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AN ANALYTICAL STUDY OF ORGANIC

CARDAMOM GROWERS IN IDUKKI

DISTRICT OF KERALA

RESHMA GILLS

DIVISION OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION

INDIAN AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE

NEW DELHI – 110012

2012

An Analytical Study of Organic Cardamom

Growers in Idukki District of Kerala

BY

RESHMA GILLS

A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Post-Graduate School,

Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi

In partial fulfillment of the requirements

For the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

IN

AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION

2012

Approved by:

…………………….. …..…………………… Dr. Rashmi Singh Dr. Manjeet Singh Nain (Chairperson) (Co-chairperson)

……………………… ………………………...

Dr. V. C. Mathur Dr. Cini Varghese (Member) (Member)

Dr. Rashmi Singh Division of Agricultural Extension

Senior Scientist Indian Agricultural Research Institute

New Delhi- 110012, India

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the thesis entitled “An Analytical Study of Organic Cardamom

Growers in Idukki District of Kerala” submitted to the Faculty of the Post-Graduate

School, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Agricultural Extension,

embodies the results of bona fide research work carried out by Ms. Reshma Gills

under my guidance and supervision, and that no part of this thesis has been submitted

for any other degree or diploma.

It is further certified that any assistance and help availed during the course of

investigation as well as source of information have been duly acknowledged by her.

(Dr. Rashmi Singh)

Chairperson

Advisory committee

Place: New Delhi

Date:

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is with great respect and devotion that I place on record my deep sense of gratitude and

indebtedness to Dr. RASHMI SINGH, Senior Scientist, Division of Agricultural Extension, and

chairperson of my Advisory Committee for her sustained and valuable guidance, constructive

suggestions, unfailing patience, friendly approach, constant support and encouragement during the

conduct of this research work and preparation of the thesis.

I place a deep sense of obligation to Dr. MANJEET SINGH NAIN, Senior Scientist,

Division of Agricultural Extension co-chairman of my Advisory Committee, Dr. J.P.SHARMA Head,

Division of Agricultural Extension, IARI Dr. PREMLATHA SINGH, Professor, Division of

Agricultural Extension, IARI and Dr. K. VIJAYARAGHAVAN, Joint Director (Extension), IARI

for his eminent suggestions, and critical assessment at various stages of my work.

I am deeply indebted to Dr. V. C. MATHUR, Professor, Division of Agricultural Economics,

IARI and Dr. (Mrs.) CINI VARGHESE, Senior Scientist IASRI, members of my Advisory Committee

for their unstinted support, critical comments and valuable suggestions during the preparation of this

manuscript.

It is a great occasion for me to express my deep sentiments, legitimate regards and gratitude

towards, Dr. R. N. Padaria, Dr. B. K. Singh, Dr. R.R.Burman, Dr. Shantanu Dubey, Dr. Kumbhare,

Dr. Monica Wason, Dr. S. B. Vashistha, Dr. J. P. S. Dabas and Dr. V.Sangeetha for providing me the

necessary facilities and encouragement throughout this study. I convey my heartiest thanks to Sri. T.

Dasgupta, Ranaji, Ganeshji, Rampritji, Ramawadhji, Lakhindarji, and Mrs. Kalpana ma’m and Mrs.

Leena ma’m for their help during the entire span of my study.

I take this opportunity to thank my all Teachers, classmates, seniors and juniors for their

support and encouragement. I am extremely thankful to my most loving Lisechi, Shinogi Chechi, Vinu,

Sini, Manju, Shameena, Renu, Sheethal, Neethu, Anshi, Rejulechi, all my friends of IARI and PUMA

for the heartfelt help and timely suggestions which gave me enough mental strength to get through all

mind-numbing circumstances. I am extremely thankful to SREEJITH, ANILETTAN, SREENATH,

all the members of the UNION BANK UDUMBANCHOLA, VARADARAJAN SIR (ICRI) for

their sincere and wholehearted co-operation and assistance during the course of investigation.

I express my special thanks to Mahesh Sir, Manjunath Sir, Ashish Sir, Deepika Chechi, and

Pankaj Sir.

I express my deep love to my APPA, MAMMY, RENJECHI and all Family members and near

and dear ones especially DR. ABDUL KHADER (KAU) without whose moral support and affection

this endeavor would not have been a success.

I express my deep sense of gratitude to Indian Council of Agricultural Research for extending

financial and technical support for pursuance of my study and research.

Finally, I bow my head before THE ALMIGHTY whose blessings enabled me to undertake

this venture successfully.

RESHMA GILLS

CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE

1. INTRODUCTION 1-5

1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Statement of problem 3 1.3 Researchable issues 4 1.4 Objectives 4 1.5 Importance and scope of the study 5 1.6 Limitations of the study 5

2. BACKGROUND 6-18 2.1 Introduction 6 2.2 Organic cultivation: Origin and growth 6 2.3 Organic cardamom cultivation: A transect through Indian

context of organic farming 8

2.4 Development of organic farming in Kerala 10 2.5 Reasons for adoption of organic farming 11 2.6 Cardamom farmers as entrepreneurs 14 2.7 Economic impact 17 2.8 Social impact 18 2.9 Need of organic farming 18

3. GENERAL RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 19-32

3.1 Introduction 19 3.2 Research design 19 3.3 Locale of the study 19 3.4 Sampling and data collection 21 3.5 Psychological Variables 26 3.6 Measurement of sustainability of organic farming 30 3.7 Measurement of constraints of organic farming 30 3.8 Analysis of structural and technical frame work of the

institutions 30

3.9 Reasons for organic cardamom farming 30 3.10 Economic impact 31 3.11 Statistical tools used 31 4 RESEARCH PAPER

4(1) TECHNOLOGICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN CARDAMOM PRODUCTION WITH SPECIAL EMPHASIS ON THE ADOPTION OF ORGANIC CULTIVATION

33-42

4(1).1 Introduction 33

4(1).2 Methodology 34

4(1).3 Results and discussions 35

4(1).4 Conclusions 42

4(2) ORGANIC CARDAMOM PRODUCTION IN KERALA: SUPPORTING FACTORS AND CONSTRAINTS 43-57





4(3) IMPACT OF ORGANIC CARDAMOM PRODUCTION ON SUSTAINABILITY, INCOME AND EMPLOYMENT 58-62





4(4) INSTITUTIONAL AND STRUCTURAL FRAMEWORK OF GOVT. AND NGO’S FOR PROMOTING ORGANIC AGRI-ENTERPRISE 63-67





5. GENERAL DISCUSSION 68-73

6. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 74-79

ABSTRACT 80

lkj 81 REFERENCES i – viii

APPENDIX I ix –xi

APPENDIX II xii APPENDIX III xiii-xxvi

LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Title Page

No.

Table 3.4.1.1 Variables and their measurements 22

Table 4(1).3.1 Summary Table of Technology Adoption 36

Table 4(1).3.2.1 Major reasons for adopting organic cultivation as per Friedman’s

test 41

Table 4(2).3.1.1 Distribution of respondents in according to their age 45

Table 4(2).3.1.2 Distribution of respondents according to their educational level 45

Table 4(2).3.1.3 Distribution of respondents according to their occupation 46

Table 4(2).3.1.4 Distribution of respondents according their family size 46

Table 4(2).3.1.5 Distribution of respondents according to their house type 47

Table 4(2).3.1.6 Distribution of respondents according to their land size 47

Table 4(2).3.1.7 Distribution of respondents according to their land size under

organic cardamom cultivation 47

Table 4(2).3.1.8 Distribution of respondents according to their experience in

farming 48

Table 4(2).3.1.9 Distribution of respondents according to their experience in

organic cardamom cultivation 48

Table 4(2).3.1.10 Distribution of respondents according to type of farming 48

Table 4(2).3.1.11 Distribution of respondents according to allied agricultural

activities 49

Table4(2).3.1.11.a Distribution of respondents according to allied agricultural

activities 49

Table 4(2).3.1.12 Distribution of respondents according to Share of agriculture in

household income 49

Table 4(2).3.1.13 Distribution of respondents according to irrigation potential 50

Table4(2).3.1.13.a Distribution of respondents according to irrigation potential 50

Table 4(2).3.1.14 Distribution of respondents according to farming method 50

Table 4(2).3.1.15 Distribution of respondents according to resources for organic

farming 51

Table 4(2).3.1.16 Distribution of respondents according to farming group 51

membership

Table 4(2).3.1.17 Distribution of respondents according to other organizational

membership 51

Table 5(2).3.2.1 Distribution of respondents according to their innovation

proneness 52

Table 4(2).3.2.1a Average innovation proneness as per Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney

test 52

Table 4(2).3.2.2 Average risk taking ability as per Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney test 52

Table 4(2).3.3.1 Distribution of respondents according to their level of aspiration 53

Table 4(2).3.4.1 Distribution of respondents according to their level of

entrepreneurial competencies 53

Table 4(2).3.5.1 Comparison of different constraints in organic cardamom

production based on mean ranks as per Kruskal-Wallis test 54

Table 4(2).3.5.2 Comparison of different technological constraints in organic

cardamom production based on mean ranks 54

Table 4(2).3.5.3 Comparison of different economic constraints in organic


Table 4(2).3.5.4 Comparison of Different Personal Constraints in Organic

cardamom production based on Mean Ranks 55

Table 4(2).3.5.5 Comparison of different certification related constraints in

organic cardamom production based on mean ranks 56

Table 4(2).3.5.7 Comparison of different ecological constraints in organic


Table 4(3). 3.1.1 Change in the income pattern 60

Table 4(3). 3.1.2 Average income 60

Table 4(3).3.1.2 a Comparison of average income of farmers belong to organic and

inorganic cardamom growers 60

Table 4(3).3.2.1 Change in the employment pattern 61

Table 4(3).3.5.1 Comparison of suitability in cardamom production based on

mean ranks as per Mann-Whitney’s test 62

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Title After

Page No.

Figure 3.1 Map of Kerala state showing selected district 20

Figure 3.2 Map of Idukki district showing selected blocks 20

LIST OF PLATES

No. Title After

Page No.

1 Farmers innovations in the cardamom field 37

2 On farm inputs in cardamom plantations 38

3 Adopted technology by cardamom farmers 40

4 Cardamom plants in experimental plot for organic cultivation in ICRI 65

5 Innovative farmers identified by the organizations 66

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AKST Agricultural Knowledge, Science, and Technology

ANOVA Analysis of variance

APEDA Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority,

CHR Cardamom Hill Reserves

CICR Central Institute of Cotton Research

CRS Cardamom Research Station

HYVs High Yielding Varieties

IAASTD The International Assessment of Agricultural Science and Technology for

Development

ICECD International Centre for Entrepreneurship and Career Development

ICRI Indian Cardamom Research Institute

ICS Internal Control System

INFAM Indian Farmers' Movement

NAB National Accreditation Body

NAPP National Accreditation Policy and Program

NGOs Non- Governmental Organisations

NKAE Neem Kernel Aqueous Extract

NPOP National Program for Organic Production

PDS Peermade Development Society

PEC Personal Entrepreneurial Competence

PGB-1 Panikulangara Green Bold No.1

SOSFC Sahyadri Organic Small Farmers Consortium

UKAS United Kingdom Accreditation Services

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION The majority sees the obstacles; the few see the objectives; history records the successes of the latter, while oblivion is the reward of the former

(ALFRED ARMAND MONTAPERT)

1.1 Introduction

Agriculture is the backbone of Indian economy and with sixty seven per cent of its population and

fifty five per cent of the total work force depends on agriculture and allied activities as the source

of their livelihood; agriculture meets the basic needs of India’s growing population. Despite this, it

is facing a number of constraints such as fragmentation of landholding, low productivity and

conversion of agricultural land to non-agricultural uses. But, still the agricultural sector is giving a

number of opportunities due to the rising need for quality and value added produce

(Chandrashekar, 2010). In the course of time the predominance of chemical intensive farming has

resulted in a near stagnant level of productivity of many of the economically important crops and

the indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides has eventually emerged as a potential

source of danger not only to the sustainability of the environment but also to the safe food

requirement of our population.

As a result of loss of agro-ecosystem vitality and productivity, the cost of cultivation has escalated

and this led most of the small and marginal farmers to shift away from raising food crops to cash

crops in order to sustain their economic viability of agriculture. This scenario can be

predominantly observed in states like Kerala, where there is an ideal climate for high value low

volume crops prevails. This situation made it inevitable to think beyond the unsustainable

agricultural practices of the country and slowly, a number of alternative eco-friendly farming

practices have evolved from different parts of the country. While analyzing all the developments

from different parts of the world Organic Agriculture seems to have an edge in the adoption

process among the farming community of India and the success of organic farming is predicted by

the availability of eco-friendly technologies capable to sustain agricultural productivity, increase

export potential and maintain economic viability. Furthermore, organic agriculture can be more

clearly defined compared to sustainable agriculture and takes its reference point in environmental

protection. Moreover, organic agriculture is the most advanced and best developed approach to

environment friendly farming, and certification bodies provide well-defined norms for organic

agriculture in relation to certification.

The famous definition of Codex Alimentaris Commission, a joint body of FAO/WHO (2003) reads

as “Organic agriculture as holistic food production management systems, which promotes and

Introduction

2

enhances agro-ecosystem health, including biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological

activity. It emphasizes the use of management practices in preference to the use of off-farm inputs,

taking into account that regional conditions require locally adapted systems. This is accomplished

by using, where possible, agronomic, biological and mechanical methods, as opposed to using

synthetic materials, to fulfill any specific function within the system”.

For, instance organic farming is largely not depending up on the external inputs. This minimize the

resource usage of the farming system and limit the nutrient load in the system, which in turn leads

to the less over fertilization and reduces the eutrophication the risk involving nitrogen and

phosphorus (Hass et al.,2001). With the view of promoting organic farming practices to reduce the

burden on the chemical fertilizers, to ensure the effective utilization of resources and to carter

domestic and international growing organic food market, the Government of India has

implemented the National Program for Organic Production (NPOP) and the program involves the

accreditation program for certification bodies, norms for organic production, promotion of organic

farming etc. The NPOP standards for production and accreditation system have been recognized

by European Commission and Switzerland as equivalent to their country standards.

Under the 11th Five Year Plan (2007-2012), the country targeted the development of five million

hectares of cultivable land into certified organic farmland by promoting a scheme to compensate

farmers for the lower yield of such crops. The reason for emphasis on organic farming was its

positive effects on biodiversity and effective soil management that could go a long way in

mitigating and even reversing the effects of climate change, as also minimizing carbon emissions

(The Hindu, 2010).

The growth in consumer demand for organically produced food and the standardization of organic

farming methods have created a distinguished marketing opportunity for agricultural producers

who obtain organic certification. The success of organic farming is predicted by the availability of

ecofriendly technologies capable to sustain agricultural productivity, increase export potential and

maintain economic viability. Development and adoption of such technologies is more imperative

in cash crops like spices than food crops. Economic viability, environmental sustainability, social

acceptability and food safety and quality are the four major parameters included in most private

and public sector standards.

Among the various organic food products, demand for organically produced spices is growing

rapidly in the developed countries and the products command a premium. India is known as “The

home of spices” and Indian spices are famous all over the world for their high medicinal values.

Among spices cardamom is important in the sense that, it is contributing a large portion in the

global export market. Cardamom is also known as the "Queen of spices”. Cardamom is indigenous

to the southern stretch of evergreen forests of Western Ghats. The crop can be integrated into

secondary forest formations without any ecological damage. Planted under forest cover, it enables

Introduction

3

the conservation and development of a wooded stratum, a guarantee for the subsistence of forest

environmental conditions (ecological diversity, soil structure and fertility, humidity, micro-

climate, etc.). Cardamom appeared to offer sustainable economic guarantees for the farmers, with

a stable demand, and hence a lucrative price level for the farm work, despite the costs of access

(transportation) to a market.Till early seventies India was the main producer and exporter of this

commodity. Now Guatemala has emerged as World’s largest producer, offering stiff competition

to Indian cardamom in the international market.

India is an organic produce exporting country. So, export of organic agricultural produce,

especially which of low volume high price commodities like spices have an impact on India’s

economic future. As per the statistics available with Agricultural and Processed Food Products

Export Development Authority, currently, India ranks 33rd in terms of total land under organic

cultivation and 88th in terms of the ratio of agricultural land under organic crops to total farming

area. The cultivated land under certification is around 2.8 million hectare (2007-08). This includes

1 million hectare under cultivation and the rest is under forest area (APEDA, 2011). Further, while

considering the contribution of these organic products, Kerala is the leading state in the production

of organic spices.

There is a great demand for organically grown cardamom in international market. It is generally

assumed that the option of organic farming is a practice leading to agricultural development.

Cardamom’s reputation as a spice is unmatched, and it has a variety of uses as a flavouring agent

in tea and dishes, processed food, tonics and perfumes and as a therapeutic agent. It is a low

volume, high value commodity in domestic as well as international trade. It is one of the highly

priced and expensive spices and rightly called as the “green gold”. The farmers in Idukki district of

Kerala emerged as a group of agri enterprising agents from the choice they made. Their profits are

substantial when compared to the profits of other farmers who are engaged in non organic

cultivation Reduction in use of chemical fertilizers and increase in use of organic materials will

scale down production costs. Even if there were any slump in yield, better prices to organic

produces would certainly compensate the loss owing to slump in yield. Global demand for

cardamom in the coming years will be increased manifold. Now, people in several countries are

ready to pay good prices for green produces that has no chemical residues. Organic cardamom

would be in great demand in future (Hindu 2010).

1.2 Statement of Problem

As per the report of NABARD (2011), Kerala is the leading producer of cardamom in the country

constituting 78 per cent of the total production from 56 per cent of the area under cardamom in the

country. Among the different districts where cardamom is growing Idukki district leading from the

front both in area (32856 ha out of the total area of 41378 ha) and production (7931 tonnes out of

the total production of 8616 tonnes).

Introduction

4

Many of the NGOs within the state and government accreditation agencies are utilizing the

entrepreneurial abilities for the proper processing and export of the cardamom from Kerala.

Looking in to the high export potential, many of the accreditation agencies (Commodity Boards),

internationally recognized NGOs, are working for organic farming; certification and exporting of

organic spice products active. Evidences show that, small and marginal farmers in Idukki district

of Kerala are practicing spice cultivation especially organic cardamom for the economic stability

and sustainability of farmers’ livelihood in Kerala state.

Compared to the conventional cardamom farmers the organic cardamom farmers of the district are

known as profit reapers with the help of different institutional arrangements. The Idukki model of

organic cardamom cultivation is serving as an example for economic safety and better livelihood

of the farmers. Considering all the above factors the present investigation addressed the following

researchable issues.

1.3 Researchable Issues

1. What are the technological and methodological innovations being practiced by the cardamom

growers?

2. What are the entrepreneurial and socio-psychological factors affecting organic cardamom

production and its processing?

3. What is the major impact of technological, methodological and processual innovations?

4. What are the institutional frameworks of the governmental and non-governmental agencies for

promoting organic cardamom production and their impact?

5. What are the export potential of cardamom and marketing behaviour of growers?

6. What is the socio-economic impact of organic cardamom production among its growers?

7. What are the constraints faced by the cardamom growers at different stages in the adoption of

innovative practices of production, processing and marketing?

8. Are organic cardamom producers having entrepreneurial abilities?

On the basis of the above stated issues specific objectives under study as below.

1.4 Objectives

1. To identify the technological and methodological innovations adopted by organic cardamom

farmers.

2. To characterize the entrepreneurial and socio-psychological attributes of organic cardamom

growers.

3. To assess the impact of techno-entrepreneurial factors in terms of income and employment

enhancement.

4. To examine the institutional and structural frame work of government and nongovernment

agencies for the promotion of organic agri enterprises.

Introduction

5

1.5 Importance and Scope of the Study

The results of the study provided a reasonable understanding about technological and

methodological innovations adopted by the organic cardamom farmers for their upliftment of

farming practices, reasons behind the organic production and the key issues involved in it. The

study will help to address issues of sustainability, economic viability, certification, and marketing

of organic cardamom produce. This will throw a light to the existing and required institutional

frameworks in the promotion of organic farming, and also help researchers and policy makers to

think beyond the prevailing situation of agriculture.

1.6 Limitations of the Study

The major limitation was with respect to the duration of the study. Some aspects, which require

longitudinal studies and observations that are time dependent, could not be studied as it was a

student research constrained by funds and time. As most of the information they have given is

from their own experience during the various stages of their farming life there may be chances of

human bias. Even if the data was cross checked to minimize the error, it is a fact that the results of

the study may be apt only for the area where the study had been conducted and this should be

considered while generalizing the results to a larger area.

CHAPTER II

BACKGROUND I not only use all the brains that I have, but all that I can borrow

(Woodrow Wilson)

2.1 Introduction

Research may be done alone but it never done in isolation. The production of new knowledge is

fundamentally dependent on past knowledge. Working with the literature is an essential part of the

research process. The review of literature is one of the important aspects in the research process. It

helps the researcher to keep his work going in right and appropriate direction. Hence, an attempt

has been made to review the research studies conducted on organic cultivation, factors behind the

organic farming, socio economic, personal and psychological studies of entrepreneurial behaviour

of farmers have been chronologically arranged here and have been presented in the following

sequences.

2.2 Organic cultivation: Origin and growth

This was the era of Sir Albert Howard, Lord Northbourne, and Lady Eve Balfour—early organic

pioneers who dedicated themselves to research and promotion of organic ideals. Sir Albert

Howard, an agricultural scientist, who served in Great Britain’s Imperial Department of

Agriculture during the early 1900s, is widely recognized as the most influential organic

agriculturalist in the history of the organic movement.

Though organic farming has only risen to public prominence in the last twenty years, the roots of

organic agriculture are in the early twentieth century when it became increasingly apparent that

agriculture as practiced was struggling to feed people adequately and causing considerable damage

to the environment (Conford, 2001). Although traces of an alternative movement in agricultural

production methods reach further back into history, the British organic movement of the 1920s-

1940s was generally recognized as the context for the first pioneers in organic agriculture

(Fromartz, 2006).

It lays dormant for many years, kept alive by a relatively small group of ecologically minded

farmers. Further, several agricultural scientists and rural thinkers began to look towards solutions

to these problems, and they concentrated in understanding the ecology of farms more adequately

and devising ways of keeping agricultural practices in line with these biological limits.

Two schools of thought on organic farming emerged. Rudolf Steiner and his followers understood

the ecological and natural processes and methods and were guided by mystical insights. Based on

acute observation, rigorous management of the land and a range of special preparations that

enhanced land and crops anthropological or biodynamic agriculture gained a small but loyal group

of adherents.

Background 7

Another school of thought on organic farming preferred to gain an understanding of nature and

ecosystem from a base in more conventional science. British agricultural scientist Albert Howard’s

work was more influential. Howard based his work on his experience of working in India, where

he was impressed by the efficiency of traditional peasant farming and sought to empower it

through the observations of Western Science.

In 1939, influenced by Howard’s research and writings, Lady Eve Balfour, an English farmer and

educator, set out to conduct a side-by-side comparison of organic and conventional farming.

Balfour published the findings of her comparison— known as the “Haughley Experiment”—in a

book entitled, The Living Soil and The Haughley Experiment in 1943 and again in 1974. Balfour’s

work helped pave the way for adoption of organic production methods in Europe by providing

farmers with a 10 comparison between organic and conventional farming methods (Conford,

2002).

The concept of organic farming started to popularize along with Albert Howard in 1940 through

his book An Agricultural Testament, the results of his experiments with traditional Indian

agriculture while he was in India as an Economic Botanist at the Imperial Agricultural Institute,

Pusa in the early 90s. With this new concept he had marked the origin of modern organic farming

in the West and known as the father of organic farming. The approach is holistic, rather than

analytic and he emphasized the concept of mixed farming that includes both crop plants and

animals as well as feeding of soil through compost.

In 1942, Rodale published Organic Farming and Gardening 11 magazine, a widely read

publication that promoted and popularized organic production techniques in the United States. In

addition to Organic Farming and Gardening, Rodale also published several books that

campaigned for organic ideals and refuted conventional agriculture’s adoption of synthetic

chemicals (Fromartz, 2006).

