every member of community.


-

Sanction or penalty, i.e., monetary, natural and curse will be imposed on the violator

-

Opening and closing season of the traditional and semi-traditional ikan larangan are determined by the religious leader (buya). Myths and tradition influence management. Modern is using technology such as stocking rate.

-

The rule of game is simple and designed by the community representatives

4 Organization - The application of rules are undertaken by the village organizer -

The bodies involved in organizing ikan larangan objectives KAN (Kekerabatan Adat) organization, village government, customary organization, and religious organization

-

The local organization is inspired by the Local Government Law (Regulation No. 22/1999) which is amended by Law No. 5/1974.

External Institutional Arrangements Indonesia follows a decentralization concept to govern the country. Article 18 in the Constitution (UUD 1945) said that the Indonesia comprises big and small regions and the forms of governance are determined by regulation. The Constitution is the main guideline to implement the local autonomy, responsibility of each local government, and utilization of national (human and natural) resources as guided by the Decree of People’s Assembly (MPR) No. XV Year 1998. Organization above Village Level Administratively, Indonesia is divided into 27 provinces and each province consists of a number of districts (kabupaten) and municipalities (kotamadia). Under the district or municipality, there are subdistricts (kecamatan) and each subdistrict comprises a number of villages. In total, there are 243 districts, 60 municipalities, 3 836 subdistricts, and 64 554 villages within the country (GOI 1995). Provincial government is headed by a governor. Meanwhile, government at the district and municipal level are headed by a head of district (bupati) and a major (walikotamadia), respectively. A subdistrict administration is headed by a camat, and a village government is headed by kepala desa. At the national level of administration, there are a number of ministries with their own functions and responsibilities. Similarly, at the provincial level there are agencies and/or organizations with different functions and tasks. These are either under the coordination of central government (Kanwil) or provincial government (Dinas at Level I). A similar structure also exists for administration at the district level. At the district level, there are agencies under the responsibility of the district government (Dinas at Level II) and agencies under coordination of Provincial Level (Representative of Dinas at Level I). With the implementation of the Law No. 22 Year 1999 pertaining to local government, the roles of the district government become more important. One of the considerations of that law mentions that in implementing regional autonomy, there is a need to improve people participation in development process. Some of the functions and responsibilities that were previously under the central or provincial government, hence, would be transferred to the district administration. The legal structure of ikan larangan from village to national level in Indonesia is depicted in Figure 3.


Ministry of Ministry of Ministry of Other Foreign Affairs Home Affairs Agriculture Ministries People House Local Gov. Representatives Level I (DPRD I) (Provincial) People House Local Gov. Representatives Level II (DPRD II) (District) Local Gov. Subdistrict Level People Repres. Local Gov. Customary Org. Religious (LKMD) Village Level (KAN) Organization Ikan Larangan Ikan Larangan Ikan Larangan Ikan Larangan Fig. 3. Relationships between ikan larangan organization and formal organizations Exogenous Factors Calamities and Disasters There is no significant calamity or disaster occurring in the study areas. Irrigation facilities in West Sumatra are satisfactory and running well. Thus, many ikan larangan benefit from this open water. Drought is very seldom in the study areas as confirmed by the competent key persons during field survey. Flood, earthquake, and landslides are never found in the region of West Sumatra. Once in a while, cyclones occur in the study areas. Macroeconomic, Political and Socioculture The macroeconomic condition of West Sumatra is relatively stable. Growth of handicrafts like embroidery and woven fabric and traditional food are potential exports. The mines industry (bauxite and coal) also provide a very good return. Meanwhile, merchandise and trading are important to the economy

