an assessment of faculty use of icts in the english teacher education program (1)
TRANSCRIPT
Universidad de Playa Ancha
Facultad de Humanidades
Departamento de Ciencias del Lenguaje
Carrera de Pedagogía en Inglés
AN ASSESSMENT OF FACULTY USE OF ICTs IN
THE ENGLISH TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAM
Seminario de Título para optar al Título de Profesor de Inglés y
Licenciado en Educación
Carolina Guerrero Cabrera Manuel Herrera Montoya
Profesor Guía: Magíster Cecilia Arriagada Correa
Valparaíso, Chile
2009
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Abstract
The goal of this research was to try to identify uses of Information
Communication Technologies (ICTs) in the classroom, assess faculty attitudes
toward these technologies and measure the quality of student learning as
proxied by the Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate Education
using the facilities at CREAL.
A total of 11 faculty in the English Teacher Education Program lectured courses
at CREAL during 2008. Out of these, 6 were selected to take part in this
research. Finally, only 5 surveys were received and then processed.
The results of this study show that faculty have a good use of ICTs for
pedagogical aims, and most of them agree in benefits ascribed to their use in
education. A large number of respondents thought that computer technologies
are moderately important showing the new role of the teacher and students in
this new era. The findings also show that nearly the totality of the respondents
reported using the Course Management Systems –Moodle and Centra
Symposium- provided by UPLA.
Finally, the findings reveal that faculty believe technology enhances the learning
process and their in-class interactions with students.
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Agradecimientos Carolina Guerrero Cabrera: A mis padres por apoyarme
incondicionalmente, no solo en este proceso, sino que durante toda mi vida,
Maggita, Papi los amo; a mi hija Renatita Antonia por ser tan especial y amarme
sin condiciones, Reni te amo mucho; al “kezo” por estar siempre conmigo , en
todo momento sin importar la ocasión, Francisco te quiero mucho; a Manuel
por ser tan comprensivo conmigo y tan buen amigo, compañero excepcional; a
la profesora Cecilia por habernos ayudado en el momento preciso a finalizar
con un muy buen término nuestra carrera de profesores de Inglés.
Agradecimientos Manuel Herrera Montoya: A mis padres por apoyarme en todo
momento; a Daniela la persona que esta tras bambalinas enviándome todo su
amor, cariño y apoyo; a Carolina por ser la mejor amiga y compañera de esta
larga travesía; a los grandes amigos que encontré durante estos años; a el
profesor Héctor Andrés Ferrada por comprender la decisión que tome en su
momento y apoyarme a dar el siguiente paso; a la profesora Cecilia Arriagada
por su sabiduría y conocimiento más todo su cariño y aprecio que espero algún
día sea recompensado.
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Table of Contents
Abstract ..............................................................................................................ii
Acknowledgments …………………………………………………………………...iii
CHAPTER 1. Introduction....................................................................................1
1.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................2
1.2 Problem Statement .......................................................................................2
1.3 Research Questions .....................................................................................3
1.4 Significance of the Study ...............................................................................3
1.5 Limitations of the Study .................................................................................4
1.6 Delimitations of the Study ..............................................................................4
1.7 Context ..........................................................................................................4
1.8 Instrumentation ..............................................................................................5
1.9 Survey Design ...............................................................................................6
CHAPTER 2. Technology impact on language learning …………………..12
2.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………….13
2.2 Changes we Have to Face……………………………………………………..15
2.2.1 Changes in the Role of the Teacher …………………………..16
2.2.2 Changes in the Role of the Student …………………………..18
CHAPTER 3. Technology in Higher Education …..………………………20
3.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………….21
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3.2 Changing Context ………………………………………………………….22
3.3 Impact in Higher Education ………………………………………………….23
3.4 Benefits of ICTs in Higher Education programs …………………………..26