One of the outstanding efforts to unravel the negative impact of modern day agricultural practices

was from Rachel Carson. With Silent Spring in 1961, Carson launched the environmental

movement and she could explain the impact of human interference in nature in the fifteenth

chapter (Nature Fights Back) of her book as despite our efforts to control insect populations by

mass application of new chemicals, the insects keep coming back. Insects are genetically adapting

to the chemicals we use - they are becoming resistant, but even worse than that, our chemical

attacks on insects have weakened entire ecosystems, so that the natural enemies of the targeted

insects are destroyed, along with the targets. This creates an ideal environment for the unwanted

insects to re-infest an environment where their unfettered reproduction will not be challenged.

To revitalize agriculture in a sustainable manner there were some recent global efforts as that of

IAASTD (The International Assessment of Agricultural Science and Technology for

Development). This was an international effort initiated by the World Bank, a three-year

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Bank

Background 8

collaborative effort (2005-2007) of nearly sixty countries that assessed Agricultural Knowledge,

Science, and Technology (AKST) in relation to meeting development and sustainability goals of:

reducing hunger and poverty, improving nutrition, health and rural livelihoods and facilitating

social and environmental sustainability.

Today, Europe and the United States represent the two most mature and largest markets for

organic-labeled products in the world. Although certified organic farmland area and sales of

organic-labeled products have increased worldwide, the United States and European Union

represent 95 percent of the estimated world retail sales of organic food products (Willer and Geier,

2005).

In short, Organic agriculture is one among the broad spectrum of production methods that are

supportive of the environment. Organic production systems are based on specific standards

precisely formulated for food production and aim at achieving agro-ecosystems, which are socially

and ecologically sustainable. It is based on minimizing the use of external inputs through use of

on-farm resources efficiently compared to industrial agriculture. Thus, the use of synthetic

fertilizers and pesticides is avoided (Ramesh et. al., 2005).

Organic agriculture is defined as “a holistic production management whose primary goal is to

optimize the health and productivity of interdependent communities of soil, life, plants, animals

and people” (UNCTAD, 2006). Therefore, it aims to utilise and maintain ecosystem services by

improving the natural environment, increased water retention, reduced soil erosion and increased

agro-biodiversity (UN, 2008).

In the beginning of the Green Revolution, a small minority of thinkers and practitioners doubted its

veracity. These minorities were often clustered around the early organic farming movement; they

questioned the reliance on chemical technologies, the seeming simplification of the ecosystem

around farmland and the sidelining of the health giving benefits of food. As this critique became

louder, the problem more pressing and the opportunities for an alternative more apparent, the

organic movement came into prominence (Reed and Holt, 2006).

2.3 Organic cardamom cultivation: A transect through Indian context of organic farming

The seeds of commercial Indian "Organic cotton" cultivation were sown for the first time in

Maharashtra in the early 1990s. Some progressive farmers, distressed by the negative effects of

pesticides for insect suppression in cotton crop, reduced the chemical inputs and increased the use

of organic manure, developed their own techniques to optimize resources in order to develop

sustainable farm.

The pioneers, in this field were from the Yavatmal district of Maharashtra. A team of CICR

(Central Institute of Cotton Research) scientists visited the Yavatmal farms in 1992 crop season to

analyze their package of practices. Similar efforts of promotion of organic farming had been made

Background 9

in many states. Efforts had been made by the NGOs to study organic farming in Gujarat, Madhya

Pradesh, Kerala, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu.

To study the techno-economic feasibility of organic farming, Department of Agriculture and

Cooperation of Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India constituted a Technical Team. After

visiting various places and interacting with farmers and scientists, the members of the team made

observations as the country at present is not in a position to completely eliminate the use of

chemicals especially fertilizers, the production of agricultural commodity is not only to maintain

but also to increase it substantially to match with the demand of increasing population. However, it

would not be difficult and unrealistic to phase out the use of these chemicals systematically. For

this, on one hand the doses of fertilizers need to be gradually reduced and be balanced by

increasing the use of optimum quantity of organic manure and bio-fertilizers (Modi, 1997).

The individual organic movements got a serious imagery with the launch of National Program for

Organic Production (NPOP) by the Ministry of Commerce in March 2000. The prime aim of the

program was to promote organic farming for export purpose and that have established national

standards for organic products, which could then be sold under the logo ‘India Organic’. To

ensure the implementation of NPOP, the National Accreditation Policy and Program (NAPP) was

formulated, with accreditation regulations announced in May 2001. National Accreditation Body

(NAB) is the sole accreditation body with Agricultural Processed Foods Export Development

Authority (APEDA) as its secretariat.

India’s first ever local Organic Certification Body, INDOCERT (Indian Organic Certification

Agency), was established in March, 2002 with an objective to offer a reliable and affordable

organic inspection and certification services to farmers, processors, input suppliers and traders.

INDOCERT has strong technical collaborations with two well reputed Swiss Organic Agriculture

Institutions: FiBL (Research Institute of Organic Agriculture) and bio.inspecta (Swiss certification

agency). FiBL advices INDOCERT in setting up of an efficient management and administration

and ensure that the certification is established at par with National and International Accreditation

Criteria. INDOCERT is the cooperation partner of bio.inspecta and its official national office in

India. INDOCERT was nationally accredited for organic certification as per Indian National

Programme for Organic Production (NPOP) in October 2002. The capability of an agro-ecosystem

to produce a good crop mostly depends on the soil quality. In fact, various physical, chemical and

biological properties of soils interact in complex ways to determine the potential fitness for

sustainable production of healthy nutritious crops (Soil Science Society of America, 1984)

Agriculture has been at the centre of the sustainability issue for two main reasons: Firstly,

agricultural systems occupy large areas of land - far more land than any other industry with the

possible exception of forestry. Therefore, what occurs within agriculture can often have major

Background 10

environmental effects. Secondly, the product of agriculture is often food, and we all eat.

Agriculture is therefore one of the foundations of human society (Balachandran, 2004).

To improve and maintain soil quality, the best means are alternative agricultural practices such as

crop rotation, recycling crop residues and animal manures, reduced input of chemical fertilizers

and pesticides, and increased use of cover crops and green manure crops, including nitrogen fixing

legumes. All of these help to maintain a high level of soil organic matter that enhances soil tilth,

fertility and productivity while protecting the soil from erosion and nutrient runoff (Papendick and

Parr, 1989, Parr et al., 1983, 1989). However, only through sustainable agricultural practices we

can bring back the health of the soil.

According to Rai (2005), Organic farming systems can deliver agronomic and environmental

benefits both through structural changes and tactical management of farming systems. The benefits

of organic farming are relevant both to developed nations (environmental protection, biodiversity

enhancement, reduced energy use and CO2 emission) and to developing countries like India

(sustainable resource use, increased crop yields without over-reliance on costly external inputs,

environment and biodiversity protection, etc.).

Kanna (2007), reported that Malaiyandi farmers association is a group of 20 women farmers in

Perungalur who have taken up organic vegetable cultivation. They used vermicompost to enrich

the soil fertility and ‘panchagaviya’ to induce the plant growth. The net income from the organic

vegetable cultivation for the group is Rs.4713.00 over a period of 12 months

2.4 Development of organic farming in Kerala

There are a number of studies on different aspects of organic farming like organic manures, natural

pesticides, integrated pest management, integrated nutrient management but organic farming as

systems seems to have left out in the state till the late 90s (Balachandran, 2004). He further added

that the most revealing statement on the agricultural situation in Kerala was given by the Kerala

Land Use Board in 1997 through Kerala State Resource based Perspective Plan 2020 AD. The

report was one of the most precise indications of the state’s sorry state in agricultural affairs and it

strongly recommended the adoption of sustainable agricultural practices at the earliest.

A group of small farmers of Pulpally village of Wayanad district in the beginning of this

millennium year started organic farming. The area was certified by the Bangalore based IMO Pvt.

Ltd. and this was the first recognized step of the state towards an organic movement. After

Wayanad, a small village of Idukki district Karunapuram have attained the status of cent per cent

organic farming village, with all the 4,000 farmers in the village.

While considering the role of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) in the spread of organic

farming throughout the state, Wayanad and Idukki stand first two positions. The NGO that playing

a major role in Wayanad district is INFAM (Indian Farmers' Movement), an organization backed

by the Catholic Church also helping farmers to export organic farm produce. It runs Organic

Background 11

Wayanad, a project in Wayanad district whose sole aim is to promote organic farming in the

district. The promoter of Vanamoolika (one of the NGO promoting organic farming in Wayanad)

Mr. Chakkochan says the status of certified organic farmers in Wayanad have reached 5673 with

an area of 3983.28 ha by the middle of 2010. This comes nearly 18.74 per cent of the geographical

area of the district.

In Idukki district, Peermade Development Society (PDS) have the hand in organic farming and it

started to promote organic tea production in the district from the year 1998 for export market. With

the help of this NGO the small and marginal tea farmers established a consortium of nearly 1200

members; with a total area of nearly 800 hectares. PDS helped in obtaining a loan from local banks

to build the factory (one-third of the cost was covered by the Donors), which is now owned jointly

by PDS and the farmer consortium and the factory was opened in November 2003. In order to get

access to the international market, PDS arranged for the farmers to be certified by an

internationally accredited agency, Skal International and also obtained a Fair Trade certification

through the Fair Trade Labeling Organization.

As per different study reports, out of the 14 districts of Kerala state, Wayanad and Idukki have

occupied the first two places while accounting the certified organic agriculture area. The two

districts are famous for their export of organic spices and beverages to different European

countries and USA. These two districts are located in the Cardamom Hills of Western Ghats, the

house of various spices and beverage crops. But, Balachandran (2004) reported that Wayanad and

Idukki districts had showed poor representation in the number of organic farmers in the late 90s.

However, may be due to the more involvement of different NGOs, the two districts moved to a

better position in export of organic produce within a short period.

According to Sebastian (2007), the executive director of Indocert, 5,175 farmers in Kerala have

won the certification. While it certified 155 farmers last year, 144 certificates have been issued this

year. He also conveyed that it is the premium price for organic produce that attracts farmers to

organic cultivation. To pursue organic farming, farmers are expected to make an integrated

approach for all farming activities, from seed to the produce - using only manure from organic

sources, bio-fertilizer and bio-pesticides. They should start practicing mixed farming - rearing

livestock for organic manure, as procuring farm yard manure from outside won't be cost effective.

2.5 Reasons for adoption of organic farming

In 2002, The National Food Centre of the Irish Agriculture and Food Development Authority

published a report that summarized organic agriculture in Ireland during the early 2000s. In

addition to providing a description of Irish organic agriculture, the report entitled, “Conversion to

Organic Farming: Case Study Report Ireland,” examined the financial characteristics, operators’

attributes, and operators’ attitudes of 27 Irish farms that at the time of the study were considering

conversion to organic production (Howlett, et al., 2002). The researchers who instigated the study

Background 12

especially analyzed the views of farm operators with regard to their perceptions of the organic

conversion process and their motives for conversion. The two most notable farmer motives for

conversion identified in the case study were producers’ attitudes toward finances and the

environment. When the 27 farmers included in the study were asked about the benefits of organic

farming, their most common responses were, “better prices,” and, “greater income.” Additionally,

environmental concerns about pollution were also frequently cited as motives for conversion.

Besides identifying profitability and environmental motives, the study also identified the

importance of government subsidies and investment considerations in farmers’ conversion.

The importance of regional market characteristics on farmers’ motivations to convert to organic

production were also echoed in Midmore et al., (2001). This comprehensive study from England

analyzed three groups of farmers—certified organic, transitional, and conventional—to determine

each type of farmer’s views regarding organic production and their motivations in choosing their

respective production methods. Results of the study indicated that organic and transitional farmers

mainly made their decisions to convert based on their perceptions of the financial viability of

organic production and concerns for the environment. Additionally, however, many conventional

farmers in the study perceived large financial risks associated with organic conversion due to

unavailability of markets for organic farm products.

Lauwere et al., (2004) identified four different categories of motives for organic conversion among

Dutch farmers. The categories were idealistic, technical, institutional, and economic motives.

According to his study idealistic motives included farmers’ pursuit of a challenge, better personal

or family health, sustainable farming ideology, and relationships with consumers. Technical

motives were cited second most frequently in the study. These included greater cooperation with

nature, less chemical use, and better soil health. Furthermore, institutional motives, such as

farmers’ concern for a positive image and social acceptance, were cited third most frequently

among the Dutch farmers.

In the case of organic production, farmers perceive organic farming as new if they have had

limited experience with organic production practices and/or have never in the past possessed

organic certification. Although many of the practices involved in organic farming— manure

application, crop rotation, and cultural control of insects—are not new to agriculture, organic

farming is an innovation because it represents a complex system change for many conventional

agricultural producers (Padel, 2001).

Increasing concerns about food security in least developed and developing countries will require a

wide range of sustainable agricultural practices (combining some organic and conventional

practices) to fulfill the food demand of a growing population. (Ericksen et al., 2009).

Ananda Kumar (1998) studied the reasons responsible for conversion to organic farming in

Puducherry. The results are classified as follows: Socio-personal reasons: Consideration of soil

Background 13

fertility and physical conditions, concern over families health, success stories regarding organic

farming, availability of FYM and concern over fulfilment of needs of future generation. Socio-

economic reasons: Increasing cost of inputs in conventional farming, increase in net return despite

reductions in yield in organic farming, farmers own decision and intention to reduce expenditure,

eventual yield drops in conventional farming. Socio-psychological reasons: Encouragements and

advice from neighbouring organic farmers.

International Research suggests that those attributes of organic farming most likely to influence

farmers/consumers from most to least important were, a) Health; minimal artificial chemicals

residues in the product and high nutritive value, b) Environment; environment friendly production

and processing, c) Animal welfare, d) Minimal processing, and e) Novelty and fashion. (Locke et

al., 2002).

Panda et al., (2005) revealed the reasons for adopting organic farming as good safety, no nasty

additives (good value addition to agricultural products), avoidance of pesticides, fertilizers,

generally modified crops, concern for animal welfare, concern for the wild life and the

environment. In rainfed systems, organic agriculture has demonstrated to out-perform conventional

agricultural systems under environmental stress conditions. (Stanhill, 1990; Wynen, 1994; Peters,

1994).

The so called organic transition effect, in which a yield decline in the first 1–4 years of transition

to organic agriculture, followed by a yield increase when soils have developed adequate biological

activity (Liebhardt et al., 1989; Peters, 1994; Neera et al., 1999), has not been borne out in some

reviews of yield comparison studies. (Stanhill, 1990; Padel and Lampkin, 1994). Trials conducted

on organic cotton at Nagpur indicated that after the third year, the organic plot, which did not

receive fertilizers and insecticides, produced as much cotton as that cultivated with them.

(Rajendran et al., 2000). The replacement of external inputs by farm-derived resources normally

leads to a reduction in variable input costs under organic management. Expenditure on fertilizers

and sprays is substantially lower than in conventional systems in almost all the cases. (Padel and

Lampkin, 1994; Offermann and Nieberg, 1999).

Studies have shown that the common organic agricultural combination of lower input costs and

favourable price premiums can offset reduced yields and make organic farms equally and often

more profitable than conventional farms. (Hanson et al., 1997; Petersen et al., 1999; Reganold et

al., 2001).

Manjunath (2005) reported that the per acre returns from organic basmati Paddy (Rs.16183.5) was

more compared to inorganic basmati paddy (Rs.15720) though the yield of inorganic basmati

paddy (14.24q/acre) was more than that of organic basmati paddy(11.49q/acre).

Gill (2008) revealed that the crops raised in different cropping systems such as green manure

basmati rice-wheat, turmeric-onion, summer groundnut-garlic and rice-garlic+mentha with organic

Background 14

management systems gave 9.2, 62.2, 14.5 and 12.4 per cent more productivity respectively than

chemical farming.

Organic agriculture offers great potential to develop low cost, low input, locally available eco-

technologies to provide food and fibre (Badgley et al., 2006), without causing damage to human

health and the environment (UN, 2008).

Pest control in organic farming begins by making sensible choices, such as growing crops that are

naturally resistant to diseases and pests, or choosing sowing times that prevent pest and disease

outbreaks. Careful management in both time and space of planting not only prevents pests, but also

increases population of natural predators that can contribute to the control of insects, diseases and

weeds (FAO, 2003).

2.6 Cardamom Farmers as Entrepreneurs

2.6.1 Entrepreneurial Concepts

The word “entrepreneur” appeared in French language long before the emergence of the concept of

entrepreneurial function.

The entrepreneur and his unique risk bearing function was first identified in the early 18th century

by Richard Cantillon, an Irishman living in France, who defined an entrepreneur as person who

buys factor services at certain prices with a view to sell its product at uncertain prices in the future

(Hosalitz,1951). Narayana (1966) was of view that agricultural entrepreneurship is governed by

tradition, and custom instead of personal choice, it is more a way of life rather than a business

proposition. Singh (1970) positively rated successful agricultural entrepreneurs as having

economic progress, liking for the present occupation, preference for agriculture as a profession for

their sons if they so desired, a positive attitude towards modernization and individual farming for

the growth of agriculture in the country in contrast to the traditional and unsuccessful

entrepreneurs.

Vakarnam (1990) while writing the introduction to the book "When the harvesting is in:

Developing rural entrepreneurship" defined a rural entrepreneur as someone who is prepared to

take risks for self better made but is also willing to give of himself for the community by staying in

and creating local wealth. Selvaraj (1993) stressed on behavioural characteristics. According to

him the concept of entrepreneur and entrepreneurship incorporates basic qualities of leadership,

innovativeness, hard work, vision and maximization of profits. Bheemappa (2003) stated that if

one undertakes agriculture in the form of business based on scientific knowledge, latest technology

package, together with proper pre-planning, agriculture turns out to be the most profitable venture.

Further he visualized the scope for entrepreneurship development in allied agriculture activities.

The concept of entrepreneur and entrepreneurship incorporates basic qualities of leadership,

innovation, enterprise, hard work, vision and maximization of profits. All his socioeconomic,

Background 15

organizational and managerial qualities are always directed towards the well being of the society

and the community (Desai, 1997). Entrepreneurship is the process of creating something new with

value by devoting the necessary time and effort, assuming the accompanying financial, psychic,

and social risks, and receiving the resulting rewards of monetary and personal satisfaction and

independence (Peters, 1998). Bheemappa (2003) described entrepreneurship as the creative and

innovative response to the environment, which can take place in variety of fields of social

endeavour business, industry, agriculture, education, social work and it is the potent limiting factor

in economic development.

As Masurel (2007) points out, “sustainable entrepreneurship cannot be discussed without

mentioning innovation, because it has much to do with adopting new production technologies”.

Thus, innovation orientation is seen more as a covariate than as an antecedent, in predicting

sustainable entrepreneurship, but in this sense, sustainable entrepreneurship is viewed as an aspect

of innovativeness more generally. Furthermore, our rationale explores the possibility that less

innovative organizations are also less concerned about the environment, and focus only on

profitability, whereas more broadly innovative firms are also interested in providing new ideas that

benefit society more generally. This view is strongly promoted by Nidumolu, Prahalad and

Rangaswami (2009) who state that: “Sustainability = Innovation”.

2.6.2 Entrepreneurial behaviour

Minzberg (1976) stated that entrepreneurial behaviour is characterized by active search,

expansionist outlook and decision-making. Nandapurkar (1982) stated that entrepreneurial

behaviour consists of different components like farm decision making, innovativeness, risk taking

ability, achievement motivation, information seeking, knowledge of the farming, assistance of

management service, co-ordination of farm activities, cosmopoliteness and leadership ability.

Singh (1985) quoted the sociologist’s view that entrepreneurial behaviour is a function of social

structure, which can be influenced by the economic and social incentives inherent in it.

Porchezhian (1991) defined entrepreneurial behaviour as the degree to which a farmer strives to

maximize his profits by making a creative and innovative response to the environment through

diversification of enterprises. Nomeshkumar and Narayanaswamy (2000) defined entrepreneurial

behaviour as a combination of seven components viz., innovativeness, decision making ability,

achievement motivation, information seeking ability, risk taking ability, co-ordinating ability and

leadership ability. Vijaykumar (2001) operationalized entrepreneurial behaviour as the cumulative

outcome of information seeking behaviour, farm decision making, leadership ability, risk taking

ability, innovativeness, achievement motivation and market orientation of farmers. Narmatha et

al., (2002) stated that innovativeness, achievement motivation and risk orientation were the most

important components. And further, decision-making, innovativeness, management orientation,

Background 16

economic motivation, level of aspiration and risk orientation were found to be crucial in

influencing the entrepreneurial behaviour.

2.6.3 Innovativeness

Reddy (1997) revealed that majority (62.00%) of the entrepreneurs had medium innovativeness,

whereas 20 per cent of them had high, followed by low innovativeness (18%). Bhagyalaxmi et al.,

(2003) observed that majority (69.44%) of the entrepreneurs had medium innovativeness, followed

by 15.56 and 15.00 per cent of respondents having high and low innovativeness, respectively.

Nagesha (2005) observed that majority (63.30%) of the vegetable seed producing farmers had

medium innovativeness and equal per cent (18.30) of the respondents falling under low and high

innovativeness category.

2.6.4 Risk orientation

Vijaykumar (2001) indicated that 38.34, 35.00 and 26.66 per cent of entrepreneurs fell under low,

medium and high risk taking ability categories, respectively. Subramanyam (2002) revealed that

75.00 per cent of the trained farmers had medium risk preference, followed by high (13.34%) and

low (11.66%) levels of risk preference. Bhagyalaxmi et al., (2003) revealed that majority of the

entrepreneurs (75.56%) had medium risk orientation, followed by low (15.56%) and high

(13.33%) risk orientation categories. Suresh (2004) indicated that majority of dairy entrepreneurs

had medium level of risk taking ability, followed by low and high level at the rate of 62.02, 24.58

and 13.34 per cent, respectively. Nagesha (2005)concluded that majority (56.7%) of the vegetable

seed producing farmers had medium risk orientation followed by 22.5 and 20.8 per cent of the

respondents having low and high risk orientation, respectively. Pandeti (2005) found that 50.00 per

cent of the SC & ST farmers belong to medium risk taking ability, followed by 28.75 and 21.25

per cent of them belonging to high and low risk taking ability categories, respectively. Ngaesh

(2006) stated that most (85.84%) of the respondents had medium risk orientation followed by

10.00 and 4.16 per cent of the respondents having low and high risk orientation, respectively. Ravi

(2007) reported that majority (40.83%) of the farmers had low risk taking ability followed by high

(35.00%) and medium (24.17%) risk taking ability, respectively.

2.6.5 Information seeking behaviour

Chandrapaul (1998) revealed that 41.60 per cent of the entrepreneurs had low information seeking,

followed by medium (32.50%) and high (25.90%) information seeking categories. Kumar (2001)

observed that 41.66 per cent of the entrepreneurs had low information seeking, followed by

medium (32.50%) and high (25.90%) information seeking categories, respectively. Vijaykumar

(2001) reported that 41.66 per cent of entrepreneurs fell under low information seeking category

followed by 33.34 and 25.00 per cent of entrepreneurs fell under medium and high information

seeking categories, respectively. Suresh (2004) reported that majority of the dairy entrepreneurs

had medium level of information seeking behaviour, followed by high and low level with 68.75,

Background 17

17.08 and 14.17 percent, respectively. Pandeti (2005) found that majority (35.84%) of the farmers

had medium information seeking behaviour followed by low (34.16%) and high (30.00%)

information seeking behaviour categories, respectively.

2.6.6 Planning ability

Choudhary et al., (2006) revealed that 44.00 per cent of trained and 64.00 per cent of untrained

dairy farmers had poor, followed by moderate (42.00% and 32.00%, respectively) and good

(14.00% and 4.00% respectively) planning ability.

2.6.7 Self confidence

Choudhary et al., (2006) found that 49.00 per cent of trained dairy farmers had high self

confidence, followed by medium (43.00%) self-confidence and meagre per cent of trained dairy

farmers (8.00%) was found be in low self confidence. However, 48.00 per cent of untrained dairy

farmers had medium, followed by low (31.00) and high (21.00%) self confidence. “Increasing

agricultural output, and thereby farm income in agrarian nations is a prerequisite to all other forms

of economic and social development,” is the opinion of Sterling (1969). Thakur (1975) in case

study of dairy development impact reported, “Milk production per animal and marketed surplus in

case of cows and buffaloes was higher among weaker sections than among the medium and large

farmers in the experimental villages. This difference was less marked in the control villages. In the

experimental villages the use of improved agricultural inputs and total incomes were also found to

be higher”. Andreou (1979) stated that, it has allowed considerable progress to be made in the

establishment of new irrigation schemes and as a result the productivity and intensity of cropping

has much improved.