President


of West Sumatra. Restaurant food of Padang is quite famous in Indonesia and overseas. West Sumatra is considered one of the centers of agriculture industries – food and rainforest and fisheries products in Sumatra. The political situation in West Sumatra is relatively stable because of the customary (KAN) and religious organizations. West Sumatra is also very famous for its tradition and cultures. The matrilineal system wrapped up the way of life of the Minangkabau tribe. Evaluation for Successful Fisheries Co-Management Among the emerging conditions for successful co-management are those that exist in a particular situation or system (Pomeroy et al. 1994). The key conditions given by Ostrom (1990, 1992) and Pinkerton (1989) are used to evaluate the success of fisheries co-management for ikan larangan in West Sumatra. Every key condition observed for evaluation was measured by Likert scale (1 to 5). Based on observations in the field and discussions with several competent key persons, judgement was then made by the researcher to evaluate the success of co-management application in ikan larangan, West Sumatra. The total score of 11 key conditions for successful co-management is 43 as shown in Table 7. The averaged score is 3.99 which is close to scaling 4 of Likert. This implies that the prospect for successful co-management is pretty good. The portrait for successful co-management has been illustrated in Figure 1. The proportion of sharing in responsibility and/or authority between the government and local-resource users or community to manage the fishery or resources is plotted into the hierarchy of co-management arrangements (after Berkes 1994) with judgement given by the researcher. The portrait shows that community-based management remains superior to the government-based management of the ikan larangan system in West Sumatra. Table 7. Conditions for successful co-management

No. Key Conditions Phenomenon in the Field Evaluation **

1 5

Clearly defined boundaries

There is physical boundaries, so the fisher groups can have accurate knowledge of them; Boundaries using natural man-made marks

2 4

Membership is clearly defined

Individual fishers with rights to fish in the bounded fishing area can participate in area management

3 Group cohesion 5

High degree of homogeneity in terms of kinship, ethnicity, religion, local ideology, customs, and belief;

There is common understanding of the problem and alternative strategies and outcomes

4 Existing organization 4

The fishers have some prior experience with traditional community-based systems

5 Benefits exceed cost * 5

Individuals have expectation that the benefits to be derived from participation and compliance with community-based management exceed the cost of investments in such activities

6 4

Participation by those affected

Most individuals affected by the management arrangements are included in the group that makes and can change the arrangements

7 5

Management rule enforced The management rules are simple, thus easily understood by the community

8 Legal rights to organize The fisher group or organization has no legal rights to organize and make arrangements related to its need. However, in practice the fisher group or village organization has made its arrangement;

2

There is no legislation defining and clarifying local responsibility and authority. However, informally the government provides some support for ikan larangan although still in low degree

9 5

Cooperation and leadership at community level

There is an incentive and willingness on the part of fishers to actively participate with time, effort, and money in fisheries


management;

There is an individual or core group who takes leadership responsibility for the management process

10 2 Decentralization and delegation of authority

The government has established formal policy and/or laws for decentralization of administrative functions (Regulation No. 22/1999, amendment Regulation No. 5/1974). However, delegation of management responsibility and/or authority to local government and local group organization levels has not been given

11 2

Coordination between government and community

The blueprint for establishment of coordinating body of ikan larangan is being processed by the Fisheries Office. This body aims to monitor the local management arrangements, resolve conflicts and reinforce local rules.

Total score 43 Average score ** 3.99

Note: Likert scale: 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 * Definition B/C is very subjective for each person. In the most of study area, people interpreted the B/C in terms of social context.

** The average score is close to 4. This can be interpreted that the prospect for successful co-management for ikan larangan is good.

*** Definition: (1) Strongly disagree; (2) Disagree; (3) Doubtful; (4) Agree; and (5) Strongly agree. (1) Very bad; (2) Bad; (3) Neutral; (4) Good and (5) Very good.

