AN APOLOGETIC TO SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS DERIVED

FROM A BIBLICAL AND THEOLOGICAL MODEL

OF GOD AS ENGINEER

By

DOMINIC MICHAEL HALSMER

May 2013

A Thesis

Submitted to the Theological Faculty

in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

for the Degree of

MASTER OF ARTS IN BIBLICAL LITERATURE

GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THEOLOGY AND MINISTRY

ORAL ROBERTS UNIVERSITY

DISCLAIMER

The beliefs and conclusions presented in this thesis are not necessarily those of the

administration of Oral Roberts University, the Graduate School of Theology and

Ministry, or the faculty.

AN APOLOGETIC TO SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS DERIVED

FROM A BIBLICAL AND THEOLOGICAL MODEL

OF GOD AS ENGINEER

By

DOMINIC MICHAEL HALSMER

APPROVED BY DATE

________________________________________________

Jeffrey Lamp, Ph.D.

Thesis Supervisor

________________________________________________

Cheryl L. Iverson, Ph.D.

Associate Dean

ORU Graduate School of Theology and Ministry

ABSTRACT

Dominic Michael Halsmer, Master of Arts in Biblical Literature

An Apologetic to Scientists and Engineers Derived from a Biblical and Theological

Model of God as Engineer

Jeffrey Lamp, Ph.D.

How should God’s role of Creator be understood in light of current science and

technology? Romans 1:18-21 and other relevant passages speak of God’s engineering

expertise in manifesting Himself to human beings through their experience of the natural

realm. Through reverse engineering activities, humans unravel the mysteries that underlie

the creation, and observe the wisdom of God. It is hoped that biblical and theological

analyses of these concepts will lead to deeper worship among believers, and a more

effective presentation of the Gospel among scientifically literate people groups.

Chapter 1 introduces the idea that God can be partially known from nature.

Chapter 2 investigates the biblical basis for a proper natural theology, and explores a

model of God as Engineer, as well as the concept of humans as reverse engineers. The

theological implications of these ideas are explored in Chapter 3, along with a summary

and conclusion.

All rights on this project are reserved by the author and nothing herein is to be used for

publication without the express agreement of the author or the Dean of the College of

Theology and Ministry at Oral Roberts University.

Copyright ©2013 by Dominic Michael Halsmer

All rights reserved

DEDICATION

This thesis is dedicated to my wife and best friend, Kate, whose steadfast love

undergirded and inspired its completion.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am grateful to my parents, Joe and Josephine, who demonstrated the

unconditional love of God to me. I am grateful to my wife, Kate, who never stopped

believing in me. I am grateful to our children, Nicholas, Christina, Mary Kate, and Josie,

who waited patiently for me to come home and read to them. I am grateful to all the

faculty, staff, and students of Oral Roberts University who have poured so much love into

my life over the last twenty years. But I am especially grateful to God for calling me to

this place of transformation.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ........................................................................................... vii

Chapter

1. INTRODUCTION TO A MODEL OF GOD AS ENGINEER .................... 1

Statement of the Problem and Background ........................................... 1

Purpose, Objectives, and Significance ................................................... 5

Definition of Terms................................................................................ 7

Limitations, Delimitations, and Presuppositions ................................... 8

Methodology .......................................................................................... 9

2. THE BIBLICAL BASIS FOR NATURAL THEOLOGY ........................... 11

Exegesis of Romans 1:18-21 ................................................................. 11

Science and the Wisdom of God ............................................................ 23

Other Scripture Pertaining to a Model of God as Engineer ................... 29

Discomfort with the Idea of God as Engineer ............................... 30

God as Creative Engineer in the Old Testament ............................ 32

Beneversal: The Engineering of Good Out of Evil ........................ 33

The Universe as God’s Drawing Board ......................................... 36

How Does God Do It? .................................................................... 38

New Testament Passages Relating to God as Engineer ................. 41

Chapter

3. THEOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS ............................................................ 49

Implications for the Nature and Character of God ................................ 49

Evidence of Exquisite Engineering Expertise from Science ................ 53

Reverse Engineering of Natural Systems with Possible Corruption .... 61

Engineering a Plan for Humanity’s Redemption .................................. 76

Summary and Conclusions ................................................................... 77

BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................ 80

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO A MODEL OF GOD AS ENGINEER

Statement of the Problem and Background

Significant disagreement among Bible scholars and theologians exists today

regarding the extent and nature of God’s self-revelation in creation. Should God be

viewed as a cosmic engineer, or does this model of God do more harm than good?

Furthermore, might this view of God serve as an effective apologetic to scientists and

engineers? This thesis will explore the revelatory aspects of nature in an effort to assess

the validity and apologetic utility of a model of God as engineer, with the corollary

concept of humans as reverse engineers (in regard to their analysis and comprehension of

creation–see below), as described in Romans 1:18-21 and other relevant passages. This

investigation is conducted to assist in the development of a more accurate and effective

presentation and defense of a Christian worldview to scientifically literate people groups,

ultimately encouraging them to hope and trust in their ingenious and loving Creator.

The Bible presents God as the Creator of all things (Gen 1-2), and His Creation

serves multiple purposes. One of the primary purposes of the natural realm is to provide a

partial revelation of God to human beings. This revelation is known as the General

Revelation (God’s revelation through the natural realm–see below), because it is

generally accessible to all people at all times and places. The Apostle Paul writes in

Romans 1:20 that God’s invisible attributes–His eternal power and divine nature–have

been clearly seen, being understood through what has been made, so that humanity is

without excuse.1 Bible scholars and theologians have written much on this, and the

surrounding verses, over the years. In the sense that God has creatively and wisely

arranged His creation to accomplish the purpose of self-revelation, He is a kind of divine

engineer. In other words, He creatively employs knowledge and understanding with

resourcefulness to solve a problem or achieve His purposes.2 This model of God allows

humans, who are made in His image (Gen 1:26), and hence, also engage in engineering

activities, to relate to Him through this common creative pursuit. Furthermore, when

human beings engage in reverse engineering (analytical dissection to facilitate

understanding–see below) activities with regard to the creation, through scientific and

philosophical investigation, it is believed that they uncover significant information

regarding God’s existence and attributes.3

However, some scholars are opposed to such a modeling of God, arguing that it

imposes an improper domestication of transcendence (beyond the things of this universe

– see below), often resulting in theological error. In Chance or Purpose? Creation,

Evolution, and a Rational Faith, Cardinal Christoph Schonborn writes:

The never ending debate, as to whether there is something like a “design” in

creation, thus goes round in circles, perhaps because nowadays, whenever people

1Unless otherwise indicated, all English Bible references in this paper are to the

New American Standard Bible (NASB) (La Habra, CA: The Lockman Foundation,

1977).

2Raymond B. Landis, Studying Engineering: A Road Map to a Rewarding Career

(Los Angeles: Discovery Press, 2007), 35-36, 335-337.

3Dominic Halsmer, Jon Marc Asper, Nate Roman, and Tyler Todd. “The

Coherence of an Engineered World,” International Journal of Design & Nature and

Ecodynamics 4, no. 1 (2009): 60-65.

talk about “design” and a “designer,” they automatically think of a “divine

engineer,” a kind of omniscient technician, who-because he must be perfect-can,

equally, only produce perfect machines. Here, in my view, lies the most profound

cause of many misunderstandings-even on the part of the “intelligent design”

school in the U.S.A. God is no clockmaker; he is not a constructor of machines,

but a Creator of natures. The world is not a mechanical clock, not some vast

machine, nor even a mega-computer, but rather, as Jacques Maritain said, “une

republique des natures,” “a republic of natures.”4

Part of the problem here may arise because of people’s (and perhaps even Schonborn’s)

confusion between the roles of engineer and technician. Viewing God as merely a

technician is certainly a demotion, since the role of the technician is to assemble or

maintain a device or system whose creation has been previously specified in detail by the

engineer.5 The technician would typically have no knowledge (or very limited

knowledge) of the design principles that went into the engineering of the device or

system. The designing engineer, on the other hand, has intimate knowledge of the deepest

secrets regarding the inner workings of the device or system since he or she was involved

in its creation and development from its inception. Indeed, the engineer is rarely involved

in the details of constructing the device or system, which is left to the hands of the

technician, with some oversight. In this sense, then it is appropriate to say that God not

only creates human natures, but also engineers human natures, because He has

established them with wisdom and understanding in order to accomplish His purposes.