2.7 Economic impact

Wilkening (1953) found that high adoption of improved farm practices was associated with high

adoption of housing and home equipment items and of other selected home practices. Singh (1972)

observed that the improved technology had been more effective in increasing employment of

labour. Vyas and Rodenacker (1974) concluded that apart from their impact on agricultural

development, processing units create new employment opportunities in the rural areas and that too

in the “off-season”. This relieves unemployment and under- employment in agriculture and helps

to diversify the rural occupational pattern. Khetwal (1977) concluded in her case or spot study,

“establishment of agro-processing industries to change the cropping pattern in favour or labour

intensive crops has the advantages of creating additional on-going employment in both farming

sectors of the rural areas, thus raising the incomes of cultivators”. Saxena et al., (1978) stated,

“Dairying improved village economy of district Mehsana”. The overall result showed that dairy

farming has increased, cash incomes are generated and capital has been attracted in the area, and

per capita consumption of milk has increased. The numbers of animals, milk production, and

equipment through dairy farming have also increased”.

Background 18

2.8 Social impact

Barnabas (1969) reported that changes occurred in the life of most the villagers. The aspects were

food habits, clothing pattern, family life, material possession, changes in agricultural practices,

education for girls and change in yield levels of crops. Acharya (1963), Dasgupta (1964), Parikh

(1966), Singh (1967), Desai (1969), Chandana (1969), Singh (1969, 1970), Singh (1971), Sisodia

(1971), Saran (1974), Parduman Kumar (1974), Sharma (1975), Deb et al., (1975), Charan (1976)

and Sundara and Deb (1977) reported that the impact of technological change showed overall

increase in output of crops, increase in net farm income, improvement in the level of living,

changes in the social structure, level of education, shifts in occupation from farm to non-farm job,

change in attitudes and values of rural people and increase in contact with urban areas and

extension agencies.

Dinesh (1969) noted, “a network of new ideas have come up which facilitates better

communication providing spatial mobility which is a major variable in the process of reorientation

of the value system. New educational, medical and recreational facilities have sprung up in the

rural areas which were otherwise far away from modernity”. The emergence of township in rural

areas has also changed the outlook of the farmer. The traditional way of thinking in terms of value

ideals etc. have been replaced by a modern way of thinking.

2.9 Need of organic farming

The intensification of the agricultural sector has led to a row of environmental problems (World

Resources Institute, 1998). Terry and Langner (2005) say that organic farming requires very little

inputs and cuts down the use of external inputs, in other words it can also be termed as “low- input

farming” and “from the producers perspective it is economically sound and viable.” (Terry &

Langner, 2005).They terms it as a “sophisticated alternative agricultural system”.

CHAPTER III

GENERAL RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

Research methods and techniques followed in conducting this research investigation are presented

in this chapter. The various aspects included in this chapter have been organized under the

following sub heads:

3.1 Research design

3.2 Locale of the study

3.3 Selection of sample

3.4 Methods of data collection

3.5 Operationalization and measurement of variables

3.6 Statistical tools used in data analysis

3.2 Research design

Research design is the entire process of planning and carrying out research. Kerlinger (1978)

defined “Research design as the plan, structure, and strategy of investigation so as to obtain

answers to research questions and to control variance”. The plan is the overall scheme or

programme of research. The ex-post facto research design was used in the present study, as the

manifestations of the variables presumably had already occurred and there was no scope for

manipulation of any variable. According to Kerlinger (1964) an ex-post facto research is a

systematic empirical enquiry in which the researcher does not have direct control over the

variables because their manifestations have already occurred or because they are inherently not

manipulable.

3.3 Locale of the study

The study was conducted in purposively selected Idukki district of Kerala state as intensive spice

cultivations especially, organic cardamom production and certification are taken up by many

agencies in the area and it is known as spice district of Kerala. Kerala is an Indian state located on

the Malabar Coast of south-west India. The state has an area of 38,863 km2 (15,005 sq mi) and is

bordered by Karnataka to the north and northeast, Tamil Nadu to the east and south, and the

Arabian Sea on the west. Lying between north latitudes 8°18' and 12°48' and east longitudes

74°52' and 77°22', Kerala experiences humid equatorial tropic climate. Geographically, Kerala can

be divided into three climatically distinct regions: the eastern highlands (rugged and cool

mountainous terrain), the central midlands (rolling hills), and the western lowlands (coastal

plains). With 120–140 rainy days per year, Kerala has a wet and maritime tropical climate

influenced by the seasonal heavy rains of the southwest summer monsoon. In eastern Kerala, a

General Research Methodology 20

drier tropical wet and dry climate prevails. Some of Kerala's drier lowland regions average only

1,250 mm (49 in.); the mountains of eastern Idukki district receive more than 5,000 mm (197 in.)

of precipitation, the highest in the state. Much of Kerala's notable biodiversity is concentrated and

protected in the Western Ghats. Almost a fourth of India's 10,000 plant species are found in the

state. Three of the world’s Ramsar Convention listed wetlands—Lake Sasthamkotta, Ashtamudi

lake and the Vembanad-Kol wetlands—are in Kerala, as well as 1455.4 km² of the vast Nilgiri

Biosphere Reserve.

A key agricultural staple is rice, with some six hundred varieties grown in Kerala's extensive

paddy fields. Nevertheless, home gardens comprise a significant portion of the agricultural sector.

Related animal husbandry is also important, and is touted by proponents as a means of alleviating

rural poverty and unemployment among women, the marginalized, and the landless.

Kerala is one of the pioneer states in India that had started efforts towards organic movement at

government level. The state Department of Agriculture started promoting organic farming through

setting up a separate cell for the promotion of sustainable agriculture and organic farming seven

years back in 2002-03. It is also claimed that Kerala has a rich potential for the promotion of

organic farming since the inorganic agriculture in the state is not that severe compared to other

states in the country. Spices have gained attention in organic farming sector along with food crops

as spices constitute an important component of Indias’s agricultural export basket. Export potential

mainly depends on major spices like pepper, cardamom, vanilla and some minor spices.

Cardamom the Queen of all spices has a history as old as human race. It is one of the high priced

spices in the world.

The late 1960’s witnessed the dawn of active and organised cardamom cultivation in Idukki

district in central Kerala. The pioneers of organised cardamom farming were progressive farmers

from the Cumbum and Bodinaykanur regions of TamilNadu. Farmers from central Kerala who

were involved in other farming activities also made their entry into the hills of Idukki and created

settlements all over Idukki region. Geographically known for its Mountainous Hills and Dense

Forests, Idukki is a beautiful and the largest district of Kerala. It is always associated with the

generation of power. The Hydroelectric power projects of Idukki fulfil around 66 per cent of the

State's Power needs. Idukki covers around 12.9 per cent of the area of Kerala and only 3.7 percent

of the population of Kerala. About 97 per cent of the total area of the District is covered by rugged

mountains and forests. Fifty percent of Idukki’s area is covered by Reserved Forests. There is only

a strip of Middle land around 3 per cent in the western part of the district. Low land area is totally

absent in the district. Located in the middle part of Kerala, the District is bound on the East by

Madurai district of Tamil Nadu state while on the west by Ernakulam and Kottayam districts of

Kerala. In the South it is bordered by the Pathanamthitta district, while on the North it is bound by

Trichur and Coimbatore districts of Kerala and Tamil Nadu states respectively. It lies between 9


degree 15' and 10 degree 21' of north latitude and 76 degree 37' and 77 degree 25' of east

longitudes.

There are eight community development blocks: Devikulam, Adimali, Nedumkandom, Azhutha,

Kattappana, Idukki, Elamdesom and Thodupuzha. There are 51 Panchayaths in the district.

Thodupuzha is the only Municipality and Idukki is the only township in the district. This district

has several protected areas including: Periyar Tiger Reserve in the south, Kurinjimala Sanctuary to

the east, Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary to the north east, Eravikulam National Park and Anamudi

Shola National Park to the north, Pampadum Shola National Park to the south and Thattekad Bird

Sanctuary in the west. These protected areas are especially known for several threatened and

endemic species including Tiger, Nilgiri Thar, Grizzled Giant Squirrel, Nilgiri Wood-pigeon,

Elephant, Gaur, and Neelakurinji. Idukki is known for the splendid green mountains, streams and

spices.

3.4 Sampling and data collection:

Idukki district has eight blocks; out of which, three blocks namely, Udumbanchola, Devikulam and

Peermadu are mainly growing organic cardamom. These three blocks were selected purposively.

From each selected block, one village was selected randomly and from each village, 30 organic

cardamom growers and 10 inorganic cardamom growers were selected randomly for the study. For

examining the institutional and structural frame work of government and non government agencies

for the promotion of organic agri-enterprises, 10 officials from each block were selected

purposively for study.


3.4.1 Variables and their measurement

The appropriate variables for the present study were prepared based on the objectives of the study,

review of literature and discussion with experts. Details of the variables and their measurements

are mentioned in Table 3.4.1.1.

Table 3.4.1.1: Variables and their measurements S.No. VARIABLES MEASUREMENT I. Socio-personal variables 1 Age Chronological age (in years) 2 Educational status No. of years of formal education 3 Family type Schedule developed 4 Family size Number of family members 5 Occupational status Schedule developed 6 Experience in farming Number of years engaged in farming 7 Experience in organic farming Number of years engaged in organic farming 8 Possession of assets Schedule developed II. Socio-economic variables 9 Land size Actual land owned in Hectares 10 Area under organic farming In hectare 11 Assets owned Worth of assets owned in Rupees 12 Water source Schedule developed 13 Type of house Schedule developed 14 Annual income Income in Rupees in a year. 15 Type of farming Schedule developed 16 Allied agricultural activities Schedule developed 17 Share of agriculture in total income Schedule developed 18 Social class Schedule developed 19 Social participation Scale by Trivedi(1963) III. Psycho-personal variables 20 Aspirations Modified test developed by Muthayya (1971) 21 Risk taking willingness Scale developed by Mishra (1979) 22 Innovation proneness Scale developed by Moulik (1965) IV. Facilitative factors / Variables 23 Entrepreneurial competencies PEC scale developed by ICECD, 1988 24 Extent of adoption of organic practices Adoption index developed V. Inhibitive factors / Variables 25 Constraints and Problems Non-parametric tests

3.4.2 Measurement of Socio-economic Variables

1) Age: Age was measured as the number of chronological years completed by the

respondent at the time of investigation.

2) Educational status: This refers to the years of formal education achieved by the respondent.

To measure this variable scoring pattern developed by Trivedi (1963) was adopted with

some modifications in the present study.


Category Score Illiterate 0 Can read only 1 Can read and sign only 2 Primary school 3 High School 4 Secondary school 5 Graduate 6 Post graduate and above 7

3) Occupational status: Occupational status refers to the major activity of the respondent in

which he or she was involved for most part of the day, and which generates the major part of

family income. For this, an arbitrary scoring system was developed as follows:

Category ScoreFulltime Farmer 1 Farming and services 2 Farming and business 3

4) Family type: This refers to the type of the family to which the respondent belongs to. For this,

an arbitrary scoring system was developed as follows

Category ScoreNuclear Family 1 Joint Family 2 Extended family 3

5) Family size: This refers to the total number of family members of the respondent.

6) Type of house: This refers to the kind of house possessed by the respondent. For that, an

arbitrary scoring system was developed as given below.

Category Score Thatched 1 Tiled 2 Old Concrete 3 Modern Concrete 4

7) Total land size: The extent of land an individual possessed and cultivated is termed as land

holding. The size of land that the respondent possessed was taken as his land holding and total

land size was measured as the total owned land in acres.

8) Area under organic cultivation: The size of land in which the respondent was practicing

organic farming was taken as his area under organic cultivation and that was measured in

acres.


9) Experience in farming: This refers to the total number of chronological years the respondent

has been engaged in farming.

10) Experience in organic farming: This refers to the total number of years the respondent has

been engaged in organic farming.

11) Type of farming: This refers to the kind of farming methods the respondent was adopted in

his farm and coding is as follows: coding is only for the easy representation.

Category Code Monoculture 1 Crop Rotation 2 Dry land Farming 3 Mixed and Multistoried 4 Mixed Farming 5

12) Crops grown in the farm: This refers to the total number of different crops including

vegetables grown on commercial basis by the respondent. To measure this variable the total

number of crops grown on commercial basis itself was taken as the score.

13) Allied agricultural activities: This refers to the different agricultural related activities that the

respondent was practicing along with the cultivation of different crops. For this, an arbitrary

scoring system was developed as follows:

Category Code Cattle/ Goat/ Piggery/ Rabbit 1 Poultry/Duck 2 Bee Keeping 3 Fish 4 Others 5

For each category the presence (or absence) is recorded by one (or zero)

14) Share of agriculture in total household income: This refers to the contribution of agriculture

and allied sector of the respondent towards his/her family income. For this, an arbitrary coding

system was developed as follows:

Category CodeFrom farming alone 2 Partially from farming 1 Not at all from farming 0

15) Irrigation potential: This refers to the availability of water to irrigate the crop in the farm. To

measure this variable the scoring pattern used by Bonny (1991) was adopted.

Category Score Throughout the year 2 Seasonal 1 Not assured 0


16) Water source: This refers to the source of water to which the respondent is depending for

meeting the farm and home requirements. For this, an arbitrary coding system was developed

as follows:

Category Code Well 1 Pond/Tank 2 Canal 3 River 4 Bore well 5

17) Farmer’s perception of his farming method: This refers to the attitude of the respondent

about the farming method he/ she has adopted in his/her farm. For this, an arbitrary scoring

system was developed as follows:

Category Score Traditional 1 Modern 2 Partly Organic 3 Fully Organic 4

18) Resources for organic farming: This refers to the source of various inputs that have been

used for organic cultivation. For that, a simple arbitrary coding procedure was developed as

follows:

Category CodeOn-farm resources 1 Off-farm resources 0

19) Farming group membership: This refers to the involvement of the respondent in any farmer

group either as a member or as an office bearer. If the respondent is a member of any farming

group a score ‘1’ was given, else a score ‘0’ was given and if he/she are the office bearer then

score ‘2’was given to measure this variable.

20) Other organization membership: This refers to the involvement of the respondent in any

organization other than the farmer group. If the respondent is a member of any other

organization a score ‘1’ was given, else a score ‘0’ was given and if they are the office bearer

then score ‘3’was given to measure this variable. Organization mainly considered were Co-

operative society, Youth club, Socio-cultural organization, Organic farming associations,

Religious committee. Also provided amble scope for mentioning the other organizations under

the mentioned ‘Others (specify)’ group.


3.5 Psychological Variables

3.5.1 Aspirations

According to Haller (1968), an aspiration usually refers to a person’s or a group of person’s

orientation towards a goal. A goal can vary in kind and is usually described with reference to a

particular social status or status attributes like occupation, income, education, residence and so on.

High and low level of aspirations is used to indicate relative level of goal specifications.

Aspirations are goal statements concerning future level of achievement. These are reflective of

individual’s concept of future prospects and act as a self motivation force as well. Questions

covering certain areas of individual needs such as education to son and daughter, increase in

income and growth of farm size were developed based on scale developed by Muthayya (1971).

The respondents were asked to indicate their aspiration for their children’s education, income and

growth of the farm in next three years. Increase in income was calculated by subtracting the

present level from the aspired level. The raw scores then were converted into standard scores

following the method given by Muthayya (1971) and Garrett (1966) for each of the three areas of

individual needs. An average of standard scores earned by an individual in these areas of his needs

was taken as his level of aspiration. Scoring procedure has been given in Appendix III.

Quartiles Scores I Up to 45 II 46-49 III 50-54 IV >54

3.5.2 Risk taking willingness

As pointed out by Mehta (1978) the term risk taking willingness in case of entrepreneurs refers to

one’s pro-activity to seek challenge in his activity; challenge here means such tasks in which there

is a reasonable chance of success. Success depends not on chance but on one’s own effort. An

entrepreneur likes to exert and test his own ability. He shows a tendency to take moderate risks and

to seek challenging situation. Setting of a moderately difficult goal leaving aside the very and very

risky goal is an important factor for the success.

In the present investigation ‘Risk taking willingness’ has been studied as an entrepreneurial trait.

Risk taking willingness is conceived here as a concept of taking challenge in a given situation,

where the respondent is not satisfied with the present outcome and he strives for some additional

pay off.

1) Measurement of risk taking willingness

A modified form of choice dilemma procedure has been developed for measuring risk taking

willingness of the respondents in this study. Wallach and Kogan (1959, 1961), Kogan and Wallach


(1961) and Wallach, Kogan and Bem (1962) also adopted a similar measure of risk taking

willingness. Some attempts to modify it to suit to different situation were also made in some past

studies. Jaiswal (1965) modified this scale by projecting risky situations different from those of

Kogan and Wallach (1965). A similar modification was brought about by Singh (1972) in the scale

developed by Kogan and Wallach (1961) to measure the risk taking willingness of farm

entrepreneurs.

In the present investigation a two dimensional measure was developed to account for the risk

taking willingness of the respondents. These dimensions were,

(1) The various levels of probability of success and

(2) The action preferred (in the situation) by the respondents.

In this case the level of probability of success was made known to the respondents, thus, the

respondents were supposed only to endorse the task with a particular probability of success that he

would like to perform.

2) Probability of risk taking and measurement

Probability of risk Score No risk 1 20 percent risk 2 50 percent risk 3 80 percent risk 4 100 percent risk 5

In case a respondent prefer to take action (yes response) at any level of risk he will get the score

assigned to that level, otherwise (no response) he will get a score of zero. For example, if a

respondent prefers action (‘yes’) at ‘no risk’ level he would get a score of one but he prefers no

action (‘no’) at the same risk level, he would secure a score of zero. Similarly, if the probability of

risk is 100 percent and the respondent prefers to take action (‘yes’) he would score of 5 and in case

prefers not to take action (‘no’) he would secure a score of zero. Thus a respondent in this case can

get a minimum score of zero and maximum of 15, if he prefers to take action in all cases, whatever

may be the probability of success. One’s risk taking willingness score in this case was also

worked out by averaging the total score obtained by him. A final risk taking willingness score for

an individual respondent was worked out by pooling his risk taking willingness score obtained

under the four risk situations and then working out the scores by dividing it by four.

3.5.3 Innovation proneness

Introduction of new technology and its adoption is essential for farming system to obtain higher

profits on a sustained basis. Its adoption indicates innovative behaviour of agripreneurs. A farmer

who views himself to the innovation proneness is likely to obtain higher yield. The self rating

innovation proneness scale (Moulik, 1965) was used to measure the innovation proneness of

farmers. It consisted of three sets of statements. Each set of statements consisted of three short


statements with weights 3, 2 and 1 indicating innovation proneness in high, medium and low

degree respectively. The forced choice method was followed to overcome the familiar problems of

personal bias and level of objectivity in self evaluation. This method forced the respondent to

choose from a group of statements to measure their innovation level which is one of their

important personality characteristics.

After attaining the most-least like statements from each of three sets of treatments, the scoring was

done by summing up the ratio of weight of most like statements to the least like statements. So, the

maximum possible score is nine. As there were three sets of statements of innovation proneness,

the sum of ratios for these three sets was the respondents self rating score for innovation

proneness. The respondents were classified as low, medium and high categories based on the

procedure of arithmetic mean and standard deviation.

1) Levels of Innovation proneness

Category Score Low (1-3) 0 Medium (3.1-6.0) 1 High (6.1-9.0) 2

3.5.4 Entrepreneurial competencies

Competencies have been defined as underlying characteristics of a person which results in

effective, superior and desirable performance on activity. Competencies are related set of skills,

knowledge and attributes which jointly determine level of performance on a job. Personal

Entrepreneurial Competence (PEC) instrument developed by International Centre for

Entrepreneurship and Career Development (ICECD), Ahmedabad (1988) was used in present

investigation. PEC Instrument measures thirteen entrepreneurial competencies which have been

operationalised as below:

1. Initiative

Does things before being asked of force by events

2. Opportunity seeking

Acts to extend the business into new areas, product or services

Seizes unusual opportunities to start a new business, obtains finances, equipment, land,

workspace or assistance

3. Persistence

Takes action in case of a significant obstacle.

Takes repeated actions or switches to an alternative strategy to meet a challenge or

overcome an obstacle


Takes personal responsibility for the performance necessary to achieve goals and

objectives

4. Information seeking

Personally seeks information from clients, suppliers and competitors

Does personal research on hoe to provide a product or service

Consultancy experts for business and seeks technical advice

5. Quality

Find ways to do the things better, faster and cheaper

Work meets agreed upon standard qualities

6. Commitment to the work contact

Makes a personal sacrifice or expands extraordinary effort to complete a job

Pitches in with workers or in their place to get a job done

Strives to keep customers satisfied and places long-term good will over short-term gain

7. Demand for efficacy

Acts to do things that meet or exceed standards of excellence

Develops or uses procedure to ensure work is completed on time

8. Systematic planning and monitoring

Plans by breaking large tasks down into time constrained sub tasks

Revises plans in light of feedback on performance or changing circumstances

Keeps financial records and uses them to make business decisions

9. Problem solving

Solves problems by proper strategizing

Thinks of various alternatives and new ways of solving problems

Looks for solution rather than being fatalistic

10. Self confidence

Expresses confidence in own ability to complete a difficult task or meet a challenge

Hopeful of finding ways on the basis of self competence

11. Assertiveness

Asserts in the face, if there is opposition or ambiguity

12. Persuasion

Uses deliberate strategies to influence others

Uses key people as agents to accomplish his or her own objectives


Uses strategy to persuade others

13. Influence

Exercises indirect control by influencing others

The details of PEC instrument and its scoring key are enclosed in Appendix II.

3.6 Measurement of sustainability of organic farming

The sustainability aspects of various organic farming practices were measured through a tool

which had been undertaken with indicators adapted to local situation. For that an index was

developed that contains a set of twelve items of three dimensions of sustainability viz., Ecological,

Economic and Social. Responses were scored on a 5-point continuum ranging from 0 = ‘Strongly

Disagree’ to 4 = ‘Strongly Agree’ for all statements. The statements for the three dimensions of

sustainability are given in Appendix III.

3.7 Measurement of constraints of organic farming

For the measurement of constraints in the promotion of organic farming five dimensions of

constraints were analyzed through a rating scale developed for the purpose, that contains a set of

twenty three questions on i) Technological constraints, ii) Economic constraints, iii) Personal

constraints, iv) Certification constraints, v) Ecological constraints.

Responses were obtained on a 3-point continuum ranging from 1=Not Severe to 3=Most Severe

for all statements. The statements under each dimension are given in Appendix III.

These constraints were compared using Kruskal-Wallis one-way ANOVA. Each set of constraints

contains sub categories and they were tested by using Friedman’s two way analysis of variance.

3.8 Analysis of structural and technical frame work of the institutions

For collecting the information regarding the structural and technical frame work of the institutions

interview schedules were developed. One schedule was given to the officers and another one

schedule to the farmers, for cross checking the responses. These schedules are given in Appendix

III.

3.9 Reasons for organic cardamom farming

For identifying the reasons for organic cardamom cultivation, identified and screened eight

statements were selected. They were high price of organic produce, chemical free food

production, reduction of environmental pollution, low cost of cultivation, high domestic market for

organic produce, high export market, financial support from the government, encouragement of

group farming and marketing respectively. These statements were given to the farmers for

preference ranking. Most preferred statement was to get rank 1 and least preferred was to get rank

8. For measuring the significant difference Friedman’s test was used. Test statistics is given in

Table 1 in Appendix I.


3.10 Economic impact

3.10.1 Change in employment

Increase in employment as a result of the organic cardamom cultivation was a significant variable

to assess the impact of the innovation. It was measured as the difference in days of employment

and number of members employed in past and the present as a result of adopting organic

cardamom cultivation. Scoring procedure is given in Appendix III.

3.10.2 Change in income

Increase in income as a result of organic cardamom cultivation was measured as difference in

income of farm families between organic cardamom farmers and the non organic cardamom

farmers. Simple method to record only the change was adopted and scored as per the procedure

given in Appendix III.