Concluding Remarks There are about seven big ikan larangan systems in West Sumatra Province that spread out in Padang Pariman, Pasaman, and Agam districts. The prototypes in West Sumatra are: (1) traditional, semi-traditional; and modern. The study area selected for traditional, semi-traditional, and modern systems are Lubuk Landur (n=19); Kayu Tanam (n=20); and Pasir Lawas (n=60), respectively. The objectives of ikan larangan could be viewed from environmental, economic, social and political aspects. Originally, the main purpose of their establishment was for reserving food for the community. Due to the increase in population the purpose of ikan larangan is expanded. There are several salient characteristics of ikan larangan in West Sumatra. The most unique one is that the community provides a very high commitment to carry out their obligation for the resource management. People are also very aware of the need for surveillance of the resources with self-enforcement. This character of the community is seldom found in other places of Indonesia. The fish species found in the study areas are almost similar: ikan gariang or ikan lambao (Labeobarbus spp), ikan baran (Hampald spp), Rasbora macrolepidola spp, Rasbora lariaftriata spp, ikan mas or ikan rayo (Caprinus scarpio spp) and ikan kulari. These fish species breed naturally and are usually difficult to culture. The fish feed on a kind of grass called jariamun. This grass is found at the bottom and banks of rivers. Further, this grass is a good habitat for animal organism and fish. The marketing distribution of fish from ikan larangan needs three channels: (1) direct selling to consumers; (2) wholesaler to fish vendors; and (3) wholesaler to fish retailers in market. The quantity of fish supplied by ikan larangan does not meet the demand of the local people. The level of responsibility held by government-based management is quite small compared to the portion shared by community-based management for ikan larangan. To date, delegation of authority given by the central government to the local level has not been done proportionately and is even hardly found for co-management application. However, Regulation No. 22 Year 1999 as the amendment of regulation No. 5 Year 1974 (concerning local government in Indonesia) encourages the implementation of decentralization policy in Indonesia. Therefore, it is expected there will be a trickle-down effect of delegated authority to formalize the ikan larangan system. There are good prospects concluded from the evaluation for a successful fisheries co-management using the key conditions outlined by Ostrom (1990, 1992) and Pinkerton (1989).


Policy Implication and Recommendation It is hope that government as one of the stakeholders for ikan larangan welcomes the initiative from local community to improve the system as a community-based resource management. Perhaps, co-management approach to manage the fisheries resource can be tried out in Indonesia by sharing responsibility and authority among the related stakeholders (government, academician and/ or researcher and community). This stipulates indeed political will from the government to delegate some of the authority and at the same time to legitimize the rights of local community to organize and make arrangements as needed. Therefore, the salient characteristics of co-management system for ikan larangan could be adopted to prescribe the acceptable resource management for similar regions in Indonesia. The findings of the study are expected to encourage the government to legalize the local institutional system of ikan larangan. References BPS (Indonesian Central Bureau of Statistic). 1996. Indonesian Statistical Book. Jakarta, Indonesia. BPS (Indonesian Central Bureau of Statistic). 1998. West Sumatra in Figures Year 1997. Padang,

Indonesia Fisheries Office 1999. Annual Report of Year 1997/1998. Provincial Fisheries Office of West Sumatra.

Padang, Indonesia. Ostrom, E. 1990. Governing the commons: the evolution of institutions for collective action. Cambridge

University Press, Cambridge, England. Ostrom, E. 1992. Crafting institutions for self-governing irrigation systems. Institute for Contemporary

Studies Press, San Francisco, USA. Pinkerton, E. Editor. 1989. Cooperative management of local fisheries. University of British Columbia

Press, Vancouver, Canada. Pomeroy, Robert S. 1991. Small-scale fisheries management and development: towards a community-

based approach. In Marine Policy. January 1991. Pomeroy, Robert. S 1993. A research framework for coastal fisheries co-management institutions. Naga,

ICLARM Quarterly. Manila. Pomeroy, Robert S. and Meryl J. William. 1994. Fisheries co-management and small-scale fisheries: a

policy brief. ICLARM, Manila. Susilowati, Indah (1996). A review of natural resource laws and policies in Indonesia and its prospect for

fisheries co-management. Fisheries Co-Management Research Project, ICLARM. Working paper No.20.

Wahyono, Untung, Kee Chai Chong, Suseno, and Reza Pahlevi 1992. Traditional community-based

fisheries management practices in Indonesia. Seminar paper FAO/ Japan Expert Consultation on the Development of Community-based Coastal Fisheries Management Systems for Asia and the Pacific, 8-12 June 1992, Kobe, Japan.

Acknowledgement

This study was funded by ICLARM for Co-Management Project in Phase I. The paper benefited from the useful comments of Dr. Robert S. Pomeroy and Dr. K. Kuperan Viswanathan. Thanks to Dr. Ahmed Mahfuz in ICLARM, my colleagues Harfiandri and Eni Kamal, Mr. Suardi, and Mr. Esardi from Bung Hatta University, Padang, Indonesia for supervising data collection; and Dr. Waridin for editing the report.

an analysis of co-management fisheries in west sumatra province

Documents