This is in no way intended to constrain God as to how He engineers human natures,

which largely remains a mystery. Although through science (the methodical and

4Christoph Schonborn, Chance or Purpose? Creation, Evolution, and a Rational

Faith (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 2007), 98.

5Landis, 93-101.

systematic study of nature),6 humans are learning more about this every day by taking a

reverse engineering approach to unraveling the mysteries behind natural systems.

John Polkinghorne and Nicholas Beale share similar concerns about thinking of

God as an Engineer (or Designer) when answering a recent question about intelligent

design. Claiming confirmation from the Bible, they write:

God is never spoken of as a “designer” in the Bible: he is Creator and Father, and

a Father does not “design” his children. Even a great creative writer does not

exactly “design” her or his characters, and in any performance, whether of a play

or a piece of music, the individual decisions and actions of the performers are

vital elements in addition to the intentions of the playwright or composer. By

endowing us with free will and giving us the capacity to love, God calls us to be

in a limited but very important sense co-creators.7

The author disagrees that God is never spoken of as a designer, or engineer, in the Bible.

As will be seen in numerous passages discussed in the following sections of this thesis,

the Bible is replete with examples that refer to God in this role. One clear example is

from Psalm 139:13, where the Psalmist writes, “For you created my inmost being; you

knit me together in my mother’s womb.” Another is found in 2 Samuel 14:14 where the

Wise Woman of Tekoa speaks of how God “devises ways so that a banished person does

not remain estranged from him.” This appears to be a clear reference to how God even

engineers humanity’s salvation. Certainly, by endowing humans with free will (Rom 2:7-

8), He has also given them a limited capacity to create, but that does not negate God’s

characteristic as a creative engineer. Obviously, His creative capacities are well above

6Landis, 36.

7John Polkinghorne and Nicholas Beale, Questions of Truth: Fifty-one Responses

to Questions About God, Science, and Belief (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2009),

57.

and beyond those of humans, but by making people in His image, He has given them the

capacity to relate to Him as a creative problem solver. By denying that God engages in

these kinds of activities, humans miss the opportunity to relate to Him on that level.

William C. Placher, in The Domestication of Transcendence: How Modern

Thinking about God Went Wrong, appears to caution Christians against applying any

human categories to God, writing:

Before the seventeenth century, most Christian theologians were struck by the

mystery, the wholly otherness of God, and the inadequacy of any human

categories as applied to God. That earlier view never completely disappeared, but

in the seventeenth century, philosophers and theologians increasingly thought

they could talk clearly about God.8

Certainly, all models of God fall hopelessly short. But perhaps a proper biblical model of

God as engineer, and a view of humans as reverse engineers, may provide a useful means

of presenting and defending a Christian worldview in this modern, science-saturated

society of the twenty-first century. Strengths and weaknesses of this model will be

investigated in an effort to avoid error and improper applications. Theological

implications of this model will also be discussed for both believers and unbelievers.

Purpose, Objectives, and Significance

The purpose of this thesis is to assess a model of God as engineer by examining

scriptures that pertain to how God accomplishes His purpose of self-revelation through

the ingeniousness of His creation. Recent findings from the fields of science and

engineering will also be brought to bear on this question. Both kinds of evidence will be

8William C. Placher, The Domestication of Transcendence: How Modern

Thinking About God Went Wrong (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1996), 6.

analyzed with an engineering mindset, recognizing that human ability to do science and

engineering follows from being made in God’s image (Gen 1:26). Thus, viewing God as

the Engineer of Creation may assist understanding of not only why the universe is the

way it is, but also foster appreciation for God’s great ingenuity and competency in

accomplishing His purposes. Ultimately, this is for the purpose of inspiring believers to

greater worship, and attracting unbelievers (especially those involved in science and

technology) to a life of faith.

One of the primary objectives of this thesis is to assist in bringing reconciliation

to the Body of Christ by advancing a proper biblical model of its Creator. The current

relationship between science and theology suffers from a lack of understanding in both

directions. Both scientists and theologians seek truth about the nature of reality, but many

on both sides are suspicious and hesitant to reach across the aisle. Thus, mediating

concepts are sought to facilitate mutual understanding. It is suggested that the fields of

science and theology might be moved toward reconciliation by injecting concepts from

the field of engineering. Much of the current dialogue in science and theology hinges on

the concept of design.9 This is the forte of the engineer. Thus, it is believed that Christian

engineers have something significant to contribute to this conversation. It is hoped that

Bible scholars and theologians with an interest in science will be attracted to this work, as

well as scientists and engineers who are curious about how the Bible holds up in the face

of modern science. It is believed that both groups will benefit from this analysis of God

9Jimmy H. Davis and Harry L. Poe, Chance or Dance? An Evaluation of Design

(West Conshohocken, PA: Templeton Foundation Press, 2008), 3. William A. Dembski,

Intelligent Design: The Bridge between Science and Theology (Downers Grove, IL:

InterVarsity Press, 1999), 72.

as engineer. It is also hoped that various Christian views of interpreting creation might be

moved toward reconciliation through this work. Finally, it is hoped that believers will

enjoy a greater knowledge and appreciation of their Creator, leading to deeper worship.

And, that unbelievers will be moved to put their hope and trust in their ingenious and

loving Creator.

Definition of Terms

Natural Theology is defined as those things that may be known about God

through the observations and study of the realm of nature.10

General Revelation is defined

as knowledge of God, obtained through common human experience, which is available to

all human beings, at all times, and in all places.11

Special Revelation is defined as

knowledge of God that is only accessible to a particular people or group of people,

generally through the Bible.12

An Engineer is defined as one who makes use of resources,

knowledge, and skill, with creativity and wisdom, to accomplish a purpose or solve a

problem.13

A Reverse Engineer is defined as one who dissects and analyzes an object,

with an engineering mindset, in order to understand the deeper secrets that underlie its

10

Alister E. McGrath, The Open Secret: A New Vision for Natural Theology

(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2008), 2.

11

William Lane Craig and J. P. Moreland, The Blackwell Companion to Natural

Theology (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2009), 91.

12

Walter A. Elwell, ed., “special revelation,” Evangelical Dictionary of Theology

(Grand Rapids: Baker, 2001), 419.

13

Landis, 35-36, 335-337.

design.14

Transcendence is defined as the quality, or state of being beyond time, space,

and the material universe.15

Limitations, Delimitations, and Presuppositions

This study will be limited to Christian concepts of Natural Theology, and will not

consider a detailed treatment of how other religions and theologies view nature. This

study will be limited to research that has been published in the English language.

Although this study will include consideration of scripture passages throughout the Bible,

a thorough exegesis of passages in the original (Greek) language will be restricted to the

Book of Romans.

It is assumed that the laws of logical thinking16

are valid and apply to reasoning in

both scientific and theological disciplines. It is assumed that although human beings are

fallen creatures living in a fallen world (Gen 3:1-19), they have still been endowed by

God with the capacity to know Him, albeit in a limited way, through their experience of

the natural realm (Rom 1:20). It is assumed that the Bible is inspired, inerrant and

infallible; and therefore, eminently useful for establishing Christian faith and practice. It

is also assumed that God gives the gift of the Holy Spirit to His people, to assist them in

properly interpreting His message to human beings through the Scripture (John 16:13).

14

K. Otto and K. Wood, Product Design: Techniques in Reverse Engineering

(Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 2000), 17.

15

Elwell, “transcendence,” 1037.

16

Craig and Moreland, 33.

Methodology

A careful and thorough literature search will be conducted to uncover previous

and current thought regarding the revelatory aspects of nature. While mainly focusing on

a hermeneutical and exegetical treatment of Romans 1:18-21, the Scripture will be

searched to identify any other pertinent passages. In light of Scripture, a brief history of

Jewish and Christian understandings of Natural Theology will be developed. Current

thought on this topic will also be researched and analyzed, with regard to a biblical view.

Pertinent information from the fields of science and engineering will also be considered,

in an effort to assess the extent of consonance between science and theology on these

issues.