3.10.3 Change in saving

Increase in saving as a result of the organic cardamom cultivation was measured as the difference

in savings of farm families between the previous saving and the present saving as per procedures

given in Appendix III.

3.10.4 Change in spending pattern

Increase in family expenditure denotes economic mobility in terms of economic investment and

expenditure of the family. It was measured as the respondent’s perceived change in expenditure

pattern as per procedures given in Appendix III.

3.10.5 Change in possession of assets

Change in possession of assets is an important indicator of impact of organic cardamom

cultivation. It was measured as the difference in value of assets owned at present and before

organic cardamom cultivation or 10 years back for non organic cardamom farmers. Simple method

of recording of the changes in possession of assets was developed as given in Appendix III.

3.11 Statistical tools used

1) Frequency and Percentage: Frequency is the number of occurrences. In statistics the

frequency (fi) of an event i is the number ni of times the event occurred in the experiment or

the study.

Percentage i

ii

f100

f= ×∑

2) Measures of central tendency:

(a) Arithmetic mean: The mean is the value arrived at by dividing the sum of observations by

total number of observations

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Event_(probability_theory)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiment


Arithmetic Mean = Sum of elements / Number of elements

= a1+a2+a3+.....+an/n

(b) Median: It is a numerical value separating the higher half of a sample from the lower half.

The median of a finite list of numbers can be found by arranging all the observations from

lowest value to highest value and picking the middle one. If there is an even number of

observations, then there is no single middle value; the median is then usually defined to be the

mean of the two middle values.

(c) Mode: The mode is the number that appears most often in a set of numbers.

3) Student’s t-test: It is used to test the null hypothesis that the means of two normally

distributed populations are equal.

4) Wilcoxon-Mann–Whitney’s test: It is a non-parametric statistical test for assessing whether

one of two samples of independent observations tends to have larger values than the other. It is

a non-parametric equivalent of Student’s t-test.

5) Kruskal–Wallis one-way analysis of variance: It is a non-parametric method for testing

whether samples originate from the same distribution. It is used for comparing more than two

samples that are independent, or not related. The parametric equivalence of the Kruskal-Wallis

test is the one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). The factual null hypothesis is that the

populations from which the samples originate have the same median. When the Kruskal-

Wallis test leads to significant results, then at least one of the samples is different from the

other samples. It is an extension of the Mann–Whitney U test to 3 or more groups.

6) Friedman’s test: It is a non-parametric statistical test for testing whether samples originate

from the same distribution. It is used for comparing more than two samples that are related.

When the Friedman’s test leads to significant results, then at least one of the samples is

different from the other samples.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic_mean

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expected_value

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_distribution

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_distribution

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-parametric_statistics

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_hypothesis_test

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampling_%28statistics%29


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Median

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mann%E2%80%93Whitney_U


CHAPTER IVRESEARCH PAPER - I

Technological and Methodological Innovations in Cardamom Production with Special Emphasis on the Adoption of Organic

Cultivation

Abstract: In this paper, technological and methodological innovations developed and followed by

the organic and inorganic cardamom farmers had been studied and the reasons for the adoption of

organic cardamom production were identified. The results of the study on different aspects of

extent of adoption in case of organic and inorganic farmers clearly showed that most of the

practicing farmers were innovative in the complete adoption of all the relevant technologies as per

the package of practices. Organic cardamom growers were found to be more innovative in the

adoption of practices like planting material selection based on farmer selection and local selection,

the water and soil conservation technologies, and different ways of plant protection measures that

contribute higher benefit for the overall improvement of their farmland and the income generating

capacity of farmers. Extent of adoption of the various cultivation aspects showed the innovative

nature of the farmers. Their greater concern for the pollution free environment, chemical free

produce, and increased demand for the organic cardamom in the international and the domestic

markets drove them energetically to adopt organic farming practices in cardamom. Concreted

extension efforts are needed for the rapid spread of the eco-friendly available practices and

technologies.

Keywords: Technological and methodological innovations; Extent of adoption; Reasons of

adoption

4(1).1 Introduction

An innovation is an idea, practices, or object perceived as new by an individual or other unit of

adoption (Roger, 2003). Many of the identified innovations in the agricultural field are

technological and methodological in nature. Schumpeter (1960) identified innovation as the critical

dimension of economic change. He argued that economic change revolves around innovation,

entrepreneurial activities and market power. Innovation can take many forms. It does not require

inventing something wholly new; it can simply involve applying an existing idea in a new way or

to a new situation.

Our economy based on agriculture and innovative farmers are very much essential for food

sustenance. India is a growing economic power among the developing nations. But, we are not

able to feed a large portion of our population. Even if we are feeding significant portion of the

population, the chemical free food for the healthy living of the human is not available in sufficient

quantity. If the situation persists for a longer time, the greatest challenge that the nation is going to

Technological and Methodological Innovations in Cardamom Production with Special Emphasis on the Adoption of Organic Cultivation 34

face in the coming years will be to provide safe food for its growing population. In this regard,

organic farming which is a holistic production management system for promoting and enhancing

health of agro-ecosystem, has gained wide recognition as a valid alternative to conventional food

production system to ensure safe food for human consumption (Bhattacharya and Krishna, 2003).

In a state like Kerala, where cash crops are being exported to other nations and contributing a

major portion to the national income, organic production of the spices is very much sensational.

The homestead farming model which is popularly known as ‘Organic by Default’ in the state has

the potential to emerge out as the main source of knowledge to the organic spice cultivation to a

certain extent if farmers can take the advantage of the existing homestead models (John, 2007).

Cardamom, ‘The Queen of Spices’ is now enjoying the status of organic spice in the state. It is

mainly due to the adoption of methodological and technological innovations by the farmers and its

popularization in the state especially in the spice district ‘Idukki’.

A number of factors are associated with the adoption of organic cultivation practices among the

cardamom farming community viz., the willingness to change and operate in diverse ways, the

ability to face challenges, love for land and region, and the ability to overcome obstacles related to

markets and to search of traditions and new information. All these attributes make organic farmers

different from others (Duram, 1999). Organic farmers had better environmental orientation than

inorganic farmers. The organic farmers were treating their farms as a living organism and they

were mostly using locally available inputs in their farming which did not harm the environment

(Jaganathan, 2009).

Cardamom farmers were following the package of practices recommendations of the organic

farming in exact and modified form suited for their farming system, without compromising the

quality standards for marketing. These innovations made success stories in Idukki. Considering all

these facts, this study was planned to analyze the technological and methodological innovation

followed invariably by the organic and inorganic cardamom farmers with special emphasis on

reasons for adopting organic cultivation practices for the sustainable development of the farming

system.

4(1).2 Methodology

Identification of the innovations followed by the cardamom growers is important in the present

context of economic contribution of this particular crop to Indian economy. Innovative farmers of

the study area were following the cultivation practices as per the standards and with slight

modifications.

A survey approach was used to study the innovations and extent of adoption. Ninety farmers who

were actively involved in organic cardamom farming and thirty farmers following inorganic

cardamom cultivation were selected from three blocks of Idukki district and that formed a random

sample of one hundred and twenty respondents. The extent of adoption of the various practices


were analysed using a continuum from no adoption to modified and adopted. Using this continuum

extent of adoption of the package of practices of each technology was measured and frequency of

different adoption categories was worked out using the frequency analysis.

For the identification of the reasons for organic cultivation, statements were framed for organic

farmers only. Major reasons for the organic cultivation of the cardamom were identified by giving

rank to the selected statements.

A semi-structured schedule that includes all cultivation aspects and eight major factors was

developed for data collection and responses were collected through interview method. The

respondents were asked to rate the adopted practices and rank these eight factors while adopting

the cultivation practices and organic farming based on their view point as well as from their

experience of cardamom cultivation. Those statements based on the ranks, were analysed based on

Friedman’s test. Based on the mean ranks of the Friedman’s test they were grouped using the

multiple comparison technique.

4(1).3 Results and Discussions

In technological and methodological innovations adoption category for the planting material

selection showed that 73.3 per cent of farmers fully adopted the organic farming practices as per

the package of practices. In the case of inorganic farmers, frequency for the full adoption category

was less (56.7 per cent) as compared to organic farmers. Organic cardamom growers were mostly

selecting local selection varieties for full adoption (37.8 per cent). But in the case of inorganic

cardamom growers greater preference was for the improved varieties in full adoption. Some of the

organic cardamom growers were making some modifications in all the planting material while

selecting. Whereas such modifications were absent in the case of the inorganic cardamom growers.

Invariably organic and inorganic cardamom farmers were following sucker method of propagation,

and the planting in field technologies as per the package of practices. Adoption of the weed

management widely varied. Partial adoption was followed in the case of time and number of

weeding. But in case of type of weeding majority (70.0 per cent for organic and 73.3 per cent for

inorganic) were fully adopting the package of practices. Earthing up and thrashing were two

important cultural practices followed in the cardamom plantations. Method of thrashing was fully

adopted (100 per cent) without any modification by the cardamom farmers. For irrigation practices

organic cardamom farmers showed much variation in case of mulching. It varied from no adoption

to complete adoption. Partial adoption category also contributed a minor proportion (15.6 per

cent). In soil and water conservation practices more modifications were found among the organic

cardamom growers (23.3 per cent). Majority of the cardamom growers followed the

recommendations as such. Manuring and shade regulation practices were adopted for the healthy

growth of the cardamom plants. Shade trees were properly pruned and maintained during the entire

cropping year without much deviation from full adopted category. Bee keeping was widely


adopted by the organic cardamom farmers as a facilitating agent for pollination in cardamom. Only

in the organic condition the proper maintenance of the bee colonies were possible. It is evident

from the Table 4(1).3.1 that inorganic cultivation was not suitable for bee keeping practices. Even

if one may try to do so, poisoning of the colonies would happen and they would not be able to

maintain bee colonies. Plant protection measures were also followed as per the recommendations.

They were trying to incorporate new varieties by local selection and farmer selection which were

tolerant to pest and diseases.

Table 4(1).3.1: Summary table of technology adoption

No adoption

Partial adoption

Full adoption

Modified adoption No Technology

ORG (90)

INORG (30)

ORG (90)

INORG (30)

ORG (90)

INORG (30)

ORG (90)

INORG (30)

I Selection of planting materials

0 (0)

0 (0)

12 (13.3)

13 (43.3)

66 (73.3)

17 (56.7)

12 (13.3)

0 (0)

a Improved variety 68 (75.6)

18 (60.0)

1 (1.1)

4 (13.3)

16 (17.8)

8 (26.7)

5 (5.6)

0 (0)

b Local selection 43 (47.8)

14 (46.7)

8 (8.9)

9 (30.0)

34 (37.8)

7 (23.3)

5 (5.6)

0 (0)

c Farmers selection 69 (76.7)

28 (93.3)

3 (3.3)

0 (0)

16 (17.8)

2 (6.7)

2 (2.2)

0 (0)

II Propagation methods

0 (0)

0 (0)

1 (1.1)

0 (0)

89 (98.9)

30 (100.0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

a Seedlings 90 (100)

30 (100)

0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

b Suckers 0 (0)

0 (0)

1 (1.1)

0 (0)

89 (98.9)

30 (100)

0 (0)

0 (0)

III Planting in field 0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

90 (100)

30 (100)

0 (0)

0 (0)

a Land preparation

0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

90 (100)

30 (100)

0 (0)

0 (0)

b Spacing 0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

90 (100)

30 (100)

0 (0)

0 (0)

c Pit size 0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

90 (100)

30 (100)

0 (0)

0 (0)

d Pit preparation 0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

90 (100)

30 (100)

0 (0)

0 (0)

e Planting time 0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

90 (100)

30 (100)

0 (0)

0 (0)

IV Weed management

27 (30)

8 (26.7)

20 (22.2)

7 (23.3)

20 (22.2)

7 (23.3)

23 (25.6)

8 (26.7)

a No of weeding 0 (0)

0 (0)

67 (74.4)

22 (73.3)

23 (25.6)

8 (26.7)

0 (0)

0 (0)

b Time of weeding 0 (0)

0 (0)

47 (52.2)

15 (50.0)

43 (47.8)

15 (50.0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

c Type of weeding 0 (0)

0 (0)

27 (30.0)

8 (26.7)

63 (70.0)

22 (73.3)

0 (0)

0 (0)

V Trashing 0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

4 (4.4)

10 (33.3)

86 (95.6)

20 (66.7)

a Method 0 0 0 0 90 30 0 0


(0) (0) (0) (0) (100) (100) (0) (0)

b Time 0 (0)

0 (0)

4 4.4

10 (33.3)

86 95.6

20 (66.7)

0 (0)

0 (0)

VI Earthing up 0 (0)

4 (13.3)

0 (0)

2 (6.7)

15 (16.7)

9 (30.0)

75 (83.3)

15 (50.0)

a Method 0 (0)

4 (13.3)

0 (0)

2 (6.7)

90 (100)

24 (80.0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

b Time 0 (0)

4 (13.3)

15 (16.7)

11 (36.7)

75 (83.3)

15 (50.0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

VII Irrigation management

0 (0)

0 (0)

8 (8.9)

2 (6.7)

14 (15.6)

4 (13.3)

68 (68)

24 (80.0)

a Irrigation time 0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

90 (100)

30 (100)

0 (0)

0 (0)

b Mulching 8 (8.9)

2 (6.7)

14 (15.6)

4 (13.3)

68 (75.6)

24 (80.0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

VIII Soil and water conservation technology

8 (8.9)

1 (3.3)

25 (27.8)

14 (46.7)

36 (40.0)

8 (26.7)

21 (23.3)

0 (0)

a Water harvesting 48 (53.3)

9 (30.0)

32 (35.6)

13 (43.3)

10 (11.1)

8 (26.7)

0 (0)

0 (0)

b Bunding 0 (0)

1 (3.3)

13 (14.4)

6 (20.0)

43 (47.8)

23 (76.7)

34 (37.8)

0 (0)

IX Manuring 2 (2.2)

0 (0)

4 (4.4)

1 (3.3)

46 (51.1)

7 (23.3)

38 (42.2)

22 (73.3)

a Time 2 (2.2)

0 (0)

19 (21.1)

6 (20.0)

69 (76.7)

24 (80.0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

b Dose 2 (2.2)

0 (0)

35 (38.9)

3 (10.0)

53 (58.9)

27 (90.0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

X Shade regulation 0 (0)

3 (10.0)

22 (24.4)

7 (7)

68 (75.6)

20 (66.7)

0 (0)

0 (0)

XI Bee keeping 0 (0)

20 (66.7)

34 (37.8)

10 (33.3)

34 (37.8)

0 (0)

56 (62.2)

0 (0)

a No of colonies 0 (0)

20 (66.7)

5 (5.6)

10 (33.3)

85 (94.4)

0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

b Maintenance 6 (6.7)

30 (100)

26 (28.9)

0 (0)

58 (64.4)

0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

XII Harvesting and processing

0 (0)

0 (0)

57 (63.3)

25 (83.3)

33 (36.7)

5 (16.7)

0 (0)

0 (0)

a Time of harvest 0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

90 (100)

30 (100)

0 (0)

0 (0)

b Post harvest operations

0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

90 (100)

30 (100)

0 (0)

0 (0)

1. Washing 0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

90 (100)

30 (100)

0 (0)

0 (0)

2. Drying 0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

90 (100)

30 (100)

0 (0)

0 (0)

3. Cleaning 0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

90 (100)

30 (100)

0 (0)

0 (0)

4. Polishing 0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

90 (100)

30 (100)

0 (0)

0 (0)

5. Sorting 0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

90 (100)

30 (100)

0 (0)

0 (0)

6. Grading 0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

90 (100)

30 (100)

0 (0)

0 (0)


7. Packing 57 (63.3)

25 (83.3)

33 (36.7)

5 (16.7)

0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

ORG=Number of organic farmers; INORG= Number of inorganic farmers Values in parenthesis indicate percentage

4(1).3.1 Identified technological and methodological innovations

Innovation 1

Idukki is Kerala’s largest district and is usually called as spice village of the world. Mr. Sebastian

Joseph was a marginal farmer and had studied only up to fourth standard. But his determination

and willpower saw him through. Sebastian Joseph with the help of his son Rejimon Joseph

developed a new cardamom variety ‘Njallani’ by selecting good berries and cross pollinating

these. This variety could be multiplied by clonal propagation method. Presently a vast area under

cardamom cultivation is covered by this variety.

Sebastian Joseph observed variation in the shapes of the cardamom. He selected the good berries

and cross pollinated them. For this purpose he selected four cardamom plants and put bee hives in

their midst. He then covered the plants with mosquito net. He marked the flowers that produced

the berries. These berries were pure clones. Next, the clones which bore more and bigger berries

were selected. Capsule was double the size of the common Mysore variety. He called his selection

‘Njallani’ after the ancestral name. It was observed that a ‘Njallani’ variety has 120-160 capsules

compared to 30-35 in the ordinary variety. Instead of planting seedlings that take two to three

years to bear fruit, he began to plant shoots and was able to shorten the yield span to two years

compromising neither on quality nor on quantity of the yield. In his quest to constantly upgrade the

cardamom variety, this industrious farmer recently developed another cardamom variety which is

yet to be named and which he says can even be grown in the plains and not just hilly terrains.

Innovation 2

Cardamom farmers are facing the threat of soaring labour cost. Non-availability of sufficient

labour is indeed a threat to cardamom cultivation in Cardamom Hill Reserves (CHR) of Idukki.

The cardamom growers who came out with the Njallani variety of cardamom that transformed

spices cultivation in Idukki has now reported success with three innovative types of planting

methods that require less labour cost and provide more yield to the growers. The single sucker

planting method, channel planting methods and pit less planting method introduced by them had

found great acceptance among farmers. Instead of six suckers in traditional planting method, single

sucker planting method was used where one sucker is planted in a pit. Before 1987, the average

cardamom production was below 3300 MT. But by the arrival of Njallani gold variety, farmers

started adopting the 'single sucker' method which led to production rising to 13500 MT in Idukki

alone (GOI, 2009). The new planting techniques therefore have come as a boon to the cardamom


farmers of Idukki. In the traditional planting method, the labour cost would be rupees 2, 10,000 per

hectare while in single sucker planting method it would be reduced to rupees 60,000.

Innovation 3

First hand knowledge about cardamom cultivation to many of us is obtained by a reading on

Mayne’s (1951) observation on cardamom plantation from North Kanara to Tinnelveli during

September to November 1940. His emphasis was “to maintain the cardamom agro-ecosystem by

developing the soil through mulches and organic matter as well as adequate shade for sustaining

yield”. This concept was witnessed in Mr. Paulose’s plot in Idukki. In his plot the soil is covered

with thick mulch throughout the garden. Under that mulch, one can see the friable block soil akin

to compost. In that plot the ‘Azhukal’ symptom (Phytophthora, Pythium,Rhizactonia rot or the

capsule and clump rot) were not seen. Thrips affected capsules and borer damage symptom on

shoot and panicle were less than one percentage.

In that field panicles were long with healthy flower bud, facilitating the colonization of the honey

bees. Tall shade trees maintained there resulted in good aeration of canopy. It resulted in the

growth of the secondary tillers as second tire shade above the panicle thus creating a good micro

climate with about three to five degree centigrade temperature less inside the plantation than

outside. This helped to reduce the multiplication of major pests. Resurgence of the minor pest and

white fly were not reported in Paulose’s garden.

This field witnessed reduced cost of cultivation than who had taken up intensive agriculture. It was

told that yield level in the garden rose to a higher level year after year. The farmer never disturbs

the soil; do not spread the soil around the clump. He regulated the shade only in dry months (Dec-

Jan) and spread cut tree branches on the ground. So the major share of the cost of cultivation was

only on harvest.

Innovation 4

Possessing a scientific bent of mind and curious nature, Mr. Joy spent most of his time

experimenting in the field so as to substantially increase the production and income from his farm.

He used to grow and experiment with arecanut and coconut crops. But he realized the profitability

of the cardamom. So he decided to concentrate on it. The new cardamom variety developed by him

named Panikulangara Green Bold No.1 (PGB-1) retains its green colour and size even after drying

and yields 6-8 kg of capsules per plant. Earlier, the farmer cultivated traditional Mysore, Malabar,

and Vazukka varieties of cardamom. He noted two plants from Vazukka variety bearing thick long

leaves, and vigorous growth. He separated two clones each from two plants and planted them in

his kitchen for further observation. After that he separated about 12 clones and obtained 70 plants

by clonal propagation. From those he developed another 1,000 plants. He noticed increased and


uniform production of tillers in them. The variety can be cultivated under drought conditions and is

less prone to pest attack, according to the farmer.

Productive tillers in (PGB-1) are comparatively higher than Mysore and Malabar varieties. As

capsules of innovator's variety were bolder than Mysore and Malabar varieties, farmers growing

this variety (Panikulangara Green Bold No.1) had a chance to generate more profit. Mr. Joy started

commercializing the variety from the year 2000 and so far has sold more than a lakh of seedlings

to farmers in Kerala, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu. It is less prone to thrips, borers, and azukal

disease and can be grown without much care. The crop requires less shade and bears 110-120

numbers of tillers. The yield per plant is 6-8 kg of capsules that retain an attractive green colour

even after drying. Lack of adequate irrigation facilities poses a major constraint for cardamom

cultivation in Idukki district. But (PGB-1) grows well under rainfed condition and hence is suitable

to be grown in the areas where there is a lack of irrigation facilities.

Innovation 5

It is to be noted that the major constraints in organic cardamom cultivation had been pest and

disease management. Many farmers lost heavily either owing low to yield due to thrips scab on

capsules or lack of premium price for the produce. We have experienced that the best results on

farming come from farmers and on many occasions the determination of the farmer contributes to

the feat. This is what had actually happened in the case of a determined organic farming activist,

Mr. Raju Joseph who carried with him a big passion for cardamom cultivation. He realized that

only traditional varieties of cardamom viz., Malabar cultivar would be suitable for organic

farming. In 2006, he established a germplasm of Malabar cardamom cultivar, which had various

level of tolerance to thrips attack. Management of the thrips with the botanicals and bio agents

could not yield encouraging result for Mr. Raju. The effort in culling out less susceptible Malabar

cardamom cultivar to thrips damage helped in developing technology in organic cardamom

production. It was observed that only 0 - 5 per cent thrips scab on the capsule and there was a

higher yield of 400-500 grams per plant per harvest obtained with the new selected Malabar

cultivar.

Innovation 6

One of the big cardamom farmers in the study area had a controlled atmospheric packing

instrument for the packing of the processed cardamom. Using that cardamom was packed in 5

kilogram packet under controlled oxygen and carbon dioxide concentration. This packed

cardamom had a shelf life of more than five years. The farmer was directly exporting the packed

materials to Arabian countries.


4(1).3.2 Reasons for organic farming

Friedman’s nonparametric test was used to identify the significance of differences among the

various reasons for adopting organic cultivation. The result was found to be significant and is

given in Table 1 in Appendix-I. It was further subjected to multiple comparison procedures to

identify homogeneous groups of reasons. According to farmers’ opinion, the preferred reason for

adopting organic farming were that it produces a pollution free environment followed by high

demand for the organic produce in the domestic market, production of chemical free food and high

price of organic produce. These statements were found to be on par. As per Table 4(1).3.2.1, it

was also very evident that the organic cardamom farmers considered the government financial

support as the least important factor for the adoption of organic cultivation in cardamom farming.

Table 4(1).3.2.1: Major reasons for adopting organic cultivation as per Friedman’s test

No Reasons for adopting organic cultivation N Mean Rank

Homogenous Groups**

1 Organic farming reduces the environmental pollution 90 3.47 A 2 Increasing domestic market for organic produce 90 3.33 A B 3 Organic farming produces chemical free food 90 2.56 A B 4 High price of organic produce 90 6.23 A B 5 High demand of organic produce in the export market 90 3.29 B C 6 Organic farming enables group farming and

marketing 90 4.38 C

7 Organic farming lowers the cost of cultivation 90 8.00 D

8 Financial support from government through the Kerala state organic farming policy

90 4.75 E

**Mean ranks having same letters are not significantly different

However, the increasing awareness about the chemical free and safe food for a better living, and

the willingness of consumers to spend more on organic cardamom have raised the demand of

organic spice even in the domestic markets and lured farmers to adopt organic production of

cardamom. In addition, high demand for organic produce in international market was also another

major factor that lured them to shift to organic cardamom cultivation through group efforts of

farming and marketing and exporting abroad.

The results of the study on different aspects of extent of adoption in case of organic and inorganic

farmers clearly showed that most of the practicing farmers were innovative in the complete

adoption of all the relevant technologies as per the package of practices. Organic cardamom

growers were more innovative in the adoption of practices like planting material selection based on

the farmer selection and local selection, the water and soil conservation technologies, and different

way of plant protection measures contributed more benefit to the overall improvement of their

farmland and the income generating capacity of the farmers. But some of the farmers were found


not so innovative. This might be due to the lack of sufficient resources to meet the complete

requirement in the farm.

Kerala, being the major organic spice exporter of the nation, had enjoyed an assured demand for its

producing in the export market. Market value of the organic cardamom, awareness about the

importance of pollution free environment for the sustainable development of the ecosystem,

chemical free produce needed for the healthy living, the group farming method adopted by

different small farmers’ groups and promoted by non-government organizations, the central

government and state government institutions promoting the organic cardamom production and

certification also encouraged the adoption of organic cultivation of the cardamom. The group

marketing through these groups and the electronic auction of the produce persuaded a number of

farmers to join hands in the organic cardamom production in the state.

4(1).4 Conclusion

Technological and methodological innovation developed and followed by the organic and

inorganic cardamom farmers have wide acceptability among others also. The “Njallani” variety

and single sucker planting method were found more acceptable by the cardamom farmers. This is

because of the cost effective nature and the agro ecosystem suitability of the innovations. Extent of

adoption of the various cultivation aspects shows the innovative nature of the farmers. Their

greater concern for the pollution free environment, chemical free produce, and increased demand

for the organic cardamom in the international and the domestic markets drove them energetically

to adopt organic farming practices in cardamom. Concreted extension efforts are needed for the

rapid spread of the eco-friendly available practices and technologies among cardamom farmers.

RESEARCH PAPER - II

Organic Cardamom Production in Kerala: Supporting factors and

Constraints

Abstract: The present study was conducted to compare and identify the factors influencing

organic and inorganic cardamom production and also to identify major constraints in the

production of organic cardamom. The study revealed that the level of competency among farmers

was not the same, since some farmers are lagging behind the others in utilization of their minimum

resources, farming practices, marketing etc. The data collected revealed that most of the organic

and inorganic cardamom farmers did not differ in the case of age category, education background,

living standards, experience in farming, and aspiration level. But in case of risk taking ability and

entrepreneurial competencies the organic cardamom farmers and the inorganic cardamom farmers

did differ significantly. Other than the personal and social differences, some external factors were

identified as major constraints for the organic cardamom production. Mainly those were related to

the certification and marketing aspects. The initial yield loss along with lack of grading and

marketing opportunities and stringent certification procedures were the major constraints faced by

organic farmers.

Keywords: Socio-Psychological Factors, Entrepreneurial Competency, Constraints

4(2).1 Introduction

The farmers are key persons for promoting economic growth and technological change in any

developing country like India in which more than 65 per cent of the population depends on

agriculture for meeting their day to day needs. The development of entrepreneurial qualities among

the farmers is directly related to the socio-economic development of the society. In this context, it

was felt necessary to determine the level of entrepreneurial competencies and socio-psycho factors

among the farmers. Farmers in their farming situations are facing some day to day problems, long

term problems and various constraints. This is partially controlled by their managerial ability in

their ventures known as entrepreneurial competencies. In the case of cardamom which is high

fertilizer responsive and high value crops, organic way of cultivation needs some strong support

from personal level as well as institutional level. Among farmers innovativeness, achievement

motivation and risk orientation were the most important components. Further, the components like

decision making, innovativeness, management orientation, economic motivation, level of

aspiration and risk orientation were found to be crucial in influencing the successful selection of

eco friendly, sustainable component in farming (Narmatha et al. 2002). Challenging nature of the

Organic Cardamom Production in Kerala: Supporting factors and Constraints 44

organic cardamom cultivation in the high demanded and high priced situation, due to its initial

yield lose and long gestation period of establishment needs the facilitating factors like

entrepreneurial competencies and some socio- psychological conditions.

At the same time, there are some external factors which hinder the growth and income of the

enterprise which are also known as constraints. The study of Gabriel (1994) revealed that the

single biggest constraint to the development of organic agriculture is that most people in all

sections of our society, including farmers, scientists, researchers, extension officers and politicians

strongly believe that organic agriculture is not a feasible option to improve food security. Paul

(2006) stressed the major constraints coming in the way of adopting organic farming as the bias

towards chemical farming, inappropriate use of local varieties, high cost of certification, bias in

incentives, lack of research and extension support, poor marketing, lack of awareness among

farmers and consumers. The thorough knowledge of these constraints would give some sort of

experience to overcome the problem in future. Even though these could not be eliminated fully, it

can be reduced to below threshold level. These critical factors also vary from farmer to farmer and

among different ventures. But studying the nature of factors and their applications might be

applicable to all organically growing crops.

4(2).2 Methodology

The study was conducted in Idukki district of Kerala, in which the cardamom is growing as export

value crop. Three blocks were purposively selected and 90 farmers were randomly selected from

the three blocks for studying the socio –psychological variables and entrepreneurial competencies

of the organic cardamom growers. For making a valuable conclusion, 30 inorganic cardamom

farmers also selected as control group. Frequency analysis was used to categorize the farmers

based on their socio-psychological factors. Thirteen entrepreneurial competencies like initiative,

opportunity seeking, persistence, information seeking quality, commitment to the work contact,

demand for efficiency, systematic planning and monitoring, problem solving, self confidence,

assertiveness, persuasion, influence, feedback usage, knowledge level, were measured by PEC

scale developed by ICECD (1988). Those all characters are compared using Mann-Whitney Test.

Further, all the identified constraints were categorized into five groups. Those were personal,

ecological, technological, economical and constraints related to certification. The respondents

were given these constraints to rate them on a three point continuum from most severe, severe and

not severe. The farmers’ response scores were converted into ranks for one-way analysis of

variance using a non-parametric test, Kruskal-Wallis Test to ascertain the most important

constraints as perceived by organic farmer respondents. In each major category of those constrains

related sub statements were there. Those were again prioritized using Friedman’s non-parametric

test.


4(2).3 Results and Discussion

4(2).3.1 Personal Factors

1. Age

The data collected from respondents were analyzed and revealed that most of the organic

cardamom farmers (63.3 per cent) and inorganic cardamom farmers (80.0 per cent) (Table

4(2).3.1.1) belonged to middle age group. Elderly farmers contributed only 22.2 per cent and 13.3

per cent to the sample respectively by the organic and inorganic farmers. Only 14.4 per cent of the

selected organic cardamom farmers and 6.5 per cent of inorganic cardamom farmers were in the

young group.

Table 4(2).3.1.1: Distribution of respondents in according to their age Organic cardamom farmers

N=90 Inorganic cardamom farmers

N=30 Category

Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Young, below 35 13 14.4 2 6.7 Middle aged, 35 to 59 57 63.3 24 80.0 Old, above 59 20 22.2 4 13.3

2. Education

Most of the farmers were found to have education up to high school level. Education provides

them with skills like innovativeness and having updated information. Only 23.3 per cent of the

inorganic farmers and 20.0 per cent of the organic farmers were under the high school education.

About 24.4 per cent of the organic and 33.3 per cent of the inorganic farmers were secondary

school educated. But only 3.3 per cent of the organic farmers were post graduated while compared

to inorganic farmers, who contributed 10 per cent to the total sample.

Table 4(2).3.1.2: Distribution of respondents according to their educational level Organic cardamom farmers


N=30 Category Frequency Percent Frequency Percent

Illiterate 1 1.1 0 0 Can read only 0 0 0 0 Can read and sign only 4 4.4 1 3.3 Primary school 13 14.4 6 20.0 High school 29 32.2 6 20.0 Secondary school 22 24.4 10 33.3 Graduate 18 20.0 4 13.3 Post graduate and above 3 3.3 3 10.0


3. Occupation

It is very clear from the Table 4(2).3.1.3 that invariably major portion of the organic and inorganic

cardamom farmers were fulltime farmers due to the high remunerative nature of the cardamom

plantations. About 75.6 per cent of the organic and 76.7 per cent of the inorganic farmers in the

sample taken were present in this category. There was not much difference in the occupation

category of the farmers.

Table 4(2).3.1.3: Distribution of respondents according to their occupation Organic cardamom farmers


N=30 Category

Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Fulltime farmer 68 75.6 23 76.7 Farming and services 16 17.8 5 16.7 Farming and business 6 6.7 2 6.7

4. Family type

Based on the number of the family members, families were categorized. It was observed that

majority of the farmers of organic cardamom farmers (97.8 per cent) and inorganic cardamom

farmers (90 per cent) belonged to the nuclear family. 2.2 per cent of respondents in organic

farmers and 10 per cent of the inorganic farmers were having joint family. There was no any

extended family type.

Table 4(2).3.1.4: Distribution of respondents according their family size Organic cardamom farmers


N=30 Category

Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Nuclear family 88 97.8 27 90.0 Joint family 2 2.2 3 10.0 Extended family 0 0 0 0

5. Type of house

Majority of the respondents had old concrete house. It had the percentage 70.0 per cent and 66.7

per cent respectively for the organic and inorganic cardamom farmers. Rest of the large majority

had modern concrete houses. Only a very small percentage of the respondent had tiled houses. It

was observed as 7.8 per cent and 3.3 per cent respectively for the organic and inorganic cardamom

farmers.


Table 4(2).3.1.5: Distribution of respondents according to their house type Organic cardamom farmers


N=30 Category

Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Thatched 0 0 0 0 Tiled 7 7.8 1 3.3 Old concrete 63 70.0 20 66.7 Modern concrete 20 22.2 9 30.0

6. Land size category

There observed a wide difference between the organic and inorganic cardamom growers in the

land size category. More than half of the organic growers had land area greater than 3 acres (52.2

per cent). But majority of the inorganic cardamom farmers had land area less than 1 acre (43.3 per

cent). Farmers with 1acre to 2 acre, land holding distributed as 22.2 per cent and 33.3 per cent

along the organic and inorganic cardamom growers respectively.

Table 4(2).3.1.6: Distribution of respondents according to their land size Organic cardamom farmers


N=30 Category

Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Less than 1 acre 11 12.2 13 43.3 1 acre to 2 acre 20 22.2 10 33.3 2 acre to 3 acre 12 13.3 6 20.0

more than 3 acre 47 52.2 1 3.3

7. Land under organic cultivation

About 50 per cent of the organic cardamom growers came under the category of the farmers with

more than 3 acre, of land under organic cultivation. Next higher group of the farmers had land area

of 1 acre to 2 acre under the organic cultivation. It emphasized the importance of the large size-

land for the technological innovations.

Table 4(2).3.1.7: Distribution of respondents according to their land size under organic cardamom cultivation

Category Frequency PercentLess than 1 acre 11 12.2 1 acre to 2 acre 20 22.2 2 acre to 3 acre 14 15.5 more than 3 acre 45 50

8. Experience categories

Cardamom farmers’ invariably organic and inorganic background had more than 15 years of

experience in the field. About 82.2 per cent of the organic farmers and 80.0 per cent of the


inorganic farmers belonged to this category. 10 to 15 year experience category contained 13.3 per

cent of the organic cardamom farmers and 16.7 per cent of the inorganic farmers respectively.

Table 4(2).3.1.8: Distribution of respondents according to their experience in farming Organic cardamom farmers


N=30 Category

Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Less than 5 years 1 1.1 0 0 5-10 years 3 3.3 1 3.3 10 - 15 years 12 13.3 5 16.7 More than 15 years 74 82.2 24 80.0

9. Organic farming experience category

From this Table 4(2).3.1.9, it is clear that more than half (52.2 per cent) of the respondents had 5 to

10 years experience and only 27.8 per cent of the sample had 10 to 15 years of experience in

organic cardamom farming.

Table 4(2).3.1.9: Distribution of respondents according to their experience in organic cardamom cultivation

Category Frequency PercentLess than 5 years 10 11.1 5-10 years 47 52.2 10 - 15 years 25 27.8 More than 15 years 8 8.9

10. Type of farming

Main type of farming in study area was mixed and multistoried. About 56.7 per cent of the organic

cardamom growers and 63.3 per cent of the inorganic farmers present in the study area were

following this category of cultivation. Next higher proportion was for monoculture i.e. 27.8 per

cent in organic farmer category and 20.0 per cent in inorganic category. Dry land farming was not

present in the study area due to the abundance of water.

Table 4(2).3.1.10: Distribution of respondents according to type of farming Organic cardamom farmers


N=30 Category

Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Monoculture 25 27.8 6 20.0 Crop Rotation 1 1.1 1 3.3 Dry land Farming 0 0 0 0 Mixed and Multistoried 51 56.7 19 63.3 Mixed Farming 13 14.4 4 13.3


11. Allied agricultural activities total

About 63.3 per cent of the organic farmers and 53.3 per cent of the inorganic farmers had engaged

in the allied agricultural activities.

Table 4(2).3.1.11: Distribution of respondents according to allied agricultural activities Organic cardamom farmers


N=30 Category

Frequency Percent Frequency Percent No 57 63.3 16 53.3 Yes 33 36.7 14 46.7

Many of the farmers had cattle as a life supporting allied agricultural activity in the study area.

About 23.3 per cent of the organic farmers and 26.7 per cent of the inorganic farmers had cattle

rearing. Next main allied agricultural activity in the study area was poultry.

Table 4(2).3.1.11a: Distribution of respondents according to allied agricultural activities Organic cardamom farmers Inorganic cardamom farmers Category Frequency Percent Frequency Percent

Cattle 21 23.3 8 26.7 Goat 1 1.1 0 0 Piggery 1 1.1 0 0 Rabbit 1 1.1 0 0 Poultry 17 18.9 7 23.3 Duck 0 0 0 0 Fish 1 1.1 0 0

12. Share of agriculture in household income

Majority of the farmers had farming as major source of income. 75.6 per cent of the organic

cardamom farmers and 76.7 per cent of the inorganic cardamom farmers fully depended on the

farming as their income source. About 24.4 per cent and 233.3 per cent of the organic and

inorganic farmers had partial dependence on farming for their income.

Table 4(2).3.1.12: Distribution of respondents according to Share of agriculture in household income

Organic cardamom farmers Inorganic cardamom farmersCategory

Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Not at all from farming 0 0 0 0 Partially from farming 22 24.4 7 23.3 From farming alone 68 75.6 23 76.7 Total 90 100.0 30 100.0


13. Irrigation potential

Respondents from the study area had irrigation potential either from their own pounds or from the

rivers or from the canal. About 86.7 per cent of organic cardamom farmers and 76.7 per cent of the

inorganic cardamom farmers had irrigation source through out the year for meeting their water

requirement.

Table 4(2).3.1.13: Distribution of respondents according to irrigation potential Organic cardamom farmers Inorganic cardamom farmersCategory

Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Not assured 0 0 0 0 Seasonal 12 13.3 7 23.3 Throughout the year 78 86.7 23 76.7 Total 90 100.0 30 100.0

Major irrigation source for the farmers in the study area was river. 74.4 per cent of the organic and

76.7 per cent of the inorganic cardamom farmers in that area depended on the river water as their

irrigation source. Next best used irrigation source for the organic cardamom farmers was pond and

for inorganic farmers it was tank. No one in study area depended on bore well for irrigation.

Table 4(2).3.1.13a: Distribution of respondents according to irrigation sources Organic cardamom farmers Inorganic cardamom farmers Category Frequency Percent Frequency Percent

Well 72 80.0 16 53.3 Pond 5 5.6 0 0 Tank 2 2.2 2 2.2 Canal 1 1.1 0 0 River 67 74.4 23 76.7 Bore well 0 0 0 0

14. Farmer's perception of his farming method

Farmers’ perception about their farming practices varied among the organic and inorganic

cardamom farmers. About 88.9 per cent of the organic farmers were having the perception that

they had been practicing full adoption of the organic practices for last 10-15 years. Some of them

were following partially organic way of cultivation. In the case of the inorganic farmers, 53.3 per

cent of them were following the modern cultivation practices and 46.7 per cent of them followed

the traditional cultivation practices.

Table 4(2).3.1.14: Distribution of respondents according to farming method Organic cardamom farmers


N=30 Category

Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Traditional 0 0 14 46.7 Modern 0 0 16 53.3 Partly Organic 10 11.1 0 0 Fully Organic 80 88.9 0 0


15. Resources for Organic farming

Majority of the organic cardamom farmers depended on on-farm and off-farm resources for

meeting their requirement. But none of the inorganic cardamom farmers was depended on the on-

farm resources for cardamom cultivation.

Table 4(2).3.1.15: Distribution of respondents according to resources for organic farming Organic cardamom farmers


N=30 Category

Frequency Percent Frequency Percent On-farm resources 80 88.9 0 0 Off-farm resources 81 90.0 30 100

16. Farming group membership

From the Table 4(2).3.1.16, it is clear that most of the organic cardamom farmers (76.7 per cent)

were members of different farming groups. But 23.3 per cent of the farmers did not have any type

of membership in any farming groups. In the case of inorganic farmers 56.7 per cent of the farmers

had membership in farming groups, 43.3 per cent of them had no any group membership.

Table 4(2).3.1.16: Distribution of respondents according to farming group membership

Organic cardamom farmersN=90

Inorganic cardamom farmers N=30

Category


17. Other organizational membership

In organic cardamom farmers, only a small percentage (37.8 per cent) had other organizational

membership, 62.2 per cent of them had no any other organizational membership. In case of

inorganic farmers also the same pattern of membership was found. About 63.3 per cent of them

were non members and 36.7 per cent had membership in other organizations.

Table 4(2).3.1.17: Distribution of respondents according to other organizational membership Organic cardamom farmers


N=30 Category



4(2).3.2 Psychological factors

1. Innovation proneness

Most of the organic cardamom farmers and inorganic cardamom farmers were in the medium,

innovation potential category. Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney’s nonparametric test was used to identify

the significance of difference between organic and inorganic farmers in the case of the innovation

proneness. The result indicates that, there was not much difference in the case of the innovation

proneness between the control and the experimental groups and the value of test statistic and its

significance is given in Table 2 in Appendix I.

Table 4(2).3.2.1: Distribution of respondents according to their innovation proneness Organic cardamom farmers


N=30 Category

Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Low (1-3) 0 0 5 16.7 Medium (3.1-6.0) 75 83.3 23 76.7 High (6.1-9.0) 15 16.7 2 6.7

Table 4(2).3.2.1a: Average innovation proneness as per Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney test

Mean Rank Category Organic cardamom farmers

(N=90) Inorganic cardamom farmers

(N=30) Innovation Proneness 60.48a 58.57a

Mean rank with same superscript in each category is not significantly different

2. Risk taking ability

Risk taking ability of the organic and inorganic cardamom growers differed significantly. From the

Table 4(2).3.2.2 it is clear that mean rank for the risk taking ability of the organic cardamom

growers (70.85) was much more than that of the inorganic cardamom growers (27.80). But the

innovation proneness of the organic and inorganic cardamom farmers did not differ significantly

as per Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney’s nonparametric test the value of test statistic and its significance

is given in Table 2 in Appendix-I.

Table 4(2).3.2.2: Average risk taking ability as per Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney test Mean Rank

Category Organic cardamom farmers (N=90)

Inorganic cardamom farmers (N=30)

Risk taking ability 70.85a 27.80b Mean rank with same superscript in each category is not significantly different

4(2).3.3. Aspiration level

Based on the median value obtained from the response of the organic and inorganic cardamom

growers, quartiles were calculated. From the Table 4(2).3.3.1, it is clear that majority of the

organic cardamom farmers (74.7 per cent) were processing high level of aspiration, in terms of


increasing the organic farming area and more input oriented work. But the major portion of the

inorganic cardamom farmers (46.7 per cent) was coming under the medium level category.

Table 4(2).3.3.1: Distribution of respondents according to their level of aspiration Organic farmers Inorganic farmers Quartiles

Frequency Percent Frequency Percent I(16-20) 0 0 16 53.3 II (21-25) 10 11.1 14 46.7 III (26-30) 67 74.4 0 0 IV(31-35) 13 14.4 0 0 Total 90 100.0 30 100.0

4(2).3.4 Entrepreneurial competencies

Based on the PEC scale the thirteen entrepreneurial competencies were measured separately for

organic and inorganic farmers and compared using Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney Test. The mean

score obtained from the Table 4(2).3.4.1 shows that except for initiative and the persuasion organic

cardamom growers differed significantly from the inorganic cardamom farmers. They were having

a greater mean rank for all other observed characteristics. Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney’s

nonparametric test the value of test statistic and its significance is given in Table 3 in Appendix I.

Table 4(2).3.4.1: Distribution of respondents according to their level of entrepreneurial competencies

Mean rank Components Organic cardamom farmers

(N=90) Inorganic cardamom farmers

(N=30) 1. Initiative 62.01a 55.97a 2. Sees and act upon opportunities 67.90a 38.30b 3. Persistence 71.67a 27.00b 4. Information seeking 70.32a 31.03b 5. Concern for high quality work 73.53a 21.40b 6. Commitment to work 68.36a 36.92b 7. Sense of efficiency 66.59a 42.23b 8. Systematic planning 67.98a 38.07b 9. Problem solving 72.11a 25.67b 10. Self confidence 71.16a 28.53b 11. Assertiveness 70.17a 31.50b 12. Persuasion 64.48a 48.55a 13. Use of influence strategy 71.38a 27.87b


4(2).3.5 Constraints

Five sets of different constraints were enlisted and farmer’s response on their severity was asked.

These constraints were compared using Kruskal-Wallis one-way ANOVA and the value of test

statistic and its level of significance are given in Table 4 in Appendix I. As the computed p-value

is less than the significant level at one per cent (p < 0.01) it can be inferred that the level of

influence of different constraints to the production of organic cardamom was different according to


farmers’ perception. To explore it further, multiple comparisons procedure was adopted to identify

the major constraints. The Table 4(2).3.5.1 given below shows the mean of rank corresponding to

each of the statements and also the grouping letter.

Table 4(2).3.5.1: Comparison of different constraints in organic cardamom production based on mean ranks as per Kruskal-Wallis test

Constraints Frequency Mean rank Homogeneous Groups Personal 90 136.47 A Economical 90 157.69 A Technological 90 225.21 B Ecological 90 277.74 C Certification 90 330.37 D

From this Table 4(2).3.5.1, it is clear that the mean rank corresponding to the certification

constraint was more and hence it was the major constraint to the organic cardamom production.

Least affecting constraint was the personal and economic constraints. Technological and

ecological constraints were moderately severe in farmers’ perception. Further analysis of the each

category of the constraints was done using the Friedman’s test. From the test result it is clear that

each component in each category varied in farmers’ perception. Test statistic value and its

significance are given in Table 4 in Appendix I.

i) Technological constraints

Table 4(2).3.5.2: Comparison of different technological constraints in organic cardamom production based on mean ranks Sample Frequency Mean rank Groups

1. Lack of a reliable package of practices for organic farming 90 1.339 A

2. Shortage of disease free seeds and planting materials 90 2.611 B

3. Lack of timely information related to organic farming technologies 90 2.656 B

4. Non availability of enough organic inputs 90 3.394 C

From the Table 4(2).3.5.2, it is well evident that major technological constraint was the non

availability of the enough organic inputs for the large scale application in the cardamom fields.

Least important thing was the lack of availability of the package of practices. It is clear that

farmers were well known with the organic cultivation practices for the cardamom production.