The question of the validity of viewing God as a transcendent cosmic engineer

will also be addressed as to its usefulness for Christian faith and practice. In particular, its

applicability in evangelism and apologetics among scientifically literate people groups

will be investigated. Its value for strengthening the faith of current believers will also be

assessed. The results of this study will be summarized and recommendations will be

made for developing a more articulate and compelling presentation and defense of a

Christian worldview, especially when interacting with scientifically literate people

groups, such as scientists and engineers.

The next chapter will present an exegesis of Romans 1:18-21, in particular, as it

pertains to the idea that God has engineered the Creation to reveal Himself. It will be

demonstrated that this is a key point in Paul’s presentation of the Christian faith for the

church in Rome. It will become clear that the universal recognition of God’s hand in the

workings of the natural realm is a critical part God’s plan to draw people back to

Himself; thus, enabling their reception and realization of His generous offer of salvation.

CHAPTER 2

A BIBLICAL BASIS FOR NATURAL THEOLOGY

Exegesis of Romans 1:18-21

During the Fall of 2012, Dr. Mark Rutland, in his final year before retiring as

President of Oral Roberts University, delivered a series of chapel sermons on the theme

of “Best Picture.” He kept the students and faculty on the edge of their seats at each

chapel service by showing a trailer of a movie that had the distinction of winning the

Academy Award for Best Picture. In discussing each movie, he would inevitably find

important applications for living an authentic Christian life. But, he would also provide

insights on how the movie’s message could help his audience obtain the very “best

picture” of God. In the author’s personal opinion, he regularly accomplished this in a

captivating manner. Yet, how can movies help people to know God better? For that

matter, how can anything other than the special revelation of Scripture help people to

know God? It must be remembered that God not only reveals Himself in the person of

Jesus Christ, and in the Bible, but also in the general revelation of His creation. In

addressing Romans 1:19, John Calvin comments, “man was created to be a spectator of

this formed world, and that eyes were given him, that he might, by looking on so

beautiful a picture, be led up to the Author himself.”17

Calvin suggests that the realm of

17

John Calvin, Commentaries on the Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Romans,

trans. and ed. John Owen (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1849), 70.

nature has an important role to play in helping to reveal God to human beings. One might

even go so far as to assert that God has specifically engineered His Creation in order to

unmistakably reveal Himself to these creatures He has made in His own image (Gen

1:26).

This chapter will explore the revelatory aspects of nature, in an effort to assess the

validity/utility of a model of God as engineer, with the corollary concept of humans as

reverse engineers (in regard to creation). This investigation will be largely based on

exegetical and theological analyses of Romans 1:18-21, but will also consider other

relevant passages. It is hoped that this work will assist in the development of a more

accurate and effective presentation and defense of a Christian Worldview to scientifically

literate people groups, ultimately encouraging them to hope and trust in their ingenious

and loving Creator.

A variety of reasons have been offered as to why Paul wrote his letter to the

Romans. Although he probably had multiple reasons, it seems clear that Paul wrote to the

fledgling church at Rome in order to help resolve a conflict between Jews and Gentiles

with regard to keeping the Law. In addressing specifics, he needed to summarize the

basic contents of the Gospel.18

In so doing, he points out that all people are without

excuse because everyone has some knowledge of God, based on an understanding of

what has been made. The passage regarding this idea is Romans 1:18-21, of which the

18

Thomas R. Schreiner, Romans, Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New

Testament (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1998), 15-16.

key verse, 20, is “critically certain.”19

The entire passage is shown below in the original

Koiné Greek:

18Ἀποκαλύπτεται γὰρ ὀργὴ θεοῦ ἀπ' οὐρανοῦ ἐπὶ πᾶσαν ἀσέβειαν καὶ

ἀδικίαν ἀνθρώπων τῶν τὴν ἀλήθειαν ἐν ἀδικίᾳ κατεχόντων, 19διότι τὸ

γνωστὸν τοῦ θεοῦ φανερόν ἐστιν ἐν αὐτοῖς: ὁ θεὸς γὰρ αὐτοῖς ἐφανέρωσεν. 20τὰ γὰρ ἀόρατα αὐτοῦ ἀπὸ κτίσεως κόσμου τοῖς ποιήμασιν νοούμενα

καθορᾶται, ἥ τε ἀΐδιος αὐτοῦ δύναμις καὶ θειότης, εἰς τὸ εἶναι αὐτοὺς

ἀναπολογήτους: 21διότι γνόντες τὸν θεὸν οὐχ ὡς θεὸν ἐδόξασαν ἢ

ηὐχαρίστησαν, ἀλλ' ἐματαιώθησαν ἐν τοῖς διαλογισμοῖς αὐτῶν καὶ

ἐσκοτίσθη ἡ ἀσύνετος αὐτῶν καρδία.20

18

For God’s wrath is being revealed from heaven against all the ungodliness and

unrighteousness of people who, in wickedness, try to suppress the truth, 19

because

that which can be known about God is evident in them, for God has made it

evident to them. 20

For since the creation of the world, His invisible qualities, His

eternal power and divine nature have been clearly perceived, being understood

through what has been made, so that they are without excuse. 21

Because although

they knew God, they did not glorify Him as God, or give thanks, but they became

futile in their thinking and their senseless heart was darkened.21

Attention will be focused mainly on verses 19-20, but it should be pointed out that

in verse 18, κατεχόντων has been translated as a tandential, or conative, participle,

indicating human inability to successfully suppress the truth about God in creation.22

Concerning this issue, C. E. B. Cranfield agrees: “It is the attempt to suppress it, bury it

out of sight, obliterate it from the memory; but it is of the essence of sin that it can never

19

John J. O’Rouke, “Romans 1:20 and Natural Revelation,” Catholic Bible

Quarterly 23, no. 3 (1961): 301. Textual issues with the remaining verses are

insignificantly minor.

20

All Greek references are from The UBS Greek New Testament: A Reader’s

Edition, Barbara Aland, et al; eds. (Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 2007), 406.

21

Author’s translation.

22

Cleon L. Rogers Jr. and Cleon L. Rogers III, The New Linguistic and Exegetical

Key to the Greek New Testament (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1998), 316.

be more than an attempt to suppress the truth, an attempt which is always bound to prove

unsuccessful, futile, in the end.”23

How is it that humans attain this relentless knowledge of God? This is an issue in

epistemology, the study of knowledge: what knowledge is and how it is acquired.24

In

this regard, Joseph A. Fitzmyer points out the significance of Paul’s use of φανερόν

(make evident)25

instead of aποκαλύπτεται (reveal)26 in verse 19:

Yet Paul does not mean that “only by an act of revelation from above–God

‘making it known’–can people understand God as he is.” For precisely this reason

he uses a different verb, phaneroun, “make evident,” for example, in and through

material creation itself, as distinct from apokalyptein, “reveal,” namely, through

the gospel. It is important to note this distinction. Paul admits that God’s

“uprightness” is revealed in the gospel, but he also maintains that people can

perceive or come to a certain awareness of God’s “eternal power and divinity”

from reflection on what he has made evident in material creation.27

Although the majority of the Greek and Latin patristic interpreters understood all

knowledge of God as faith supported by God’s grace,28

these interpreters were addressing

a different audience and a different problem from Paul’s; and in reality, have missed

23

C. E. B. Cranfield, Romans: A Shorter Commentary (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,

1985), 30.

24

Marta Cone, et al; eds., “epistemology,” New Oxford American Dictionary

(New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 572.

25

Author’s translation.

26

Author’s translation.

27

Joseph A. Fitzmyer, Romans (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1993),

273.

28

William Vandermarck, “Natural Knowledge of God in Romans: Patristic and

Medieval Intepretations,” Theological Studies 34, no. 1 (1973): 36.

Paul’s point.29

Ever since the Enlightenment, when philosophers tried to establish a

religion of nature and reason to substitute for Christian revelation, some commentators

have subconsciously reacted by denying the capability of humans to attain some

knowledge of God from nature. Therefore, preoccupation with the Enlightenment has

obscured what Paul is saying30

–that God is intellectually perceived and known from

created things.31

While Paul expresses a strong Jewish tradition, regarding the inability to

directly know God (Exod 33:20; Deut 4:12), he also seems to embrace the Hellenistic

Jewish tradition that He has manifested Himself, to some degree, in what He has created

(see for example, Wisdom of Solomon 13). In effect, Paul acknowledges what Greek and

Roman philosophers before him (such as Plato, Aristotle, and Cicero)32

had admitted

about God.33

That is, that although God cannot be seen directly with human senses, He is

perceived in His works by the human mind, when that mind contemplates the created

world.34

29

Fitzmyer, 273.