Shortage of the disease free planting materials and lack of timely information were rated moderate

severity constraint. Test statistic value and its significance are given in Table 5 in Appendix I.


ii) Economic constraints

Table 4(2).3.5.3: Comparison of different economic constraints in organic cardamom production based on mean ranks Sample Frequency Mean rank Groups

1. The debate still going in the society about the need for the promotion of organic farming 90 2.283 A

2. Less profit acquired because of produced quality not up to the mark as specified by certification agency

90 2.528 A

3. Lack of proper community movement for the promotion of organic farming 90 2.550 A

4. Initial low price for the produce 90 4.328 B 5. Inadequate financial support to the new organic

farmers from govt. 90 4.778 B

6. Higher cost for the establishment of manure source 90 4.944 B

7. Initial yield loss 90 6.589 C

Most important economic constraint identified was the initial yield loss. It was quite prominent

than other factors. Initial low price for the produce, inadequate financial support to the new

organic farmers from govt. and higher cost for the establishment of manure source were identified

as moderate sever constraints. They were considering as on par. The debate about the organic

farming, hesitation among the neighbour farmers and lack of the proper community movement are

nested together and identified as least important constraints. Test statistic value and its significance

are given in Table 6 in Appendix I.

iii) Personal constraints

Table 4(2).3.5.4: Comparison of Different Personal Constraints in Organic cardamom production based on Mean Ranks Sample Frequency Mean rank Groups

1. Lack of awareness about organic farming 90 1.539 A 2. The belief that ‘It is better to follow

conventional farming today and let tomorrow take care of it’ 90 2.022 A

3. Fear of profit loss due to low yield in the initial period 90 2.956 B

4. Shortage of owned resources 90 3.483 C

Most important constraint among personal constraints was shortage of the owned resources with

the mean rank 3.483. From the above sited Table 4(2).3.5.4, it is evident that shortage of owned

resources was very dominant than any other constraints. Analysis table shows that the cardamom

farmers were well known about the organic farming practices. So, it got the least mean rank. Test

statistic value and its significance are given in Table 7 in Appendix I.


iv) Certification related constraints

Table 4(2).3.5.5: Comparison of different certification related constraints in organic cardamom production based on mean ranks Sample Frequency Mean rank Groups

1. Lack of proper certifying agencies in the nearby place 90 1.450 A

2. The stringent standards and rules of the certification process 90 2.528 B

3. The need of a long period for the certification process 90 2.961 B C

4. Higher cost involved in the certification process 90 3.061 C

Nested observation of the higher cost involved in the certification process and a long gestation

period before the certification were considered as the most important constraints in the

certification procedure of the organic cardamom cultivation practices. Lowest mean value was for

the lack of the proper certification agency in that area. It indicates that study area is having ample

number of the properly registered certification agency for organic cardamom production. Test

statistic value and its significance are given in Table 8 in Appendix I.

v) Ecological constraints

Table 4(2).3.5.7: Comparison of different ecological constraints in organic cardamom production based on mean ranks Sample Frequency Mean rank Groups

1. Loss of ecosystem viability to maintain a good crop 90 1.978 A

2. Higher Pest and disease problems 90 2.394 A B 3. Requirement of long period to get

positive responses from the ecosystem 90 2.789 B

4. Inability to reconstruct the destroyed links of various ecosystem functions 90 2.839 B

Major constraint in the ecological constraint category was inability to reconstruct the destroyed

links of various ecosystem functions. This reason was on par with requirement of long period to

get positive responses from the ecosystem and higher pest and disease problems. But the statement

loss of ecosystem viability to maintain a good crop was ranked least. Test statistic value and its

significance are given in Table 9 in Appendix I.

4(2).5 Conclusion

In the success of any innovative farmer, social factors and psychological factors play a big role.

The data collected from respondents were analyzed and revealed that most of the organic and

inorganic cardamom farmers belonged to middle age group, had education up to high school

level, better living conditions, farming as the main source of income for living, and had more than

15 years of experience in the farming field. Aspiration level of the organic and inorganic farmers


was not differing significantly. But risk taking ability and entrepreneurial competencies of the

organic cardamom farmers were much more than that of the inorganic cardamom farmers.

Identification of those factors is important for the overall development of the nation in economic

and man power terms. From the results of analysis for different constraints coming in the way of

the organic farming movement it was obvious that all the enlisted constraints were important in

one way or other way. However, still those related to the certification and marketing aspects had a

major role in creating obstacles to promotion of organic farming and its spread in the state. At the

outset, the initial yield loss along with lack of grading and marketing opportunities and stringent

certification procedures were the major constraints faced by organic farmers.

58

RESEARCH PAPER - III

Impact of Organic Cardamom Production on Sustainability, Income and Employment

Abstract: This study was conducted in the Idukki district of Kerala. Being the spice garden of the

state, Idukki contributes large amount to the export oriented spices. Organic cardamom is one of

the high value low volume spice and contributing to the economic and employment generation in

the area. Addressing these impact dimensions of the organic cardamom production have an

important input for policy dialogue that can foster private sector development and create

sustainable income generating measures for developing country farmers. The study identified that

along with the ecological sustainability of the organic cultivation practices, farmers were more

oriented to the economic and social sustainability of the organic way of cardamom production.

Keywords: Economic impact, Employment generation, Sustainability

4(3).1 Introduction

Every kind of agriculture has an impact on the environment and man. It is this belief of the organic

farming community that organic farming minimizes the chemical inputs thereby reduces damage

to health and the environment and also minimizes the cost of cultivation. It is a more sustainable

method of farming than conventional techniques and biodiversity is promoted by a large way.

Along with positive environmental impact, consumers’ demand for organic products is increasing.

Organic certification for agricultural products is increasingly promoted in many developing

countries. The shift from conventional to organic production might be an opportunity for small and

medium farmers to harvest higher returns from their investments by enabling access to developed

countries’ premium markets. Organic farming utilizes natural fertility and human labour more than

manufactured inputs to produce value. This means that organic farms create more jobs per farm

than the state average, and organic farmers turns up with a higher margin of value to local

economies than farms that rely on purchased inputs. According to Laura Paine (2009), even though

a small down ward movement in the production in the initial years, organic farms generate about

70 per cent more income per acre than their non-organic counterparts. Organic farming is more

than the sum of a list of all-natural ingredients, they work with the living system’s native to their

farms to create food and revenue and contribute to the sustainable development of agro-eco-

system.

A farming system unit is treated as an agro-ecosystem when the impact of farming helps it to attain

the resemblance of a forest ecosystem in species diversity and its multiplicity (Palaniyappan and

Annadurai, 2007). In the case of the cardamom cultivation, the natural habitat itself is forest. Yet,

Impact of Organic Cardamom Production on Sustainability, Income and Employment 59

to ensure an optimum productivity of an agro-ecosystem in the long run, it is important to keep its

vitality by adopting the sustainable agricultural practices. However, the success of organic

agriculture depends on the efficiency of agronomic management practices adopted to stimulate and

augment the underlying productivity. National Research Council outlined the ultimate goal of

sustainable agriculture is to develop farming systems that are productive and profitable, conserve

the natural resource base, protect the environment, and enhance health and safety over the long run

(NRC, 1989).

4(3).2 Methodology

The study was conducted in the Idukki district of Kerala, where the forest hills are known as

cardamom hills. To find out the impact of the organic farming, ninety organic cardamom farmers

and thirty inorganic cardamom farmers were randomly selected. Income and employment

generation capacity of the organic cardamom farming were assessed by collecting the information

on annual income, number of employment days, changes in the spending pattern and changes in

the saving pattern. Income data was analysed using the t-test, to find the difference among the

organic and inorganic farming strata. For the assessment of the sustainability of the organic

farming practices, identified factors were grouped in to three major groups, namely ecological

sustainability, economic sustainability and social sustainability. Each sub categories of the major

categories were ranked using a five point continuum. Wlcoxon-Mann-Whitney’s test was used to

test the significance of difference in the sustainability preference of the organic and inorganic

cardamom farmers.

4(3).3 Results and Discussions

4(3).3.1 Increase in the income of the organic cardamom farmers

Table 4(3).3.1.1 presents the result of increase in annual income due to the organic cultivation of

cardamom. More than one third of the cardamom farmers (38.9 per cent) reported that there was an

increase in income in the range of rupees 1-2 lakhs due to the organic cultivation. It may be due to

the increased demand of the organically produced cardamom and export demand due to the

organic certification of the cardamom. According to farmers even if there was a low returns in

terms of yield in the initial years, the yield and income stabilizes after a time laps. In case of

inorganic cardamom farmers major portion was coming under the low income category. 73.3 per

cent of the respondents were present in the less than one lakhs earning group. Only a small fraction

of the organic cardamom farmers (13.3 per cent) were present in the low income earning group.

26.7 per cent of the organic cardamom farmers were able to earn rupees 2-5 lakhs rupees per year,

whereas only a micro fraction of the inorganic farmers were in this group. It is evident from the

Table 4(3).3.1.1 that 21.1 per cent of the organic cardamom farmers were able to earn more than 5


lakhs rupees per year, whereas none of the inorganic cardamom farmers earned more than 5 lakhs

rupees.

Table 4(3). 3.1.1: Change in the income pattern Organic cardamom farmers (N=90) Inorganic cardamom farmers (N=30)Category

Frequency Percent Frequency Percent < 1 lakhs 12 13.3 22 73.3 1-2 lakh 35 38.9 7 23.3 2-5 lakh 24 26.7 1 3.3 > 5 lakh 19 21.1 0 0

From the data it is evident that there was a significant difference between the income of the

organic and inorganic cardamom farmers. Data in the Table 4(3).3.1.2 represents the average

income of farmers in each of the group. From this it is clear that mean for the organic cardamom

farmers income was larger than the inorganic cardamom farmers.

Table 4(3). 3.1.2: Average income

Group N Mean Std. Error Mean Organic cardamom farmers 90 918170 132363 Inorganic cardamom farmers 30 198730 30048

This difference in income was tested using t-test to know the statistical significance of the

difference. From Table 4(3).3.1.2, it is evident that there was significant difference in the average

income of organic farmers as compared to inorganic farmers, which indicated the higher income

generating capacity of the organic cardamom farmers.

Table 4(3).3.1.2 a: Comparison of average income of farmers belongs to organic and inorganic cardamom growers

Levene's Test for Equality of Variances

t-test for Equality of Means

F Prob. t df Prob. Equal variances assumed 9.817 0.002 3.12 118 0.002 Equal variances not assumed 5.30 98 0.000

6.3.2 Change in the employment pattern

Organic cultivation is using on farm resources and man power for the production of the products in

very economic and efficient manner. It requires the whole season practices for the economic and

prosperous production of the farm out puts. It will leads to the increase in the employment

generation in any area. From Table 4(3).3.2.1, it is clear that more than half of the organic

cardamom farmers were fully employed throughout the season, and 36.7 per cent of the total

organic cardamom growers were getting more than 100 days of employment in a year. But in the

case of the inorganic cardamom farmers only negligible portion was getting employment year (3.3

per cent). Only 16.7 per cent of the farmers were employed more than 100 days of employment per


year. Majority of the inorganic farmers were coming under the group with less than 100 days of

employment per year. But very less proportion of the organic cardamom grower were under the

category with 100 days employment (5.6 per cent) and less than 100 days of employment in a year

(4.4 per cent). It is clear from the Table 4(3).3.2.1 that organic cardamom cultivation was having a

significant impact on the employment generation due to the labour intensive farm yard manure

applications, weeding, cultural practices and water harvesting and soil conservation practices like

bunding, trenching and mulching.

Table 4(3).3.2.1: Change in the employment pattern Organic cardamom farmers (N=90) Inorganic cardamom farmers (N=30)Category Frequency Percent Frequency Percent

<100 days 4 4.4 14 46.7 100 days 5 5.6 10 33.3 >100 Days 33 36.7 5 16.7 fully employed 49 54.4 1 3.3

4(3).3.3 Change in spending pattern

Almost all the respondents irrespective of organic and inorganic cardamom farmers had changed

spending pattern due to various factors like urbanization, appreciation of land values and increase

in income. Aspiration was more in farmers than before and they were spending more money for

life supporting and luxurious items. Desire to give education to the children was identified as the

most prioritized desire among the farmers and for that disregarding their earning capability they

were ready to spend any amount of money.

4(3).3.4 Changes in the saving pattern

Many of the farmers were saving the money in the form of land and luxury material. It acted as

some social status indicator in the study area. People with more amounts of assets were considered

as social stars in the study area.

4(3).3.5 Sustainability of the organic farming practices.

Sustainability is indicating the economical, ecological and social dimensions of growth and

balanced establishment. Most important sustainability dimension identified by the farmers was the

societal stability and status. Economic sustainability was also played an important role in the

everyday living by adoption of the organic farming practices. It helped the farmers to accumulate

the working capital, improve the income from the farm and reduced dependence on the external

inputs for the farm. Organic farming sustainability was extremely different and prominent than

inorganic cultivation practices.


Table 4(3).3.5.1: Comparison of sustainability in cardamom production based on mean ranks as per Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney’s test

Mean Rank Category Organic farmers

( N=90) Inorganic farmers

(N=30) Total sustainability 72.94a 23.18b

1. Ecological sustainability 63.63a 51.10a 2. Economic sustainability 68.51a 36.48b 3. Social sustainability 74.12a 19.63b


Ranks obtained from the responses of the organic and inorganic cardamom farmers were analysed

using Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitey’s test. From the Table 4(3).3.5.1 of the mean rank, it is clear that

organic cardamom cultivation was more sustainable than inorganic cultivation. Identified

components of the total sustainability were ecological sustainability, economic sustainability and

social sustainability. Statements in different set of sustainability are given in Appendix III. Test

result showed that they were significantly different in both the groups. Even though they differed

in economical, social and ecological components, based on the perception of farmers, the

ecological sustainability difference was marginal only. Test statistic value and its significance are

given in Table 10 in Appendix I.

4(3).4 Conclusion

Impact dimensions of the organic cardamom production is an important input for policy making

and to foster private sector development and create sustainable income generating measures for

farmers of developing country. The farmers following the organic cultivation were earning a

desirable margin of the profit by the marketing of the certified brand of the organic cardamom.

There was not much difference in the living pattern of the organic and inorganic cardamom

farmers, but the difficulty in meeting life supporting essentials was less in the case of the organic

cardamom farmers, due to the large profit. Employment generation in terms of the number of days

was more in the case of organic cardamom growers. Though organic farming can enhance the

ecological sustainability of an agro-ecosystem, to ensure economic and social sustainability

scientists and policy makers should be vigilant while advising the technology to the farmers.

RESEARCH PAPER - IV

Institutional and Structural Framework of Govt. and NGO’s for Promoting Organic Agri-Enterprise

Abstract: Kerala was emerged as leading producer of and exporter of organic cardamom. The

promotional aspect of various institutions, government organizations and non- governmental

organizations has played an important role in establishment of these agri enterprises. This study

was with the objective of identifying the institutional and structural frame work of the various

organizations for the promotional role with special emphasis on organic cardamom growers in the

Idukki district of Kerala. It was found that governmental, non-governmental and certifying and

exporting institutions are playing an important promotional role in the organic cardamom

production and marketing. Group cardamom farming approach followed by the various

organizations revealed the importance of the group approach for getting organic certification in an

easy way and promotion of organic concept in wide range in a locality.

Keywords: Institutional and structural frame work

4(4).1 Introduction

Alternative innovative institutions are called upon to meet emerging challenges of enhancing

income and reducing poverty especially in the under invested rain fed region. Until the end of the

eighteenth century, farming techniques were developed gradually and steadily over centuries with

few qualitative leaps. The rise of agricultural science has induced dramatic change in these aspects.

In order to achieve development, modern research results had to be transferred to the traditional

farmers, and extension seems to be the appropriate means to do so. According to UNDP (1991)

improved technology is a package of inputs and practices that usually comes from many sources.

In the case of organic farming identification and selection of the superior variety, plant protection

practices and many other processing related techniques are coming from nongovernmental sector

and farmers field itself. In the case of spice like cardamom, the need of this type of supporting

institutions is well evident.

If international markets are to be the target, farmers with small holdings who depend on the same

piece of land for food and income, will never be able to afford it, as it is beyond their scale of

operation. Hence, to begin with the untapped domestic market with focus on supplying healthy and

quality measured products at affordable prices hold some promises (Balamatti, 2007) for a better

sustainable development. Organic farming can be defined as an approach to agriculture where the

aim is to create integrated, humane, environmentally and economically sustainable agricultural


64

production systems. The objective of sustainability lies at the heart of organic farming, with the

term used in the widest sense, and is one of the major factors determining the acceptability or

otherwise of specific production practices. However, to promote any sustainable agricultural

technology package either in research or in farmers’ field, an effective institutional framework is

an indispensable factor.

The institutional framework for a sustainable agriculture development covers a spectrum of formal

bodies, organizations, networks and arrangements that are involved in its policymaking or

implementation of activities. An ideal institutional framework enhances the integration of the three

pillars (ecological, social and economic) of sustainable development. Institutional factor is very

important, because, as mentioned by Tschirley (1997) Human and institutional capacity to manage

the development process through participatory and transparent approaches is fundamental to

sustainable agriculture.

Cardamom is an export oriented crop, needs the proper evaluation and recommendation in the area

of production, processing and certification in terms of quality and standards. Apart from the

government institutions many other nongovernment organizations, certification agency and

farmers groups are working in a harmonious way in the spice garden of Kerala.

In this context, the study was aimed at studying the existing organizational networks and

institutional mechanisms for the promotion of organic cardamom production in Idukki district of

Kerala.

4(4).2 Methodology

This study was conducted in the Idukki - spice district of Kerala. It is well known for the organic

cardamom from its cardamom hills. It is very important to enlist the various institutional

mechanisms in terms of its structure and function, which are there to promote the cultivation and

certification of the organic cardamom. For the analysis of the structural frame work and

functioning, three groups of institutions were selected; Government institution (Indian cardamom

research institute of Spices Board and Cardamom research station of Kerala Agricultural

University) Non-Government institution(PDS- Pirumedu Development Society) and certifying and

exporting institutions (INDOCERT).

Interview method was followed for the collection of data. For that a semi structured schedule was

prepared and statements were made on three groups of institutions: government, non-governmental

organizations, certifying / exporting agencies. Data were collected from secondary sources also for

getting an explicit understanding about the issue.


65

4(4).3 Result and Discussion

As a result of a comprehensive study of various formal and informal institutions engaged with the

promotion of organic cardamom production it was identified that there were mainly three

categories of institutional networks that could make a positive impact in the same. The

components of the existing institutional network are as follow

1. Government organizations

2. Non-Governmental organization

3. Certifying and exporting organisation

4(4).3.1 Institutional and structural frame work of the different organizations

4(4).3.1.1 Government organizations

a. Indian Cardamom Research Institute (ICRI)

The Spices Board (the erstwhile Cardamom Board), at Myladumpara in the Idukki district of

Kerala to carry out basic and applied research on all aspects of small and large cardamom was

constituted under the Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Government of India, as an apex body

for promoting Indian spices and spice products world-wide. Its mandate is mainly for the overall

development of cardamom, and export promotion of the 52 scheduled spices. Each Research

Station is headed by a Deputy Director (Research), and the overall research coordination in ICRI

(Indian Cardamom Research Institute) rests with the Directorate of Research located at the Main

Station in Myladumpara. Various divisions for conducting the research in the cardamom

production are Crop Improvement Division, Agronomy and Soil Science Division, Plant Pathology

Division, Entomology Division, Post-harvest Technology Division and Transfer of Technology

Division.

The divisions were working hormonally for the promotion of the organic cardamom production.

Various plant protection bio pesticides were standardised by the ICRI with the result of basic

research in the experimental station and trail research in farmers’ field. An important example is

the Neem Kernel Aqueous Extract (NKAE). They are keeping the demonstration plots on organic

cardamom production. ICRI standardised the package of practices for organic cardamom

production, especially for the agro climatic conditions of Kerala.

In the field approach, single farmer approach was found effective by the ICRI. Field work group

team is identifying the progressive and innovative organic cardamom farmers from the various part

of the Idukki, and helps in standardising and adopting the innovations. This team identified and

standardised one farmer selection Malabar type cardamom variety for the organic cardamom


66

cultivation. It is resistant against the thrips attack. It is helping for the collaboration of the farmer

with various exporting agencies like RAMCO Estate (Spice India, 2011).

b. Cardamom Research Station (CRS)

This research station is under the Kerala Agricultural University. They are acting as a facilitating

agent for the promotion of the organic cardamom production. This institute standardised the

package of practice of organic cardamom production. Group farming approach is followed by

CRS. Research also station is involved in the production of various technologies.

4(4).3.1.2 Non-Governmental organization

a. Peermade Development Society (PDS)

Peermade Development Society (PDS) is registered as a nongovernmental organization, aims at

the sustainable development through developing various indigenous, community based and people

participatory developmental programmes. It acts as a supporting, knowledge disseminating centre

for the organic production in various crops, especially in organic cardamom production. Group

farming approach is followed by the PDS for the production of organic cardamom. Produce from

the farmers whoever in the identified organic farmers groups were collected and certified as per

the requirements.

PDS Organic cardamom have been certified as per ISO 22000:2005 Food Safety Management

System by Bureau Veritas, Certification (India) Pvt. Ltd. The FLO-CERT GmbH Certification for

Development has certified PDS Organic Spices to trade in Fair Trade products. The certification is

accredited by UKAS (United Kingdom Accreditation Services). This quality certification will

place PDS better among the suppliers as the buyers prefer to buy only from reliable suppliers who

have established efficient food safety management systems. It guarantees farmers are paid a fair-

trade minimum price for their products and premium for improving their standard of living.

For meeting the needs of marginal farmers and women for processing their farm produce, the

centre has started agricultural processing centres by installing the proven technologies of farmers.

These centres are operating in Idukki district and will cater to the needs of those processing spice

crops with main emphasis on the cardamom. The whole centre is managed by the women’s self-

help groups.

The centre will mediate with innovators and ensure the supply of their product. The technologies,

varieties and services from innovators are identified and disseminated by PDS. Cardamom Verities

Njallani, White flowered cardamom, Wonder Cardamom. Cardamom Polishing Machine & Driers

are some of the innovation identified and disseminated by PDS.


67

Producer group PDS Organic Spices promoted a NGO termed as Sahyadri Organic Small Farmers

Consortium (SOSFC). It will help the farmers to obtain the premium price for the produces.

4(4).3.1.3 Certifying and exporting institution

a. INDOCERT

Organic certifying agencies as well as agencies, engaged with the export of organic cardamom to

international markets, were also playing a major role in the wide acceptability of the organic

cardamom cultivation among farmers. The major identified certifying agency of the Kerala state

was INDOCERT by almost all of the exporter farmers as they were offering reliable and

affordable inspection and certification services in the state.

INDOCERT is a nationally and internationally operating, certification body established in India. It

is accredited by National Accreditation Body (NAB), Government of India, as per National

Program for Organic Production (NPOP). In the field of organic farming, INDOCERT also

functions as a platform for training, awareness creation, information dissemination and networking

among farmers.

It will provide the organic certification to individual farmers and farmers groups. INDOCERT

offers inspection and certification services to small holder groups with Internal Control System

(ICS) as per NSOP, USDA NOP and rules .Group certification can be applied for groups of small

farmers, which are covered by an Internal Control System (ICS), usually cultivating the same

crops, using the same inputs and production practices and marketing their products under the same

label or marketing system. This group certification is followed in the organic cardamom

production units, for the brand making and marketing.

4(4).4 Conclusion

It is obvious that the different institutions have good access to each corner of the social system and

play a major role in promoting organic cardamom production in the district. Non-governmental

institutions play an important role in the organic cultivation promotion, by giving a well accessible

form of information, making a platform of organic certification and reducing the drudgery of

getting the individual organic certification by group certification approach. Export promotions of

organic cardamom, making brands with special identifiable standards are done by the organic

cardamom farming support institutions.

CHAPTER V

GENERAL DISCUSSION

5.1 Introduction

India has golden history of ancient agriculture and has the credit of contributing ancient agriculture

practices to other parts of the world over years. This has lead to a number of changes at various

production levels of agriculture from sowing to harvest. “Krishito naasti dhurbhikhsam” (famine

vanishes through farming) thus said the Vedas. Since ages, agriculture has been the life of the

Indian people, meeting the main basic need of food, clothing and shelter. In order to meet the food

needs of the alarmingly growing population, “Green Revolution” came as an answer. Green

revolution in India has witnessed a jump in agricultural production with the introduction of high

yielding varieties (HYVs) of various crops and by following intensive cultivation practices with

the use of fertilizers, pesticides and other inputs. The side-effects of the modern agricultural

chemicals and machines raised serious questions about the overall benefits of the new

technologies. Chemical fertilisers and pesticides polluted our air and water. Agricultural

chemicals, including hormones and antibiotics left residues in food that may cause cancer or

genetic damage. This serious situation called the need of the organic cultivation, especially in the

plantation crops like cardamom, where large quantities of the chemicals were dumped for greater

returns.

Organic agriculture is now practised in almost all countries of the world, and its share of

agricultural land and farms is growing. The total organically managed area is more than 22 million

hectares worldwide. In addition, the area of certified “wild harvested plants” is at least a further

10.7million hectare, according to various certification bodies. The market for organic products is

growing, not only in Europe and North America, but also in many other countries, including many

developing countries including India. In June 2001, the Government of India announced the

National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP), which aims to promote sustainable

production, environmental conservation, reduction in the use and import of agrochemicals, the

promotion of export and rural development.

In the last 10-15 years, many farmers in Kerala other than those who continued the traditional

methods have taken up organic farming quite earnestly. Those who reverted from modern

intensive agriculture of many years to organic farming practices had to face many immediate

problems. Sudden withdrawal of the external inputs led to steep fall in yield. The high yielding

varieties of seeds had to be replaced by indigenous ones. The gap of 30 - 40 years created a

vacuum in the knowledge of traditional agricultural practices. The prevalence of modern

agriculture in majority of the cultivable areas makes it difficult to maintain organic purity in the

soil and atmosphere. While it has been proven beyond doubt that the organically grown food is

General Discussion 69

much better in quality, it remains to be established that, in terms of total productivity and

economic viability, organic farming can be compared with modern intensive agriculture.

Organic farming is more than a new venue for export earnings; it is part of our Indian culture

specially that values conservation of nature and life on earth as the ultimate philosophy. Efforts

made by Fukuoka (1978) of Japan to develop Natural Farming Principles by his experiments on

his farm over a number of years need special mention here. Similarly such efforts have been made

by a number of farmers in different parts of the country to develop alternative farming methods of

their own in their farm. Experiments and success of such farmers is unique and numbers of such

farmers are only a few. In this regard the study entitled “An Analytical Study of Organic

Cardamom Growers in Idukki District of Kerala” was an attempt to reveal the organic cultivation

practices followed in the high export earning crop of cardamom and the various technological and

methodological innovations by the farmer in the study area. It was able to show that reasons of the

organic cultivation of cardamom crop and how the farmers perceived it as sustainable in terms of

economic, ecological and social parameters.

5.2 Extent of adoption of technological and methodological practices by the cardamom

farmers

As farming encompasses a set of technologies related to the agronomic, pest and nutrient

management aspects, the extent of adoption of each group of technologies deserve importance to

measure the level of adoption among the practicing farmers .Assessment of the extent of adoption

of the practices revealed that farmers were categorized as: no adoption, partial adoption, full

adoption and modified adoption. Majority of the organic and inorganic cardamom farmers were

following the full package of practices for the cultivation of the cardamom. But the custom-made

versions of the practices were most frequently found only among the organic cardamom farmers.

Large forms of the modifications were found in the planting material selection practices. The study

showed that farmers in the study area showed more faith on in the local selection and farmer’s

selection of the planting materials. Modifications in the water harvesting and soil conservation

practices were more often found among the organic cardamom farmers. But the case of the bee

keeping practices, full adoption was found among the organic cardamom farmers and it acted as a

facilitating agent for the pollination of the cardamom plants. It was not possible in the inorganic

cardamom plantations, due to the poisoning by the plant protection chemicals.

5.3 Technological and methodological innovations followed by the cardamom farmers

Many innovations related to farming practices and technologies are coming from farmers’ field

itself. It is by their keenness in farming practices and observation power. A variety of cardamom

called ‘Njallani’, which had 120-160 capsules compared to 30-35 capsules of the ordinary variety

developed by a farmer from his collection of the large number of the cardamom germplasm.

Another high yielding farmer selection variety known as Panikulangara Green Bold No. 1 (PGB-


1), which retained its green colour and size even after drying and yield of 6-8 kg capsule per plant

identified and developed by a farmer from his cardamom plantation. It was suitable for the low

irrigated area, less prone to the pest attack and had bold capsule than other variety and helped the

farmers to earn more profit. Identification of Malabar variety of cardamom which was tolerant to

thrips attack (0-5 per cent) and yield dry capsule of about 400-500 grams per plant per harvest.

A progressive farmer developed a planting method known as ‘Single sucker planting method of

cardamom’, which reduced the planting cost from rupees 2,10,000 to rupees 60, 000. Earlier the

farmers were using the six sucker planting method which was labour intensive and more time

consuming. By the arrival of the single sucker planting method economic benefit of the farmers

were increased. No disturbance to the soil and the earth for keeping the soil more responsive in the

natural way was practiced in many part of the world. A progressive farmer in Idukki was following

the ‘zero soil disturbance’ – covering the soil with thick mulch, regulating the shade in the

plantation there by reducing the damage caused by thrips. By the change in the micro climate the

pest and disease causing organism did not be able to survive and not able to make any damage on

the cardamom plants and capsules. Adoption of one modern technology pertaining to packing was

also adopted in the study area. Packing of the cardamom in a controlled atmospheric condition

(low oxygen and carbon dioxide) – packed cardamom is having a shelf life of 5 years and direct

export of cardamom by that farmer.

5.4 Reasons for organic cultivation of cardamom

With the increase in population, options before us would be not only to stabilize agricultural

production but to increase it further in sustainable manner. The scientists have realized that the

‘Green Revolution’ with high input use has reached a plateau and is now sustained with

diminishing returns of falling dividends. Also due to the ill effect of the chemicals we applied in

the soil destroyed its natural supporting capacity. Now people were realizing the importance of the

need for conservation of the natural eco-system and the land for the sustainable development of the

nation.

The analysis of the major reasons for organic cultivation of the cardamom revealed that the

cardamom farmers were more convinced about the need for conservation of the natural eco-system

and the forest eco-system for the production of sustainable cardamom plantations. However, the

increasing awareness about the chemical free and safe food for a better living, and the willingness

of consumers to spend more for the organic food has raised the demand of organic food even in the

domestic markets and lured farmers to adopt organic production of cardamom. In addition, high

demand for organic produce in international market was also another major factor that lured them

to shift to organic farming through group efforts of farming, marketing and exporting abroad.


5.5 Supporting factors for the organic cardamom production

As initial yield lose and long gestation period of establishment is associated with the organic

cardamom cultivation, it needs the facilitating factors like entrepreneurial competencies and some

socio- psychological conditions for the successful implementations of the same. From the study

various socio-psychological factors were identified, which were contributing the successful

adoption of the organic cultivation in the cardamom. Farmers came under the study area showed

much difference in various factors, which were identified as the important element in practicing

the organic cultivation of the cardamom. The data collected from respondents revealed that most

of the organic and inorganic cardamom farmers belonged to middle age group, had education up to

high school level, better living conditions, farming as the main source of income for living, and

had more than 15 years of experience in the farming field.

But the dependence on the on-farm resources and off-farm resources showed difference among the

organic and inorganic farmers. Inorganic farmers fully depended on the off farm resources for

meeting the fertilizer needs in their farm. Organic cardamom cultivator depended mainly on the

off farm resources for meeting the deficit of the fertilizers faced by them.

The aspiration level of the organic and inorganic farmers was not differing significantly. But risk

taking ability and entrepreneurial competencies of the organic cardamom farmers were found to be

much more than that of the inorganic cardamom farmers. Identification of these factors was

important for the overall development of the nation in economic and man power terms.

5.6 Constraints in the organic cultivation of the cardamom

Many obstacles and hurdles were present in the organic cardamom production. Five major streams

of the constraints were identified in the study locality. In this study it was found that certification

related constraint was the most severe form of constraint faced by the organic cardamom farmers.

Farmers perceived personal constraints as the least important constraint faced by them. Non

availability of enough technological options for organic inputs was the most serious issue in the

farmer’s field in terms of the technological constraint. Even though technology for the production

of the organic manure is present, the need for the large quantity of the organic fertilizer was not

satisfied with these available technologies. In the case of the organic cardamom farmers who

converted their conventional farms in to organic farms, faced initial yield lose due to the

conversion. This was identified as the major economic constraint faced by the farmers in the study

area. Even if they were getting enough returns in the following years, the gap faced by the farmers

in the initial period contributed to economic loses. In the case of organic certification a higher

amount has to be paid for getting the certification by the certifying agency. Even if the farmers

were following the group farming approach in the organic cardamom production the certification

procedure need much amount of investment. Even though farmers were facing these constraints


they were convinced with the importance of organic cultivation in terms of ecological, economic

and social sustainability following the recommended practices.

5.7 Impact of the organic cardamom production on sustainability, income and

employment

There was considerable improvement in employment, income, increased assets possession, saving

and kind of housing conditions of the farmers after adopting organic cardamom cultivation and

exports. This may be due to enhanced earnings and profits made by them from organic cardamom

cultivation. But in the case of the economic impact it was very clear that in the organic cardamom

cultivation the economic gain for the farmers were elevated than the inorganic cardamom growers.

Organic cardamom cultivation was offering more employment opportunities in the study area.

Many of the organic cardamom farmers were getting full year employment due to the high labour

intensive cultivation practices followed in the organic cardamom cultivation. But in the case of the

spending pattern and the saving patterns there was not much difference among the organic and

inorganic cardamom farmers. The difficulty in meeting the essentials of life supporting factors is

less in the case of the organic cardamom farmers, due to the large profit when compared to the

inorganic cardamom farmers.

The whole concept of sustainable agriculture is based on the integration of the three main goals –

environmental health, economic profitability, and social equity. To keep the agro-ecosystem

sustainable for a long time, the farming technologies being adopted in it should be compatible with

the system without generating any harmful effects. It was also clear from the results of economic

sustainability that there was an increase in the net income from the farm as a result of shifting to

organic farming and so most of the organic farmers could accumulate working capital also. It

helped the farmers to accumulate the working capital, improve the income from the farm and most

importantly the less dependence on the external inputs to the farm for the farming practices. It is a

reasonable factor in the adoption of the organic way of cultivation by the cardamom farmers.

Organic farming sustainability is extremely different and prominent than inorganic cultivation

practices.

5.8 Institutional and structural frame work for promoting the organic cardamom

cultivation

India probably has the most well developed conventional agricultural extension service in the

world. Organic agriculture needs to be linked up in one way or the other with the existing support

services. Indian Cardamom Research Institute (ICRI), had various divisions for the basic and

applied research in cardamom crop. In the field they were following the single farmer approach for

the organic cardamom production. The faculty members were identifying the farmers whoever had

the potential for the organic cultivation and had given training and facilities for the betterment of

the organic production. They had demonstration plots for the organic cardamom cultivation.


Cardamom Research Station (CRS), under the Kerala Agricultural University had developed the

package of practices recommendation for the organic cardamom production. This research institute

was following the group farming approach for the promotion of the organic cardamom production.

Peermade Development Society (PDS) is registered as a nongovernmental organization, aims at

the sustainable development through developing various indigenous, community based and people

participatory developmental programmes. It was the most potential promoting agency in the case

of the organic cardamom production. The agency was following the group farming approach along

with the individual farmer approach. For meeting the needs of marginal farmers and women for

processing their farm produce, the centre has started agricultural processing centers by installing

the proven technologies of farmers. The whole centre is managed by the women’s self-help

groups. Producer group PDS Organic Spices promoted a NGO termed as Sahyadri Organic Small

Farmers Consortium (SOSFC). It helps the farmers to obtain the premium price for their produces.

There by this agency was following the group approach for the cultivation and the market

promotion of the organic cardamom.

INDOCERT is a private certification body operating nationally and internationally, established in

India. It is accredited by National Accreditation Body (NAB), Government of India, as per

National Program for Organic Production (NPOP). In the field of organic farming, INDOCERT

also functions as a platform for training, awareness creation, information dissemination and

networking among farmers. It was providing the organic certification to individual farmers and

farmers groups. Group certification can be applied for groups of small farmers, which are covered

by an Internal Control System (ICS). Group certification was followed in the organic cardamom

production units, for the brand making and marketing. The organization worked for the promotion

of the organically certified spices especially in the case of organic cardamom.

For the promotion of organic cultivation many agencies were working in India, like government

agencies, non government agencies and certifying and export promoting agencies. India is the

country with the densest population of NGOs in the world. Many have started the promotion of

sustainable agriculture or organic agriculture as a basis. From the study it was clear that in the

study area many agencies were working for the promotion of the organic cardamom cultivation.

Organic certification is necessary to prove the produce is organic in nature. Certification is the

only way to distinguish between organic and inorganic cardamom. Hence, field inspection and

group certification procedures followed by the certification agencies play an important role in the

quality control of spice produce.

CHAPTER VI

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION Working for the earth is not a way to get rich; it is a way to be rich

(PAUL HAWKEN)

6.1 Introduction

Agriculture forms the basis of economic policies and is the ultimate driver of national economic

growth and poverty alleviation in many developing countries including India. Organic farming is

an alternative farming method for the production of the pollution free, healthy produces. Organic

farming has now been tagged not only for minimizing externalities but also for its cost

effectiveness. The increasing demand for organic produce especially in the case of the high profit

earning produce like spices has created new export opportunities and many developing countries

have started to tap lucrative export markets for organic produce. Indian organic farming industry is

almost entirely export oriented. The majority of farmers in India had opted this practice motivated

by attractive market and price margins.

Diverse agricultural systems had evolved in Kerala, as diverse as its landscapes. But in the last few

decades, traditional agriculture was rejected in favour of the modern, intensive kind. This had a

negative impact not only on agriculture but also on the economy, environment, culture and social

life of the people. Decreasing share of agriculture in the total domestic production and individual

earnings from agriculture, diminishing importance of agriculture as a source of livelihood,

fragmentation of land, pollution due to chemical pesticides and fertilizers, etc. are some of the

major problems faced by agriculture in Kerala. The farmers in Kerala were convinced that the only

way is to return to the traditional sustainable ways of cultivation without harming the ecosystem.

Thus organic farming, a system with the broad principle of ‘live and let live’, came up which was

recognized nationally and internationally. This was more evident among the farmers of the high

fertilizer responsive and high value spice crop cardamom. In this context, the present study was

formulated to investigate the various dimensions related to organic cardamom production in the

ecological, economic and sociological perspectives with the overall objective of identification of

the technological and methodological innovations in the cardamom production with special

emphasis on the organic cultivation and the impact of the organic cultivation among the farmers

on income and employment generation. The specific objectives of the study are given below.

6.2 Specific Objectives

1. To identify the technological and methodological innovations adopted by organic cardamom

farmers.

2. To characterize the entrepreneurial and socio-psychological attributes of organic cardamom

growers.

Summary and Conclusions 75

3. To assess the impact of techno-entrepreneurial factors in terms of income and employment

enhancement.

4. To examine the institutional and structural frame work of government and nongovernment

agencies for the promotion of organic agri enterprises.

6.3 Research Methodology

The ex-post facto research design was used in the present study. The study was conducted in

purposively selected Idukki district of Kerala state as intensive spice cultivations especially,

organic cardamom production and certification was taken up by many agencies in the area and

Idukki being the spice bowel of Kerala. From the district three blocks namely, Udumbanchola,

Devikulam and Peermadu were purposively selected for the study since they are known as the

cardamom belt in the district. From each selected block, one village was selected randomly and

from each village, 30 organic Cardamom growers and 10 inorganic Cardamom growers were

selected randomly for the study. For examining the institutional and structural frame work of

government and non government agencies for the promotion of organic agri enterprises, 10

officials from each block were selected purposively for study. Survey approach was followed for

the data collection method. Data collected was analyzed with the help of various statistical

methods in SPSS package.

6.4 Major findings

6.4.1 The technological and methodological innovations adopted by organic cardamom

farmers

Extent of adoption of each technological and methodological practice among organic and

inorganic cardamom growers was found out in percentages and categorized. (No adoption, Partial

adoption, Full adoption, Modified adoption). Technological And Methodological Innovations

Identified were

1. Development of farmer selected variety of cardamom -‘Njallani’, which had 120-160

capsules compared to 30-35 capsules in the ordinary variety.

2. Development of farmer selected variety of cardamom – Panikulangara Green Bold No. 1

(PGB-1), which retained its green colour and size even after drying and yield 6-8 kg of

capsule per plant

3. Identification of Malabar variety of cardamom which was tolerant to thrips attack (0-5 per

cent) and yield dry capsule of about 400-500 grams per plant per harvest.

4. Single sucker planting method of cardamom, which reduced the planting cost from rupees

2,10,000 to rupees 60, 000

5. Zero soil disturbance – covering the soil with thick mulch, regulating the shade in the

plantation there by reducing the damage caused by thrips


6. Packing of the cardamom in a controlled atmospheric condition (low oxygen and carbon

dioxide) – packed cardamom is having shelf life of 5 years and direct export of cardamom

by that farmer.

6.4.2 Reasons for organic farming:

According to farmers’ opinion, most preferred reason for adopting organic cardamom farming

were production of a pollution free environment followed by high demand for the organic produce

in the domestic market, production of chemical free food and high price of organic produce. The

organic cardamom farmers considered government financial support as the least important factor

for the adoption of organic cultivation in cardamom farming.

6.4.3 The entrepreneurial and socio-psychological attributes of organic cardamom growers

Various socio-psychological factors identified and studied.

o A wide difference between the organic and inorganic cardamom growers was observed in

the land size category. More than half of the organic growers had land area greater than 3

acre (52.2 per cent). But majority of the inorganic cardamom farmers had land area less than

1 acre (43.3 per cent)

o Majority of the organic cardamom farmers depended on on-farm and off-farm resources for

meeting their requirement. But none of the inorganic cardamom farmers were dependent on

the on-farm resources

o Most of the organic cardamom farmers (76.7 per cent) were members of different farming

groups. In the case of inorganic farmers 56.7 per cent of the farmers had membership in

farming groups

o Most of the organic cardamom farmers and inorganic cardamom farmers were in the

medium, innovation potential category

o Risk taking ability of the organic and inorganic cardamom grower differed significantly. The

mean rank for risk taking ability of the organic cardamom growers (70.85) was much more

than that of inorganic cardamom growers (27.80)

o Based on the median value obtained from the response of the organic and inorganic

cardamom growers, quartiles were calculated. Majority of the organic cardamom farmers

(74.7 per cent) were processing high level of aspiration, in terms of increasing the organic

farming area and more input oriented work. But major portion of the inorganic cardamom

farmers (46.7 per cent) were coming under the medium level category

o The mean score showed that except for initiative and the persuasion organic cardamom

growers differed significantly from the inorganic cardamom farmers

o Six sets of different constraints were enlisted and farmer’s response on their severity was

asked. The mean rank corresponding to the certification was more and hence it was rated to


the major constraint to organic cardamom production. Least affecting constraints were

personal and economic constraints

6.4.4 The impact of techno-entrepreneurial factors in terms of income and employment

enhancement

o More than one third of the cardamom farmers (38.9 per cent) reported that there was an

increase of the income in the range of 1-2 lakhs due to organic cultivation. 73.3 per cent of

inorganic cardamom respondent were present in the less than one lakhs earning group

o This difference in income was tested using t-test to know the statistical significance of the

difference. From the significant test result it is evident that there was significant difference

in the average income of organic farmers as compared to inorganic farmers. That indicated

the higher income generating capacity of the organic cardamom farmers

o More than half of the organic cardamom farmers were fully employed throughout the

season. It was contributing to 54.4 per cent of the total sample selected. 36.7 per cent of the

total organic cardamom growers were getting more than 100 days of employment in a year

o Almost all the respondents irrespective of organic and inorganic cardamom farmers told that

their spending pattern had been changed due to various factors like urbanization,

appreciation of land values and increase in income

o Many of the farmers were saving the money in the form of land and luxury material

o Most important sustainability dimension identified by the farmers was the component which

was contributing to societal stability and status. Economic sustainability was also found out

to be playing an important role in the everyday living by adoption of the organic farming

practices

6.4.5 The institutional and structural frame work of government and nongovernment

agencies for the promotion of organic cardamom production

Three major categories of the agencies were identified in the study area. They were governmental

organizations, non-governmental organizations and certifying and exporting organizations.

6.4.5.1 Government organizations

a. Indian Cardamom Research Institute (ICRI)

o The Spices Board (the erstwhile Cardamom Board), was constituted under the Ministry of

Commerce and Industry, Government of India

o Station is headed by a Deputy Director (Research). Various divisions for conducting

research on cardamom production are Crop Improvement Division, Agronomy and Soil

Science Division, Plant Pathology Division, Entomology Division, Post-harvest Technology

Division and Transfer of Technology Division


o In the field approach, single farmer approach was found effective by the ICRI. Field work

group team identifies the progressive and innovative organic cardamom farmers from

various parts of the Idukki, and help in standardizing and adopting the innovations

b. Cardamom Research Station (CRS)

o The research station is under the Kerala Agricultural University

o They are acting as a facilitating agent for the promotion of the organic cardamom production

o The institute standardised the package of practice on organic cardamom production

o Group farming approach is followed by CRS

6.4.5.2 Non-Governmental organization

a. Peermade Development Society (PDS)

o Aims at sustainable development through developing various indigenous, community based

and people participatory developmental programmes

o Group farming approach is followed by the PDS for the production of organic cardamom

o Produce from the identified organic farmer groups was collected and certified as per the

requirements

o PDS Organic cardamom have been certified as per ISO 22000:2005

o The FLO-CERT GmbH Certification for Development has certified PDS Organic Spices to

trade in Fair Trade products. The certification is accredited by UKAS (United Kingdom

Accreditation Services)

o For meeting the needs of marginal farmers and women for processing their farm produce,

the centre has started agricultural processing centers by installing the proven technologies of

farmers. The whole centre is managed by women’s self-help groups

o Producer group PDS Organic Spices promotes an NGO termed as Sahyadri Organic Small

Farmers Consortium (SOSFC). It helps the farmers to obtain the premium price for the

produce

b. Certifying and exporting institution

INDOCERT

o INDOCERT is an internationally operating, certification body established in India. It is

accredited by the National Accreditation Body (NAB), Government of India, as per

National Program for Organic Production (NPOP)

o In the field of organic farming, INDOCERT also functions as a platform for training,

awareness creation, information dissemination and networking among farmers

o It provides the organic certification to individual farmers and farmers groups. Group

certification can be applied for groups of small farmers, who are covered by an internal

control system (ics). Group certification is followed in the organic cardamom production

units, for the brand making and marketing


6.5 Implications of the study

Based on the most important findings of this study, the following are some implied meanings

for policy planners and researchers.

o There is a need to promote organic cultivation of cardamom among farmers so as to enable

them to enhance their earning in an ecologically sustainable manner. But social and

economic sustainability is also required to be considered before recommending this to

farmers

o Innovative technological and methodological practices of organic cardamom farmers which

have increased the yield may be popularized for adoption by other farmers as well

o Conviction about organic farming as a better alternative for sustainable development need to

be generated among farmers

o Certification procedures need to be simplified and some incentives to bear initial yield

losses must be provided to the organic cardamom growers

o Though there are many institutions and agencies working towards promotion of organic

cardamom cultivation a synergetic approach need to be adopted

An Analytical Study of Organic Cardamom Growers in Idukki District of Kerala

ABSTRACT

The approach and outlook towards agriculture and marketing of food has seen a quantum change worldwide over the last few decades. Intensive cultivation practices and commercialization of agriculture have resulted into increased environmental concerns. Organic farming is increasingly being accepted as an option addressing these concerns. The present study aimed to analyse the organic cardamom production in Idukki district of Kerala. The key issues in this study were the extent of adoption of the recommended package of practices of the cardamom cultivation, identification of the technological and methodological innovations by the cardamom farmers, reasons for the adoption of the organic cultivation in cardamom, various supporting factors and the constraints faced by the farmers, impact of the organic cultivation in terms of economic and employment generation and the institutional and the structural frame work of the agencies for the promotion of organic cardamom cultivation.

Technological and methodological innovation developed and followed by the organic and inorganic cardamom farmers like the Njallani variety, single sucker planting method and the zero soil disturbances having wide acceptability among others also. Their greater concern for the pollution free environment, chemical free produce, and increased demand for the organic cardamom in the international and the domestic markets drive them energetically to adopt organic farming practices in cardamom.