30

Fitzmyer, 274.

31

Fitzmyer, 277.

32

David Sedley, Creationism and Its Critics in Antiquity (Berkeley, CA:

University of California Press, 2007), 141.

33

Fitzmyer, 279.

34

Fitzmyer, 280.

What is it that humans perceive that results in this knowledge of God? It is His

ποιήμασιν (works).35 Jewish rabbinical scholars would have understood this word (in the

Septuagint) to have special reference to God’s work of creation, as seen in Psalm

103:22.36

While it is not unusual for commentators to simply take for granted that this

word refers to “created things,” Erwin Ochsenmeier points out that this is actually rarely

what the word means.37

According to his research, almost all of the other occurrences of

this word in Scripture refer to God’s works throughout history. Furthermore, he claims

that the word is not normally used in contexts that evoke God’s creation.38

He also points

out that if Wisdom of Solomon 13 is a parallel passage to Romans 1, one should notice

that the overall context in Wisdom of Solomon is of God’s actions in history, especially

in reference to the Exodus, where God showed His strength, power, and righteous rule.39

After additional arguments, he concludes that from a lexical and grammatical

perspective, one could read Romans 1:20 as meaning that God’s power and deity can be

seen by God’s acts in history; and that, when these are properly understood, one gains a

knowledge of God. However, he goes on to say that this should not be construed as

35

Author’s translation.

36

Bruce E. Shields, “The Areopagus Sermon and Romans 1:18ff: A Study in

Creation Theology,” Restoration Quarterly 20, no. 1 (1977): 36.

37

Erwin Ochsenmeier, “Romans 1,20: Knowing God through His Acts in

History,” Zeitschrift fur die Neutestamentliche Wissenschaft und die Kunde der Alteren

Kirche 100, no. 1 (2009): 49.

38

Ochsenmeier, 51.

39

Ochsenmeier, 54.

implying a radical separation in Paul’s theology between God’s acts in history and His

creation of the world.40

It seems reasonable that both God’s acts in history and His works

of creation could result in humans gaining significant knowledge of God.

Richard Alan Young writes that commentators have responded to this pericope by

describing three different understandings of this natural knowledge of God. The first,

typically called “natural theology,” claims that the Creator left behind clues or “tracks” in

nature from which all persons can logically reason to a thematic knowledge of God. This

is reminiscent of Proverbs 25:2, in which God is glorified in concealing matters, and

kings are glorified in discovery. The second response claims that God personally reveals

the divine presence through the medium of creation to all persons. This position usually

asserts that only God’s personal self-disclosure, though indirect, can rightfully be called

“revelation.” The third response claims that all persons have a vague, unthematic

awareness of God by recognizing that they are finite creatures living in a contingent

world: “The recognition of creaturely finitude awakens a faint, intuitive awareness that

there is something beyond. It depends on neither ratiocination [the process of logical

reasoning] nor divine self disclosure.”41

After careful analyses, Young advocates this

unthematic awareness, since it constitutes a passive and spontaneous mental activity

based on observation, while stopping short of a deliberate rational process.42

Young

40

Ochsenmeier, 56.

41

Richard Alan Young, “The Knowledge of God in Romans 1:18-23: Exegetical

and Theological Reflections,” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 43, no. 4

(2000): 695-696.

42

Young, 706.

writes, “Paul would have regarded this vague awareness as an inescapable fact of human

existence by virtue of living as creatures in a created world.”43

Thomas R. Schreiner

agrees that such natural knowledge is not the result of careful deduction, or a long

process of reasoning; and thus, not just for those with unusually logical or astute minds.

He adds that “God has stitched into the fabric of the human mind his existence and

power, so that they are instinctively recognized when one views the created world.”44

In this way, Paul establishes accountability apart from the Law of Moses. He does

this “by appropriating the already ancient cosmological argument for the existence of

God, according to which the Creator can be inferred from the created.”45

Others argue

that the acquisition of this knowledge of God is more fundamental than an inference.

Mats Wahlberg suggests “that biological nature could make knowledge of a creator of

nature perceptually available.”46

In other words, “nature has some perceivable properties

that are intrinsically connected to a creator in the sense that their instantiation

presupposes the existence of a creator.”47

Specifically, Wahlberg defends the idea that

“some perceptual experiences represent biological structures as created–as expressive of

intent and intelligence–in much the same way that our experiences of other people’s

43

Young, 707.

44

Schreiner, 86.

45

Leander E. Keck, “Romans 1:18-23,” Interpretation 40, no. 4 (1986): 405.

46

Mats Wahlberg, Reshaping Natural Theology: Seeing Nature as Creation (New

York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012), 4.

47

Wahlberg, 4.

movements and sounds represent them as expressive of mental properties.”48

In addition,

he claims that this idea comports well with the sense of Romans 1:20 “since the verse

seems to give perception a crucial role.”49

The author agrees, but would add that such

structures in nature are not only expressive of intent and intelligence, but of a specific

type of intelligence, that of exquisite engineering expertise. This point will be explored

further in a future section of this chapter.

How should one understand the perception involved in apprehending a knowledge

of God from nature? According to James D. G. Dunn, Paul speaks of an intellectual

perception of the invisible things of God, “Paul is trading upon, without necessarily

committing to, the Greek (particularly Stoic) understanding of an invisible realm of

reality, invisible to sense perception, which can be known only through the rational

power of the mind.”50

Fitzmyer seems to agree since he writes that the unseen things,

which are invisible, are nevertheless perceptible by the human mind).51

Wahlberg does a good job of laying out the interpretive options for

Rom 1:20), depending on whether is taken as an adverbial

modifier of , as indicative of two distinct processes, or as a noun in its own

right.52

According to Wahlberg, taking as an adverbial modifier of

48

Wahlberg, 147-148.

49

Wahlberg, 136.

50

James D. G. Dunn, Romans 1-8 (Dallas: Word Books, 1988), 58.

51

Fitzmyer, 280.

52

Wahlberg, 136-137.

, results in the idea of “being perceived by means of reason.” But the

occurrence of may imply that two distinct processes are involved. First, there

is ordinary sense perception; and then, an intellectual process of understanding and

insight. This idea is reflected in the familiar translation from the NIV: “have been clearly

seen, being understood from what has been made,” which seems to imply an inferential

account. In other words, upon contemplation of what is seen, the implications are finally

realized. Others argue that should be taken as a noun indicating “thoughts.” In

this case, the meaning is something like “His eternal power and divinity, just as his

invisible thoughts, have since creation been seen in his . . . works.” But then, this verse

says nothing about the role of the human in acquiring knowledge of God.53

From the pre-modern Christian tradition, Thomas Aquinas and Calvin present two

very different views on this issue. In quoting Romans 1:20 in support for his Five Ways,

Aquinas seems to believe that this knowledge of God is obtained by way of argument.54

Thus, Aquinas states his inferential view, “Meditation on [God’s] works enables us, at

least to some extent, to admire and reflect on God’s wisdom . . . We are thus able to infer

God’s wisdom from reflection upon God’s works . . . This consideration of God’s works

leads to an admiration of God’s sublime power.”55

However, Calvin claims that

knowledge of God through creation does not require a long and laborious train of

53

Wahlberg, 136-137.

54

Wahlberg, 137.

55

Alister E. McGrath, The Science of God: An Introduction to Scientific Theology

(London: T&T Clark International, 2004), 71-72.

argument. Calvin claims that God has been pleased “so to manifest his perfections in the

whole structure of the universe, and daily place himself in our view, that we cannot but

open our eyes without being compelled to behold him.”56

He goes on to write, “None

who have the use of their eyes can be ignorant of the divine skill manifested so

conspicuously in the endless variety, yet distinct and well-ordered array of the heavenly

host [i.e., celestial objects].”57

But, Calvin was greatly impressed by the divine artistry

and engineering of the human being. The human body “bears on its face such proofs of

ingenious contrivance as are sufficient to proclaim the admirable wisdom of its Maker.”58

Thus, Calvin rejects the interpretation implied by Aquinas, and emphasizes the

immediate character of the knowledge of God through creation, calling on Romans 1:20

for support.59

In addition, if Aquinas’ interpretation is correct, then Paul is presenting a

relatively weak argument. If knowledge of God through creation can only be obtained

through a long and laborious train of argument, then it would seem that many people

have a pretty good excuse for not honoring God. However, the situation is very different

if, as Calvin says, “proofs which force themselves on the notice of the most illiterate

56

John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,

1989), 51.