The study revealed that most of the organic and inorganic cardamom farmers belonged to middle age group, had education up to high school level, better living conditions, farming as the main source of income for living, and had more than 15 years of experience in the farming field. Aspiration level of the organic and inorganic farmers was not differing significantly. But risk taking ability and entrepreneurial competencies of the organic cardamom farmers were much more than that of the inorganic cardamom farmers. Constraints related to certification and marketing aspects had a major role in creating obstacles to promotion of organic farming and its spread in the state.

The organic cardamom production in Kerala is an identifiable example of the positive impact giving factor in the farming sector. The farmers who are following the organic cultivation were earning a desirable margin of the profit by the marketing of the certified brand of the organic cardamom. Employment generation in terms of the number of days employed by the farmers was more in the case of organic cardamom growers. Though organic cardamom cultivation can enhance the ecological sustainability of an agro-ecosystem, scientists and policy makers should be vigilant while advising the technology to the rural poor farmers, because organic farming practices need to ensure economic and social sustainability too among all categories of farmers since those factors were considered as important by them.

Governmental and Non-governmental institutions play an important role in the organic cultivation promotion, by giving a well accessible form of information, making a platform of group organic certification instead of individual organic certification. Export promotion of organic cardamom, making brands with special identifiable standards is done by the organic cardamom farming supportive institutions.

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Singh, R.S., (1985). Rural Elite, Entrepreneurship and Social Change. Rawat Publication, Jaipur.

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Sisodia, G.S., (1971). “Review of social implications of farm mechanization in Rural Hissar”,

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APPENDIX I

Table 1: Reasons for organic farming Friedman's test:

Q (Observed value) 345.340 Q (Critical value) 14.067

DF 7 p-value (Two-tailed) < 0.0001

Table 2: Risk taking and innovation proneness

Risk Inno_Proness Mann-Whitney U 369.000 1292.000

Wilcoxon W 834.000 1757.000 Z -6.025 -.274

Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .784

Table 3: Entrepreneurial competencies

Initiative Sees and act

upon opportunities

Persistence Information seeking

Concern for high quality

work Mann-Whitney U 1214.000 684.000 345.000 466.000 177.000

Wilcoxon W 1679.000 1149.000 810.000 931.000 642.000 Z -.841 -4.098 -6.152 -5.401 -7.169

Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .400 .000 .000 .000 .000

Commitment to work

Sense of efficiency

Systematic planning

Problem solving

Self confidence

Mann-Whitney U 642.500 802.000 677.000 305.000 391.000 Wilcoxon W 1107.500 1267.000 1142.000 770.000 856.000

Z -4.361 -3.360 -4.139 -6.382 -5.858 Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .001 .000 .000 .000

Assertiveness Persuasion Use of

influence strategy

Mann-Whitney U 480.000 991.500 371.000 Wilcoxon W 945.000 1456.500 836.000

Z -5.445 -2.237 -5.993 Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .025 .000

x

Table 4: Constraints Kruskal-Wallis test:

K (Observed value) 160.453 K (Critical value) 9.488


Table 5: Technological constraint

Friedman's test: Q (Observed value) 142.141 Q (Critical value) 7.815


Table 6: Economic constraint



Table 7: Personal



Table 8: Certification related



Table 9: Ecological constraint Friedman's test:

Q (Observed value) 41.039 Q (Critical value) 7.815


xi

Table 10: Sustainability

Sustainability

Ecological Sustainability

Economical Sustainability

Social Sustainability

Mann-Whitney U 230.500 1068.000 629.500 124.000 Wilcoxon W 695.500 1533.000 1094.500 589.000

Z -6.820 -1.750 -4.458 -7.546 Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .080 .000 .000

APPENDIX II Entrepreneurial Competencies

SCORING SHEET FOR SELF RATING QUESTIONNAIRE

Instructions :

1. Enter the rating from the completed questionnaire on the line above the item number in

parentheses Notice that the items numbers in each column are consecutive: item number 2 is

below item number 1 and so forth.

2. Do the addition and subtraction indicated in each row to compute each competency score.

3. Add all competency scores to compute the total score.

Ratings of Statements Score Competency + + + - + 6 = (1) (15) (29) (43) (57) Initiative

- + - + + 6 = (2) (16) (30) (44) (58) Sees & acts on opportunities

+ + - + + 6 = (3) (17) (31) (45) (59) Persistence

+ - + + + 6 = (4) (18) (32) (46) (60) Information seeking

+ - + + + 6 = (5) (19) (33) (47) (61) Concern for high quality of work

+ + + - + 6 = (6) (20) (34) (48) (62) Commitment to work

- + + + + 6 = (7) (21) (35) (49) (63) Efficiency Orientation

+ + - + + 6 = (8) (22) (36) (50) (64) Systematic Planning

+ - + + + 6 = (9) (23) (37) (51) (65) Problem Solving

- + + + + 6 = (10) (24) (38) (52) (66) Self Confidence

+ - + + + 6 = (11) (25) (39) (53) (67) Assertiveness

+ + + - + 6 = (12) (26) (40) (54) (68) Persuasion

- + + + + 6 = (13) (27) (41) (55) (69) Use of Influence Strategies

- - - + +18 = (14) (28) (42) (56) (70) Correction Factor

APPENDIX III DIVISION OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION

INDIAN AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE

NEW DELHI 110012

1) Name of the farmer: …………………………………………………….

2) Age: …………

3) Village: …………………………………………………….

4) District: ………………………………..

5) Educational Status: i) Illiterate ii) Can read only iii) Can read and sign only

iv)Primary school v) High School vi) Secondary school

vii) graduate viii) post graduate and above

6) Occupational Status: i) full time farming ii) Farming + service iii) Farming + Business

7) Family Type: i) Nuclear Family ii) Joint Family iii) extended family

8) Family Size: …………….

9) Type of House: i) Thatched ii) Tiled iii) old Concrete vi) modern concrete

10) Total Land Size: ……………..... i) irrigated…………….ii) unirrigated

11) Area under Organic Cultivation: i) Owned: ………….. ii) Leased in: …………

12) Year of Organic Certification: ……………..

13) Experience in i) Farming: ………… ii) Organic Farming: ………………

14) Type of Farming: i) Monoculture ii) Crop Rotation iii) Dry land Farming iv)

Mixed and Multistoried Cropping v) Mixed Farming

15) Allied Agricultural Activities: i) Cattle/ Goat/ Piggery/ Rabbit

ii) Poultry/ Duck iii) Bee Keeping iv) Fish v) Others

16) Annual income (Rs)…………..

17) Share of Agriculture in Total Household Income

i) Fully Depend on Farming ii) Farming + Non-agriculture

18) Irrigation Potential: i) Throughout the year ii) Only during Seasons

iii) Un-assured & Irregular

19) Water Source: i) Well ii) Pond/Tank

iii) Canal iv) River v) Bore well

20) Farmer’s Perception of his Farming Method:

i) Traditional ii) Modern iii) Partly Organic iv) Fully Organic

21) Major technological innovations in organic cardamom farming

Extent of adoption No Technology for organic farming in cardamom No

adoption Partially adopted

Fully adopted

Modified & adopted

Since when

Source of information

Reasons for adoption

1 Selection of planting materials a) Improved variety

Appendix III xiv

b) Local selection c) Farmers selection

2 Propagation methods a) Seedlings b) Suckers

3 If seedlings –nursery preparation a) Land preparation b) Selection of seed c) Extraction of

seed

d) Seed treatment e) Sowing

1.Time 2.Method

f) Secondary nursery preparation

1.Planting g) Poly bag nursery

1.Preparation of poly bag

2.Time of planting

3.Planting method

4 Planting in field a) Land preparation b) Spacing c) Pit size d) Pit preparation e) Planting time

5 Weed management a) No of weeding b) Time of weeding c) Type of weeding

6 Trashing a) Method b) Time

7 Earthing up a) Time b) Method c) No of earthing up

8 Irrigation management a) Irrigation time b) Mulching

9 Soil and water conservation technology a) Type

Water harvesting Bunding

10 Manuring a) Time b) Dose c) Type

11 Shade regulation a) Shade trees b) Practices

12 Bee keeping a) No of colonies b) Maintenance

13 Plant protection-pest

Appendix III xv

a) Pest…………. b) Control measures c) Method of

application

d) Time Pest…………. Control measures Method of application

Time Pest…………. Control measures Method of application

Time 14 Plant protection-pathogen

a) Diseases b) Control measures c) Method of

application

d) Time Diseases Control measures Method of application

Time 15 Harvesting and processing

a) Time of harvest b) Post harvest

operations

1.washing 2.drying 3.cleaning 4.polishing 5.sorting 6.grading 7.packing 16 If any bio control agents

a) Name b) Time of

application

c) Method of application

17 If any bio pesticides a) Name b) Time of

application


18 Bio fertilizers a) Name b) Time of

application


1.seed treatment 2.seedling

treatment

3.soil application 19 Botanicals

a) Name

Appendix III xvi

b) Preparation c) Application

22)*Modification details…………………………………………………………

Technology:

1)……………………………..

2)…………………………….

3)……………………………….

23)**Innovations developed by own

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……

24) Sustainability of Organic Farming Technologies

Response Statements Strongly

agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly

disagree 1. Protects and recharges the farm resources

2. Increases the system biodiversity 3. Low negative impact on environment

Ecol

ogic

al

Sust

aina

bilit

y

4. Chemical free environment 5. Improve net income from the farm 6. Enable to accumulate working capital

7. Low dependence on external inputs reduces cost of cultivation

Econ

omic

Su

stai

nabi

lity

8. Help farmers to become self sufficient with minimal risk in long run

9. Rural poor involved in the approach 10. Indigenous knowledge recognized within the approach

11. Equitable access to assets

Soci

al

Sust

aina

bilit

y

12. Technology safer to human and animals

Appendix III xvii

26) Why did you opt for the organic cardamom production? Give reasons………

Sl.No Particulars Rank

1. High price of organic produce

2. Organic farming produces chemical free food

3. Organic farming reduces the environmental pollution

4. Organic farming lowers the cost of cultivation

5. Increasing domestic market for organic produce

6. High demand of organic produce in the export market

7. Financial support from government through the Kerala state organic farming policy

8. Organic farming enables group farming and marketing

27) Social class ….. put tick mark against suitable one

Category Tick mark

Lower class Lower middle class Middle class Upper middle class Elite class

28) Social participation

Are you a member / office bearer in any of the following organization?

- If yes, please specify the organization and role.

Sl.No Organization Member Office bearer

1. Panchayat

2. Co-operative society

3. Youth club

4. Farmer’s organizations

5. Socio-cultural organization

6 Organic farming associations

6. Religious committee

7. Others (specify)

29) Aspiration

All of us want to have many things in life. Some get what they want, some keep trying for it and a few fail

to get it but still people keep on aspiring for what they don’t have now as they expect to have it in future. Hence

are a few questions regarding some of the areas with which you may be mostly concerned.

Appendix III xviii

Do not bother about whether you are really going to make it or not, but still you may certainly expect

certain of these events to happen in the near future. Please be frank about your answer and your sincere opinion

will be appreciated.

a) All of us want to provide education to our children. But each of us may differ with regard to the extent

of education that we would expect our children to have. The level of education is primary, middle,

high school, college, technical and professional. What would be the level of education you expect?

1. Your sons to have……………..

2. Your daughters to have…………….

b) Each one of us has some earnings as a result of our work either monthly or yearly to sustain us through

our life. We also try to improve our income by various means. Compared with previous years, what

would be the increase in annual income (in Rs.), you expect to get in the next

1. One year…..

2. Two years……

3. Three years……..

c) You must be thought of expanding the area under organic cardamom cultivation. How much do you

want your area to expand in…..?

Percent increase expected

1. One year…..

2. Two years……

d) Three years……. What would be the household asset(s) you expected to possess in next three years?

Value in Rs/

1. One year…..

2. Two years……

3. Three years…….

30) Innovation proneness

I shall read three statements at a time. Please hear carefully and indicate one statement which is Most like you,

and one statement which is Least like you

No Statement Most like statement Least like statement 1 a) I try to keep myself up- to

date with information on new technologies. But it does not mean that I try out all the new one in own farm

Appendix III xix

b) I feel very restless till I try out the new practices c) Many of the people talk about the new practices, but who knows it is good/better?

2 a) I heard lots of new farm practices and I tried most of them in my farm b) I usually wait to see the result in the neighbours’ field before I try that one c) Some how I believe that the practices followed by me is better

3 a) I am cautious about trying of the new practices b) I don’t feel any need of changing the current practices c) Usually the new technologies are not too much successful, if it promise the success then I am willing to follow that one

31) Risk taking ability

1. One farmer has done pepper farming in 15 acres of land. The pepper prices are good. In this farming

he has earned much money. But if the prices crash, farmer will not be able to recover his costs or

investment. In the next year if the market price may fall. For the following possibilities, in how much

of land he should he grow pepper?

(a) If there is a hope for fall of the market prices, then, he should grow pepper in……..acres.

(b) If there is a hope for fall of the market prices at a rate of 25 Rs. out of 100Rs, then, he should

grow pepper in……..acres

(c) If there is a hope for fall of the market prices at a rate of 25 Rs. out of 100Rs, then, he should


(d) If there is a hope for fall of the market prices at a rate of > 50 Rs. out of 100Rs, then, he should


2. Hari is a middle class farmer. This year the rubber yield is very good. Since there is no appropriate

drying facility at his home, he is selling all his rubber at fairly low prices. But if he can dry it properly

it is possible to get better price. Hari had now 100 kg of rubber per month. He wants to put them in the

drying room.

For which he had to pay rent for the drying and storage room. After 3-4 months, if the price

increases, then he can earn much money as profit. If the prices fall down, then he has to incur a heavy loss

in addition to paying rent for the drying and storage room.

If the price increases, according to the following hopes, what would you suggest, Hari to put how many kg

of rubber in the storage room?

Appendix III xx

(a) If there is a hope for increase in price is high then, he should put in……..kg of rubber in storage

room.

(b) If there is a hope for increase in price is 25 Rs out of 100 Rs then, he should put in……..kg of

rubber in storage room.

(c) If there is a hope for increase in price is 50 Rs out of 100 Rs then, he should put in……..kg of

rubber in storage room.

3. If there is a hope for increase in price is >50 Rs out of 100 Rs then, he should put in……..kg of rubber

in storage room. Government started a new scheme for providing farmers with an irrigation pump set

on loan on easy installment. It has been noticed that a few pumps issued by the government were found

to be very bad. If the pumps, turns out to be good, there is definitely a chance for the farmer to get

much more profit after repaying the loan. But if the pumps, turns to be bad and under repair, then the

farmer has to use his money from his home to repay the loan. In such cases, the whole affair turns out

to be a loss making proposition, resulting in heavy loss to the farmer.

Suppose, there are already 10 pumps installed in your village, from among them,

1. If all the pumps are good(10), then would you like to take the loan for the pump

set?...........................Yes/No

2. If 5 pumps are good out of the 10, then would you like to take the loan for the pump

set?...........................Yes/No

3. If 2 pumps are good out of the 10, then would you like to take the loan for the pump

set?...........................Yes/No

4. If all the pumps are bad (10), then would you like to take the loan for the pump

set?...........................Yes/No

4. Rahul got an offer of a job from which he can earn Rs.4000/-per month. But from among his friends, a

business man suggested that Rahul should start a new business, for which no investment is required. If the

business runs well he can earn Rs.10000/-per month. If the business does not run well, then he may not earn

anything. In addition he may loss the job of Rs.4000/-per month. What should Rahul do?

1. If the chance of failure of the business is 20 paise in rupee, should he take the

business?....................................Yes/No


business?....................................Yes/No


business?....................................Yes/No

If the chance of failure of the business is >60 paise in rupee, should he take the

business?....................................Yes/No

Entrepreneurial competencies

Please answer the following questions

Appendix III xxi

Instruction:

1. This questionnaire consists of 70 brief statements. Read each statement and find out how well it suits

for you. Be honest about yourself. Take this as an opportunity to find out yourself.

2. Select one of the numbers below to indicate how will the statements fits for you

(5)Very good

(4)Good

(3)Somewhat

(2)Very little

(1)Not at all

Please answer the following questions

1. I look for the things that used to be done

2. I like challenges and new opportunities

3. When faced with the difficult problems, I spend a lot of time to try to find a solution

4. When starting a new task of project, I gather a great deal of information

5. It bothers me, when things are not done very well

6. I put much effort to my work

7. I find ways to do things faster

8. I plan a large project by breaking it in to small task

9. I think of unusual solutions to my problems

10. I feel confident that I will succeed at whatever I try to do

11. I tell others when they have not performed as expected

12. I got others to support my recommendations

13. I develop strategies to influence others

14. No matter who I am talking to, I am a good listener

15. Do things that need to be done before being asked by others

16. I prefer the activities that I know well and with which I am comfortable

17. I try several times to get people to do what I would like them to do

18. I seek the advice of the people who know a lot about the problems or task I am working

on

19. It is important to me to do a high quality job

20. I work long hours and make the personal scarifies to complete the job on time

21. I am not good at using my time well

22. I think about the advantages and the disadvantages of different ways of accomplishing

the job

Appendix III xxii

23. I think of many new ideas

24. I change my mind if others strongly disagree with me

25. If am angry or upset with any person I tell that person

26. I convince others of my ideas

27. I do not spend much time thinking about how to influence others

28. I feel resentful when I do not get my ways

29. I do things before it is clear that they must be done

30. I notice the opportunities to do new things

31. When something get in the way of what I am trying to do, I keep on trying to accomplish

what I want

32. I take action without seeing information

33. My own work is better that of the other people I work with

34. I do whatever it take to complete a job

35. It bother me when my time is wasted

36. I try to think of all the problems, I may encounter and plan what to do if each problem

occurs

37. Once I have selected an approach to solve a problem, I do not change that approach

38. When trying something difficult or challenging, I feel confident that I will succeed

39. It is difficult for me to order the people to do the things

40. I get others to see how I will be able to accomplish what I set out to go

41. I get important people to help me to accomplish my goals

42. I past I have had failure

43. I take actions before it is clear that I must

44. I try things that are very new and different from what I have done before

45. When I faced with major difficulty, I quickly go on to other things

46. When working for a project for someone, I ask many questions to sure about and

understand what that person want

47. When something I have been working on is satisfactory, I do not spend extra time to

make it better

48. When I am doing a job for someone, I make a special effort to make sure that, person is

satisfied with my work

49. I find the ways to do the things in less cost

50. I deal with the problems as they arise, rather than spend time to anticipate them

51. I think of many ways to solve the problems

52. I do things that are risky

53. When I disagree with others, I let them know

54. I am very persuasive with others

55. In order to reach my goals, I think of solutions that benefit everyone involved in that

problem

56. There have been occasions when I look advantages of someone

57. I wait for directions from others before taking action

58. I take the advantage of opportunities that arise

Appendix III xxiii

59. I try several ways to overcome things that get in the way of reaching my goals

60. I go to several different sources to get information to help with the task or project

61. I want the company I own to be the best of its type

62. I do not let my work interfere with my family or personal life

63. I get the most I can out of the money I have to accomplish a project or task

64. I take a logical and systematic approach to activities

65. If one approach to a problem does not work, I think of another approach

66. I stick with my decisions even if others disagree strongly with me

67. I tell the people what they have to do, even if they do not want to do it

68. I cannot get people who have strong opinions or ideas to change their mind

69. I get to know people who may be able to help me to reach my goals

70. When I do not know something, I do not mind admitting it

32) Economic Impact

a) Income generation

1. Increase in cardamom production (in Rupees)/ha

2. Increase in income from export (in Rupees).

b) Employment generation

1. Increase in number of days (per family) employed

2. Increase in number of working members (per family) employed

3. Increase in per capita employment (man days/ man hours)

Changes in employment

(A) No. of members employed: At present…………Before 10 years……….

Employment <100 days 100 days >100 days Fully employed No. of days of employment

At present

No. of days of employmeduring recession

At present

2) Changes in saving

How much is your yearly saving?

At present………………… (Rs) Before 10 years…………….. (Rs)

3) Changes in spending pattern

Statements No If yes, then how much? Way of spending

Do you think there is any change

in your spending pattern?

4) Changes in the material procession

Statements No If yes, then what kind? Cost of material

Do you think there is any change in

your material possession?

Appendix III xxiv

5) Changes in the expenditure pattern

Statements No If yes, then how much? Way of expenditure

Do you think there is any change

in your expenditure pattern?

6) Changes in the investment pattern

Statements No If yes, then what kind? Pattern of investment

Do you think there is any change in

your investment pattern?

33) Major constraints to the adoption of organic farming in cardamom

Rating Particulars Most

Severe Severe Not Severe

1. Lack of timely information related to organic farming technologies

2. Non availability of enough organic inputs 3. Lack of a reliable package of practices for organic farming

Tech

nolo

gic

Con

stra

ints

4. Shortage of disease free seeds and planting materials 5. Initial Yield Loss 6. Inadequate financial support to the new organic farmers

from govt.

7. Higher Cost for the Establishment of Manure Source 8. Initial Low Price for the Produce 9. Hesitation from neighboring farmers to follow organic

practices making the produce of relatively less quality

10. The debate still going in the society about the need for the promotion of organic farming

Econ

omic

Con

stra

ints

11. Lack of proper community movement for the promotion of organic farming

Appendix III xxv

12. Lack of awareness about organic farming 13. Shortage of owned resources 14. Fear of profit loss due to low yield in the initial period

Pers

onal

C

onst

rain

ts

15. The belief that ‘It is better to follow conventional farming today and let tomorrow take care of it’

16. Higher cost involved in the certification process 17. The need of a long period for the certification process 18. Lack of proper certifying agencies in the nearby place 19. The stringent standards and rules of the certification process 20. Lack of reliable market information & distribution channels 21. Lack awareness about grading & different grades

Con

stra

ints

rel

ated

to

certi

ficat

ion

22. Difficulty in selection and development of target markets 23. Higher Pest and disease problems 24. Requirement of long period to get positive responses from

the ecosystem

25. Loss of ecosystem viability to maintain a good crop

Ecol

ogic

al

Con

stra

ints

26. Inability to reconstruct the destroyed links of various ecosystem functions

To examine the institutional and structural frame work of government and nongovernment agencies for

the promotion of organic agri-enterprises

1. Open ended questions for officials

1) Personal characteristics

a) Name

b) Age

c) Organization or institution working for

d) Experience: No of years……..

2) Organizational characteristics

a) Resources

b) Facilities available at the institution

c) Number of villages served

d) Ongoing activities and services

3) What are the reasons for the beginning of this institution?

4) From where you are getting financial supports?

5) How many stakeholders you are having?

a. If any, who are they?

6) What is the mode of action?

a.In organizational level

b.Among the farmers

7) What is the structural frame work of the institution?

Appendix III xxvi

8) How the certification procedure being practiced?

a) If having any collaborating agency, which are they?(year)

b) What are the major standards followed by them in certification procedure?

c) How you are selecting farmers for certification?

d) Is any constrains faced during the selection procedure?

e) What is the response of the farmers about your certification procedure?

9) Is any technology developed by this institution for supporting the organic production of cardamom?

a. If any, what are they?

b. How it developed?

c. Cost of development?

d. Whether got any other institutional support?

e. Whether any farmers are involved in development of the technology?

f. How they involved in the developing process?

g. Whether these technologies are being adopted by other farmers or institutions?

h. If they adopting what are the benefits obtained by them?

i. What are the approaches followed in marketing of these products?

j. Individual/group/any other NGOs

10) What is the extension approach followed by the institution?

a. Individual approach

b. Group approach

11) What is the export potential of the organic cardamom in your previous years experience?

2) Interview schedule for the farmers for knowing about the institutional frame work

1. Personal characters

a) Name

b) Age

c) Membership in any organization/if any specify

d) Why you joined that organization?

2. What are the different organizations actively participating the organic cardamom production?

3. Did you get any financial support from that organization?

4. What is the mode of action of organization in that region?

a) Group approach

b) Individual approach

5. What are the major practices they are suggesting for the organic production?

6. Is they developed any technology for cardamom production and processing?

Appendix III xxvii

If any, what are they…………

What is the main feature of that developed technology?

7. How they help you in the certification process?

8. Is any increase in the export potential due to their contact?

If it so,

How it helped in the increasing the export potential?

To what extent the export potential increased?

an analytical study of organic cardamom growers in … · division of agricultural extension....

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