57

Calvin, 52.

58

Calvin, 52.

59

Wahlberg, 137.

peasant” are made available.60

Then Paul’s argument would be relatively persuasive.

Wahlberg, therefore, concludes that “something like Calvin’s interpretation of Rom 1:20

is preferable to that implied by Aquinas.”61

However, he is quick to note that “this does

not, of course, mean that Aquinas’ version of natural theology is misconceived or

unchristian. It only means that Paul, in Romans, has something different in mind.”62

Thus, natural revelation provides powerful evidence, whether by inference or

direct perception, even if it does not provide logical proof. It can lead humans to respond

to the power and majesty of God, but the universal dilemma of humanity’s rebelliousness

presents a problem.63

Douglas Moo comments that God discloses something of His

existence and nature to all people in the created world. But rather than bringing them into

relationship with God, it simply makes them guilty.64

In the short term, this may be true.

But just as the Law of Moses points out the Jew’s need for a savior, so also God’s natural

revelation plays a similar role for the Gentile. Both are a part of the wisdom of God in

bringing people back into a loving relationship with Himself. This is beautifully depicted

by the Wise Woman of Tekoa who says in 2 Samuel 14:14, “Like water spilled on the

ground, which cannot be recovered, so we must die. But God does not take away life;

60

Calvin, 51.

61

Wahlberg, 138.

62

Wahlberg, 230.

63

Richard H. Bube, “Natural Revelation,” in The Encounter between Christianity

and Science, ed. Richard H. Bube (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1968), 69.

64

Douglas Moo, Romans, NIV Application Commentary (Grand Rapids:

Zondervan, 2000), 60.

instead, he devises ways so that a banished person may not remain estranged from him.”

This model of God as a spiritual engineer,65

whose wise creation plays a vital role in

reconciling to Himself those made in His image, will be explored in the next section.

Science and the Wisdom of God

Romans 1:21 makes it clear that the apostasy (rebellion or abandonment of

faith)66

of humans is deliberate, and their continued unbelief is the act of a determined

will.67

To illustrate this, Donald Grey Barnhouse writes:

Suppose that there is a class in physics in which a professor is lecturing on atomic

science. A student shakes his head and says stubbornly, “But I cannot see an

atom, therefore I will not believe it.” The professor then explains the observable

effects of the movements of the atomic components. The boy continues to be

stubborn, and will not submit himself to the evidence. On examination day, he

flunks the course. He comes to the professor to explain, but he is without excuse.

That which may be known of atoms and their parts is manifest, for physical

investigation has revealed it. For the invisible things of atomic components are

clearly seen, being understood by the effects that are manifested, so that the

student is without excuse.68

Although this illustration is slightly out of date (since atoms have now been directly

observed with the scanning tunneling microscope), it can quickly be repaired by

65

Dominic M. Halsmer, “Why Engineers Make Good Apologists,” in Religion,

Culture, Curriculum, and Diversity in 21st Century America, ed. Mary Alice Trent

(Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 2007), 85.

66

Paul J. Achtemeier, ed., “apostasy,” Harper’s Bible Dictionary (San Francisco:

Harper and Row, 1985), 40.

67

S. Lewis Johnson Jr., “Paul and the Knowledge of God,” Bibliotheca Sacra 129,

no. 513 (1972): 69.

68

Donald Grey Barnhouse, Man’s Ruin. Expository Messages on the Whole Bible,

Taking the Epistle to the Romans as a Point of Departure (Wheaton, IL: Eerdmans,

1952), 242.

replacing “atomic science” with “particle physics,” and “atom” with “quark.” This

example powerfully illustrates the culpability of humans. Although God’s attributes are

invisible, His eternal power and deity are clearly apprehended in intelligent mental

conception.69

The verb καθορᾶται (“clearly perceived”) in Romans 1:20 is intensive,

meaning to discern clearly, and is, therefore, a further rebuke to humankind.70

Although humans might attempt to suppress this truth by closing their eyes to the

verities of the outside world, they cannot close their eyes to the general revelation that

has been placed within them. It should be remembered that in Romans 2:13-15, Paul

claims that some of the Gentiles obey the law that is written on their hearts: “Natural

knowledge of God, then, will come from two directions: from without, i.e., from the

contemplation of the universe, and from within, i.e., as a moral imperative. The one

demands the other.”71

Thus in general, one sees God’s wisdom embedded in a triple

revelation (external, internal, and special) to human beings. Walter C. Bouzard Jr. writes

that the philosophical and theological roots, supporting this claim of a universal divine

self-disclosure, are to be found in the theology of Israel’s Wisdom Literature.72

69

Johnson Jr., 68.

70

Wilhelm Michaelis, “,” Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, ed.

Gerhard Friedrich (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1967), 380.

71

David M. Coffey, “Natural Knowledge of God: Reflections on Romans 1:18-

32,” Theological Studies 31, no. 4 (1970): 674.

72

Walter C. Bouzard Jr., “The Theology of Wisdom in Romans 1 and 2: A

Proposal,” Word and World 7, no. 3 (1987): 281.

With regard to the wisdom of creation, Gerhard von Rad observes, “this

‘wisdom,’ this ‘understanding,’ must therefore signify something like the created

‘meaning’ implanted by God in creation, the divine mystery of creation.”73

The accuracy

of this observation seems to be confirmed by the didactic poem of Proverbs 8: where

personified Wisdom describes her mysterious origin and role in the creation of the world,

her role in God’s ordering of the chaos, establishing the heavens, setting the limits of the

sea, and laying the foundations of the earth. She stood beside God, and God apportioned

her as He poured her out upon all His works.74

Bouzard writes, “This portrait of Wisdom

is a cosmological one whereby God bestows something special on creation, and which

now, in some mysterious way, inhabits the world and participates in the ongoing ordering

process.”75

Bouzard Jr. continues:

This description of Wisdom leads to the unmistakable conclusion that in the

person of Dame Wisdom we encounter a being who is other than God but who

nevertheless addresses humanity in the form of a divine self-revelation, a

revelation which comes not from a personal encounter with God but rather in the

depth dimension of the common human experience of the world and of life. . .

such observations remain rooted in the realm of common human experience quite

apart from an encounter with a personal God. They are revealed by Dame

Wisdom in the observation of human behavior, society, and most especially, of

nature . . . Wisdom, like the four rivers of Eden, flows across the whole world,

filling the earth with her benefits. But in Sirach, a fifth river has tellingly been

added to the list–the Jordan of Israel–where Wisdom has particularly revealed

herself.76

73

Gerhard von Rad, Wisdom in Israel (Nashville: Abingdon, 1972), 144-145.

74

Bouzard Jr., 284.

75

Bouzard Jr., 284-285.

76

Bouzard Jr., 285-286.

Although Paul does not refer to Dame Wisdom explicitly, the theological thought

which gave definition to Dame Wisdom is evident in the apostle’s assertion of God’s

revelation: “through the structures which define all created reality is a transcendent

reason which points to and reveals God.”77

Paul warns against the disastrous

consequences of ignoring Dame Wisdom, for in Paul’s view:

wisdom’s quest for self-mastery and self-understanding reached its terminus in

the cross of Christ. The cruciform shadow of Calvary obliterates any hope for a

qualitative change in the human condition and any program of self-justification

. . . Israel’s sages, through Paul, have helped us see wisdom after all: “Behold,

the fear of the Lord, that is wisdom.” And in holy fear we are driven into the

loving arms of Christ.78

Brevard S. Childs shares similar ideas in his classic text on Old Testament Theology:

At the beginning of his creation–“when he established the heavens and drew a

circle on the face of the deep”–God implanted in his work a divine stamp which

continues to bear witness to the wisdom of its creator . . . This revelation of God

in his creation in the form of wisdom actively seeks to engage his creatures . . . As

an essential witness to God’s purpose in his creation, wisdom is built into the very

structure of reality, and in this role seeks to guide humanity to the way of truth.

However, it cannot be found through reason nor by human cleverness. The way to

wisdom is in the fear of the Lord.79

It is clear then, that God has engineered the creation with wisdom, and also to assist

humans with the acquisition of personal wisdom, which leads to an abundant and eternal

life with their Creator.

77

Bouzard Jr., 287.

78

Bouzard Jr., 291.

79

Brevard S. Childs, Old Testament Theology in a Canonical Context

(Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985), 35.

Theologian Dennis William Cheek has recently engaged in an exploration of the

interactions between theology and technology. His insights are also helpful in considering

a model of God as Engineer. Along these lines, he writes:

The concept of technology is not foreign to the Bible; in its canonical form, it is

replete with references to ancient technologies of many types. God is sometimes

presented in the Old Testament in a manner that we would today call a systems

engineer. He creates (designs) a universe and world and places within it creatures,

including human beings . . . The New Testament continues this theme of

technologies . . . The sacrificial death of Jesus is presented as an act that was

designed (in modern parlance “engineered”) and sanctioned by God as a means to

present a spotless “Lamb” who takes upon himself the sins of the world.80

A systems engineer is one who specializes in the skillful integration of multiple complex

systems in order to accomplish an overarching purpose or solve a complicated problem.81

The universe certainly qualifies as a collection of complex systems that all seem to work

together somehow to facilitate the emergence and sustenance of life on this planet. And

through this life, humans, who also practice systems engineering (albeit, on a much

smaller scale), are confronted with fabulous systems engineering in nature that appears to

emerge spontaneously. This causes wonder and amazement, but many attempt to

suppress the idea of a transcendent engineer. The negatives of the human condition (i.e,

evil and suffering) are often put forth as compelling evidence against the idea of a

transcendent engineer. However, even these experiences hint at the potential for a deeper

wisdom and a greater good that may be realized through humbly trusting God in the

80

Dennis William Cheek, “Is there Room for the Spirit in a World Dominated by

Technology?: Pentecostals and the Technological World,” in Science and the Spirit: A

Pentecostal Engagement with the Sciences, ed. Amos Yong (Bloomington, IN: Indiana

University, 2010), 194-195.

81

Landis, 81.

midst of the struggles of this life.82

In one of the most beloved devotional writings of all

time, My Utmost for His Highest, Oswald Chambers writes:

God is the Master Engineer. He allows the difficulties to come in order to see if

you can vault over them properly–“By my God have I leaped over a wall.” God

will never shield you from any of the requirements of a son or daughter of His.

Peter says–“Think it not strange concerning the fiery trial which is to try you.”

Rise to the occasion; do the thing. It does not matter how it hurts as long as it

gives God the chance to manifest Himself in your mortal flesh.83

Chambers goes on to use the term engineer, or some derivative of it, to describe God or

His actions twelve more times throughout his devotional.84

It seems clear that both he and

his readers are comforted and encouraged by such a depiction of God. This depiction is

found throughout Scripture, although the actual term “engineer” is rarely seen. It is not

surprising that believers find it to be an appealing picture of their Creator. Such a

Masterful Engineer is quite capable of completing the work He has begun in the lives of

His people (Phil 1:6). This idea encourages increasing faith, hope, and anticipation of the

joy of an eternal loving relationship in that heavenly city whose architect and engineer is

God (Heb 11:10).85

82

Halsmer, Asper, Roman, and Todd, 47.

83

Oswald Chambers, My Utmost for His Highest (Uhrichsville, OH: Barbour

Publishing, 2000), 97.

84

Chambers, 67, 81, 118, 122, 163, 184, 190, 210, 211, 212, 213, 258.

85

Alan Richardson, “Whose Architect and Maker is God,” Theology Today 8, no.

2 (1951): 155.

Other Scripture Pertaining to a Model of God as Engineer

This section explores additional biblical passages related to the motif of God, not

only as the Creator and Sustainer of the universe, but also as the Architect and Engineer

of life, and even humanity’s very redemption. The use of the term “engineer” in this

context simply denotes the deliberate plans and purposes that God is accomplishing

through His creative energies and processes.86

The role is closely related to the idea of

architect (a person who is responsible for inventing or realizing a particular idea or

project),87

not only of matter, energy, space, time, and information, but also in the

spiritual realm, of which humans are largely ignorant, but of which Scripture sheds light.

A study through the Scriptures on this topic reveals a twofold emphasis. The first is the

ingenious and diverse creation that God has brought into existence out of nothing (ex

nihilo).88

Scientists and theologians still have much to learn about how God engineered

the universe and life on this planet, but an in-depth study of the natural realm reveals

evidence of a master design engineer of unimaginable capabilities. The second emphasis

speaks of the ongoing expertise of God in sustaining His creation and seeing it through

some tough times, to a redemptive completion (e.g., 2 Sam 14:14). This is hinted at in

Old Testament messianic references, and brought more fully into the light as seen in the

New Testament focus on the daring rescue mission of God’s Son, Jesus of Nazareth

86

Landis, 35-36, 335-337.

87

Cone, 81.

88

Achtemeier, “ex nihilo,”192-193.

(Rom 3:21). Before continuing in this vein, it will be helpful to revisit the concerns that

some scholars have with a model of God as engineer.

Discomfort with the Idea of God as Engineer

With the rise of the controversial Intelligent Design Movement, some theologians

and scientists have expressed concern that viewing God as an engineer is largely

inaccurate, and an unproductive throw-back to the days of William Paley’s Watchmaker

Argument.89

As presented earlier, the esteemed John Polkinghorne even claimed recently

that “God is never spoken of as a designer in the Bible.”90

Similarly, Catholic author

Christoph Schonborn rebels against the idea of a “divine engineer” or “optimal

technician,” stressing instead that God is a creator of “natures.”91

In response to these

criticisms, it should be made clear that this motif of God as Engineer is not an attempt to

limit God to the category of human engineering, but rather to relate to God in a category

in which He has clearly already revealed Himself in nature and Scripture. In addition,

since humans are made in God’s image (Gen 1:26), they appear to have been blessed with

some small fraction of His genius and creative problem solving capabilities. Thus, it

seems that God intends for human beings to relate to Him in this manner, while

simultaneously marveling at His awesome and mysterious transcendence.

89

William Paley, Natural Theology (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press,

2006), 7.

90

Polkinghorne and Beale, 57.

91

Schonborn, 98.

However, other theologians are quite comfortable with thinking of God in this

kind of role, recognizing its significant scriptural support. Dennis Cheek writes, “God is

sometimes presented in the Old Testament in a manner that we would today call a

systems engineer. He creates (designs) a universe and world and places within it

creatures, including human beings.”92

Other theologians recognize His role as “Creator-

Craftsman,”93

“arch-technophile,”94

and “artisan.”95

Even so, this does not preclude the

possibility that God engineers the laws of nature and leaves much of His creation to

“deploy automatically,” at least from humanity’s perspective. In this case, He would be

considered more of an architect-engineer, rather than a builder-engineer. The proper

balance in this regard (hence, the controversy over evolution) is one of the major

questions that is still unanswered at the interface of science and theology. However, this

question is ultimately answered: the Scripture is clear that “the Lord is fundamentally

engaged in the design of patterns and the creation of systems. Yahweh engages in what

we can only describe as technological activities combining human and nonhuman

resources in various ways to accomplish his plans and purposes in the universe and

92

Cheek, 194.

93

J. Newman, Religion and Technology (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1997),

117.

94

D. Alexander, “Worshipping God with Technology,” Cambridge Papers 12, no.

4 (2003): 2.

95

M. Lodahl, God of Nature and of Grace: Reading the World in a Wesleyan Way

(Nashville: Kingswood Books, 2003) 73.

principally among humankind.”96

This is clearly seen in many passages of Scripture as

will become evident in the next section.

God as Creative Engineer in the Old Testament

The Genesis account contains several passages that indicate God’s creative genius

and incredible power, especially in light of modern scientific discoveries concerning the

complexity of living systems and the immensity and orderliness of the universe. Among

these are the creation of the entire cosmos out of nothing (Gen 1:1), the creation of man

(Gen 1:26; 2:8-17), and the creation of woman (Gen 2:18-24) in response to Adam’s need

for a suitable companion. God even engineered improved clothing (Gen 3:21) for Adam

and Eve from animal skins, perhaps indicating the serious consequences of their sin

(namely, death). Sin would soon become so pervasive as to threaten God’s entire

engineering project (Gen 4; 6:1-5).

One of the most difficult passages in the Bible is Genesis 6:5-7 where God

realizes the nearly universal extent of human wickedness, and admits His sorrow that He

ever engineered such creatures as humanity. The glimmer of hope flickered faintly in that

there was still one man, Noah, who found favor in God’s eyes (Gen 6:8). The difficulty

here is that God seems to appear largely incompetent, perhaps having erred in making

creatures with free will, and such a huge capacity for evil. But there are other possibilities

as well. What lessons does one learn from the story of Noah? It indicates the extreme

seriousness of rebellion against humanity’s Maker, and the ultimate sovereignty of God

96

Dennis William Cheek, “Theology and Technology,” (Ph.D. diss., University of

Durham, 2007), 40-41.

to deal with His creatures as He sees fit. It also demonstrates that God will not

compromise when it comes to sin. It may also be an indication of how valuable it is for

even just a handful of people (Noah and his family) to develop a loving covenantal

relationship with God (Gen 9:1-17). It is interesting to note that God saves these human,

and thus his race, by instructing him on the development and completion of a huge

maritime engineering project (Gen 6:14-22).

Beneversal: The Engineering of Good Out of Evil

In a sense, all the subsequent peoples of the earth were blessed through Noah and

his faith in, and obedience to, God (Gen 9:1-17). This plan of God to bless and rescue His

people becomes even more explicit in his covenant with Abraham to bless all the families

of the earth through him (Gen 12:3; 15; 17:1-14). Even so, it is soon apparent that Satan

(the Adversary,97

-Job 1-2) was still at work. God’s people continue to succumb to the

temptation to do evil against one another, as in the case of Joseph and his brothers (Gen

37). But, God shows His admirable character and brilliant ingenuity in taking what the

brothers meant for evil, and somehow causing it to work for good (Gen 50:20)! This is

actually a well-known and documented engineering principle for creative problem

solving. It is even called “making the devil work for you,” or sometimes “blessing in

disguise.”98

Realizing that there appears to be no single word in the English language to

convey this important phenomenon (although “redemption” and “restoration” come

97

Achtemeier, “Satan,” 908.

98

S. Savransky, Engineering of Creativity: Introduction to TRIZ Methodology of

Inventive Problem Solving (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2000), 204.

close), it is proposed that the term “beneversal” be adopted. This new term combines

“beneficial” and “reversal” into a single word that indicates that something good is

engineered out of something that was originally seen as negative. This idea is also seen in

God’s purposes being accomplished through Pharaoh’s hardened heart (Exod 7:1-5, 13,

22; 8:15, 19, 32; 9:7, 12, 16, 34; 10:1-2, 20, 27), and the way God turned Balaam’s curse

into a blessing (Num 24:10-13). God, the Engineer, is the master of the beneversal, since

it seems that the creation and culmination of the entire universe is the quintessential

beneversal (Gen 1; Rev 21).

In addition, this concept is well-illustrated in one of the most commonly used

metaphors in the Bible: when God refers to the slavery in Egypt as a furnace used to

refine His people (1 Kgs 8:51). Even at this ancient time in history, it was common

knowledge that precious metals could be refined through extreme heat, so that the

impurities, or dross, could be removed. The Psalmist sings of His people being tested by

God and refined like silver: facing much adversity before being brought to a place of

abundance (Ps 66:10-12); but the wicked, God discards like dross (Ps 119:119). Proverbs

17:3 warns, “The crucible for silver and the furnace for gold, but the Lord tests the

heart,” indicating that God may use adversity to test and refine people’s hearts. Isaiah

writes similarly regarding God’s enemies, where God says, “. . . my enemies! I will turn

my hand against you; I will thoroughly purge away your dross and remove all your

impurities (Isa 1:24b-25).” And later God says, regarding His people, “See, I have refined

you, though not as silver; I have tested you in the furnace of affliction (Isa 48:10).”

The message of Job also affirms this idea: “Man is born to trouble, as surely as

sparks fly upward (Job 5:7).” But, Job also contains several references to redemption,

such as, “For he [God] wounds, but he also binds up; he injures, but his hands also heal

(Job 5:18).” The Psalmist also admits a positive aspect to adversity: “It was good for me

to be afflicted, that I might learn your decrees (Ps 119:71).” King Hezekiah also

recognized this principle: “Surely it was for my benefit that I suffered such anguish . . .

(Isa 38:17).” Furthermore, this idea is confirmed in Isaiah 30:20: “Although the Lord

gives you the bread of adversity and the water of affliction, your teachers will be hidden

no more; with your own eyes you will see them . . . your ears will hear a voice behind

you, saying, ‘This is the way; walk in it.’” Thus, affliction appears to play a key role in

the necessary education of humans.

Jeremiah appears to speak of Satan’s role (though it could be Jeremiah himself) in

this regard: “I have made you [the destroyer] a tester of metals, and my people the ore,

that you may observe and test their ways (Jer 6:27).” One sees this idea again in Isaiah

54:16, where God admits that He created the destroyer to work havoc, a weapon fit for its

work, although this reference may be to invading and destroying armies. God even hints

at the constraints involved in dealing with sinful free-will beings: “See, I will refine and

test them, for what else can I do because of the sin of my people (Jer 9:7).” All this would

seem to provide a significant response to those who wonder why God would allow so

much evil and suffering in the world. This approach to theodicy (the defense of God in

light of evil and suffering)99

may be particularly effective with skeptical scientists and

99

Craig and Moreland, 449.

engineers since they should be able to relate more easily to the metaphor of the crucible,

a well-known technological artifact. Experience in missions work confirms the value of

presenting the Good News in the language, culture, and metaphors of the target people

group.100

This idea will be discussed in more detail in the concluding chapter.

The Universe as God’s Drawing Board

Another metaphor that engineers could easily relate to is that of the “drawing” or

“drafting board,” where plans or blueprints are typically drawn out before a three-

dimensional prototype is produced.101

Of course, in this day and age, the computer screen

usually serves this purpose, but the idea is the same. An engineered system may be too

complex to leap straight into construction of the final product. Thus, engineers find it

helpful to work out the “bugs” by specifying the details in various two-dimensional

views. This is something that humans seem to do instinctively. One of the author’s

earliest and fondest memories was playing football in the side yard with his brothers.

When, in the huddle, they would often resort to drawing up plays with their fingers in the

dirt (2-D space) before attempting, and usually failing at, the real thing (3-D space).

Is it possible that the universe is, in some sense, God’s drawing board, where He

is working out the engineering of human beings until there are ready to be “produced” in

a higher dimensional space, in order to commune with their Maker? Actually, there is

some scriptural precedent for this concept. Astronomer Hugh Ross advocates the idea

100

Don Richardson, Eternity in their Hearts (Ventura, CA: Regal Books, 1981),

59.

101

Landis, 39.

that God dwells in a higher dimensional space since it seems to help reconcile multiple

difficult theological doctrines, such as the Trinity and free will versus God’s election of

the saints.102

In addition, recent experimental results in quantum mechanics suggest the

existence of several extra space dimensions, even though humans cannot directly detect

them.103

Job hints at this possibility: “Why is life given to a man whose way is hidden,

whom God has hedged in? (Job 3:23)” A similar idea is expressed in Psalm 139:5, “You

hem me in-behind and before, you have laid your hand upon me. Such knowledge is too

wonderful for me, too lofty for me to attain.” In other passages with significance for end

times (2 Sam 22:20 and Ps 18:19), David sings, “He brought me out into a spacious

place; he rescued me because he delighted in me.” Psalm 31:8 expands on the same idea,

“You have not handed me over to the enemy but have set my feet in a spacious place.”

Job 36:16 is even more explicit: “He [God] is wooing you from the jaws of distress to a

spacious place free from restriction.” This idea becomes even more tantalizing with the

New Testament promise that God has good things in heaven for believers that are beyond

their wildest imagination (Eph 3:20). However, this idea is also somewhat speculative, so

one should hesitate to be dogmatic about it.

102

Hugh Ross, Beyond the Cosmos: What Recent Discoveries in Astrophysics

Reveal about the Glory and Love of God (Colorado Springs: NavPress, 2010), 59.

103

Ross, 23.

Many aspects of nature, such as the bacterial flagellum, a tiny motor that drives

bacteria,104

appear technological, almost like they came from a drawing board. Author

Lee Strobel sets up and recounts the following story of a son presenting such design

evidence to his skeptical father, who was an engineer:

Drawings of the flagellum are, indeed, very impressive, since they look uncannily

like a machine that human beings would construct. I remember a scientist telling

me about his father, an accomplished engineer who was highly skeptical about

claims of intelligent design. The dad could never understand why his son was so

convinced that the world had been designed by an intelligent agent. One day the

scientist put a drawing of the bacterial flagellum in front of him. Fascinated, the

engineer studied it silently for a while, then looked up and said to his son with a

sense of wonder: “Oh, now I get what you’ve been saying.”105

This is another example of technologically oriented people being reached by presenting

evidence in a form to which they can easily relate.

How Does God Do It?

Of course, one should not push the motif of God as Engineer too far. Does the

self-existent, omniscient, and omnipotent Creator of the universe really need to make

calculations, similar to the activities of human engineers? It seems unlikely, especially

given the multiple passages asserting that His ways are not our ways (e.g., Isa 55:8).

Even so, one is exhorted to learn what God has done by studying nature (Job 12:7-10).

Passages like this suggest that one can know something significant of God through a kind

of “reverse engineering” of nature. Cheek interprets Romans 1:20 to say that “God can be

104

Lee Strobel, The Case for a Creator: A Journalist Investigates Scientific

Evidence that Points Toward God (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2004), 204.

105

Strobel, 205-206.

known vicariously through tacit familiarity with his technological feats.”106

One knows

that it was by wisdom and understanding that God made the earth and the heavens (Prov

3:19-20). Isaiah asserts that God measured the waters and weighed the mountains on

scales (Isa 40:12). Several Old Testament passages refer specifically to God stretching

out the heavens like a tent to live in (e.g., Isa 40:22). This is significant since modern

science has confirmed an expanding universe from an initial singularity, in which the

early expansion rate needed a very precise and specific value for life to be possible.107

This is only one parameter, among many that appears to have been finely-tuned, or

rather, engineered for life. Although the attempted resolution of these apparent

coincidences is currently known as the “fine-tuning problem” in physics, this name

implies a kind of trial and error process, reminiscent of the old fine-tuning knob that was

often adjusted to “bring in” a better picture on early television sets. The author considers

that the evidence instead suggests a well-engineered system that was “worked out” ahead

of time, and implemented with intentionality, forethought, and exquisite engineering

expertise.

A specific example of God’s incredible engineering prowess concerns multiple

references to how God counts (Job 38:37) and controls (Job 37:15) the clouds in order to

bring needed rain and maintain a habitable space for humanity. This is significant since

science has recently discovered the key role that clouds play in stabilizing the surface

106

Cheek, 42.

107

Alister McGrath, A Fine-Tuned Universe (Louisville: Westminster John Knox

Press, 2009), 111.

temperature of the earth.108

Clouds not only provide rain for vegetation and animals, but

also reflect the sun’s rays (known as the albedo effect)109

more effectively than most of

the earth’s surface. This blocking of sunlight then reduces the growth rate of ocean

algae.110

Consider the following scenario that illustrates the ingenuity of the cloud-algae

albedo feedback mechanism. If it is clear over the ocean, the sunlight will be largely

absorbed and the ocean temperature will rise. But this causes more algae to grow, which

produces dimethyl sulfide, which in turn results in more Cloud Condensate Nuclei

(CCN). These CCN are tiny airborne particles about which water droplets can form,

resulting in more clouds; thus, reflecting more of the light and cooling the ocean back

down. This causes less algae to grow, producing less dimethyl sulfide; and hence, less

CCN, which tends to clear the daylight skies above the earth’s oceans.111

By following

the above progression, one can perceive an ingenious “natural” automatic thermostat,

based on a stable feedback control system. This system has kept the climate of the earth

fairly constant and “life-friendly” for eons. Having studied complex feedback control

systems in the author’s undergraduate engineering curriculum at Purdue University,112

he

can quite confidently say that they are not easy to engineer, and they do not just happen

by accident. Personally, the author sees the algae-cloud feedback mechanism as a

108

Strobel, 183-184.

109

Strobel, 183.

110

Strobel, 184.

111

Strobel, 184.

112

Robert Skelton, “Feedback Control Systems,” class notes from A&AE 464

Linear Control Systems, Purdue University, August 1984.

glorious demonstration of God’s incredible engineering expertise, and His faithfulness,

care and loving-kindness toward His creatures. These biblical references to God in His

Role as Transcendent Engineer continue in the New Testament, as will be discussed

below.

New Testament Passages Relating to God as Engineer

Some of the same themes relating to a model of God as Engineer in the Old

Testament are also found in the New Testament. God appears to have engineered this

world in order to reveal Himself to humanity, especially to those who search for answers

to the mysteries hidden in the natural realm. The nobility and profitability of such

activities is implied by one of Solomon’s proverbs: “It is the glory of God to conceal a

matter; to search out a matter is the glory of kings (Prov 25:2).” This theme is echoed in

the words of Jesus: “Seek and you will find (Matt 7:7).” Indeed, Paul speaks in Athens of

the universe as a specially engineered arena in which humankind might discover God:

“From one man he made all the nations, that they should inhabit the whole earth; and he

marked out their appointed times in history and the boundaries of their lands. God did this

so that they would seek him and perhaps reach out for him and find him, though he is not

far from any one of us” (Acts 17:26-27). But, God does not make it too difficult for

humans. He provides various forms of testimony within nature, as Paul reasoned with

another group of Gentiles, “In the past, he let all nations go their own way. Yet he has not

left himself without testimony: He has shown kindness by giving you rain from heaven

and crops in their seasons; he provides you with plenty of food and fills your hearts with

joy” (Acts 14:16-17). Thus, the universal recognition that life is generally good and

enjoyable speaks of the loving-kindness of the One who gives and sustains life.

Indeed, the Bible speaks of Jesus as the overarching reason for, and agent of,

Creation. All things were created for Him and through Him. He is before all things, and

in Him, all things hold together (Col 1:16-17). Through Him the universe was made, and

He has been appointed heir of all things, which He sustains by His powerful word (Heb

1:2-3). If Jesus is so involved in the creation, sustenance, and integrity of the universe,

then the study of Creation should reveal things about Christ, through whom salvation also

came into the world.113

From this perspective, Jeffrey S. Lamp describes the significance

of these relationships for valuing not only human life, but all of Creation:

In the midst of a discussion that highlights the anthropocentric focus of the Son’s

redemptive work, the writer of Hebrews, in all likelihood inadvertently, provides

the means through which human beings might identify with Earth. When listened

to with a discerning ear, the very essence of the Christology of Hebrews, at least

to this point in the letter-sermon, not only affirms that all of creation–in its origins

and sustenance–is within the purview of Christology, but also speaks to the unity

of all aspects of that creation–human and other than human alike. To use language

more at home in trinitarian theological reflection, both the pre-existence and

incarnation of the Son provide the framework for envisioning the identification of

human beings with the rest of the created order. The creative agency of the Son in

His pre-existence brings forth Earth, from which in turn come human beings; the

incarnation of the Son from the stuff of Earth serves as the bridge that identifies

human beings with Earth, affirming the intrinsic worth of both in the process.114

The intrinsic value of the Earth leads naturally to the idea of stewardship. Humans have

been entrusted with the care of the earth, so that they might benefit from its design. The

113

Jeffrey S. Lamp (jlamp@oru.edu), Reply to Query Regarding MA Thesis, e-

mail to Dominic Halsmer (dhalsmer@oru.edu) (3 April 2013).

114

Jeffrey S. Lamp, The Greening of Hebrews? Ecological Readings in the Letter

to the Hebrews (Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock, 2012), 13.

Earth is a vital instrument in providing for people’s physical needs, but it also plays a

critical role in informing humans about spiritual realities.

Lamp suggests that if the Earth could speak, perhaps it might say, “I can assist

human beings in their quest to know God’s Son more fully.”115

Because the wisdom of

God is implanted