3.5 Difficulties of ICTs in Higher Education programs …………………………..27
3.6 Use of ICTs in Higher Education …………………………………………..28
3.7 Teacher Education ………………………………………………………….29
3.7.1 Preservice Practices ………………………………………………….30
3.7.2 Inservice Practices ………………………………………………….30
3.8 Technology Integration ………………………………………………….32
CHAPTER 4. The Use of Technology in the Classroom ………………….33
4.1 The Use of Technology in the Classroom ………………………………….34
4.2 Changes in Education ………………………………………………………….36
4.3 The Beginning of Computer Interaction and Web Based Systems …..39
4.4 New technologies and the rise of social networks (Web 2.0) …………..50
4.4.1 Web 2.0 ………………………………………………………….51
4.4.2 Web 2.0 Applications and education …………………………..52
CHAPTER 5. Attitudes ………………………………………………………….54
5.1 Attitudes ………………………………………………………………………….55
5.2 Teacher’s Attitudes ………………………………………………………….55
5.3 Student’s Perception ………………………………………………………….58
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CHAPTER 6. Questionnaires TAC and FAIT …………………………………..62
6.1 TAC ………………………………………………………………………….63
6.1.1 Description of the Teachers' Attitudes Toward Computers …...63
6.1.2 Reliability ………………………………………………………….63
6.1.3 Administration ………………………………………………….64
6.2 FAIT ………………………………………………………………………….65
6.2.1 Description of the Faculty Attitudes Toward Information Technology
………………………………………………………………………………….65
6.2.2 Reliability ………………………………………………………….65
6.2.3 Administration …………………………………………………..66
6.2.4 Scoring ….………………………………………………………66
6.2.4.1 Introduction …………………………………………………..66
6.2.4.2 Faculty Attitudes Toward Information Technology – Scoring
…………………………………………………………………………..67
CHAPTER 7. The Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate Education ………………………………………………………………………….68
7.1 The Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate Education …...69
7.1.1 Encourages contact between students and faculty …………..69
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7.1.2 Develops reciprocity and cooperation among students …………..70
7.1.3 Encourages active learning …………………………………..71
7.1.4 Gives prompt feedback …………………………………………..72
7.1.5 Emphasizes time on task …………………………………………..73
7.1.6 Communicates high expectations …………………………………..74
7.1.7 Respects diverse talents and ways of learning …………………..75
CHAPTER 8. Methodology …………………………………………………..78
8.1 Subjects and Procedures …………………………………………………..79
8.1.1 Subjects ………………………………………………………….79
8.1.2 Procedures ………………………………………………………….79
8.2 Data Analysis ………………………………………………………………….80
CHAPTER 9. Summary of Findings and Conclusions ............................81
9.1 Summary of Findings .................................................................................82
9.2 Conclusions .................................................................................................95
References ...........................................................................................98
Bibliography .........................................................................................102 Appendix ………………………………………………………………………...116
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List of Tables
Table 1 Survey sample …………………………………………………..79
Table 2 Question Nº2 Faculty’s self-assessment of their computer skills..84
Table 3 Question Nº3 How important computer technologies in each of
their instructional activities are …………………………………..85
Table 4 Questions Nº4 If one of the courses faculty are currently lecturing
has a Course Management System (CMS) and the elements it
contains …………………………………………………………..86
Table 5 Question Nº 6 Equipment that was installed in the classroom but
NOT used in their course (“N”); installed equipment that they did
use (“U”) and equipment that they brought to the classroom
yourself (“B”) ……………………………………………………...…...88
Table 6 Questions Nº 8-18 Faculty attitudes toward teaching technologies
……….………………………………………………………………….91
Table 7 Questions Nº 19-36 The Seven Principles for Good Practice in
Undergraduate Education …………………………………………..93
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List of Figures
Figure 1 Question B Age in years .…………………………………………..83
Figure 2 Question Nº1 Faculty’s experience with computers ……………83
Figure 3 Questions Nº5 Best describes Faculty’s class …………………...87 Figure 4 Question Nº7 Best describes how faculty develop technology-
based course materials ..………………………………………….89
Figure 5 Question Nº 36 Technology's impact on the learning process …..94
CHAPTER 1. Introduction
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1.1 Introduction
This thesis intends to identify uses of Information Communication Technologies
(ICTs) in the classroom, assess faculty attitudes toward these technologies and
measure the quality of student learning as proxied by the Seven Principles for
Good Practice in Undergraduate Education.
1.2 Problem Statement
The problem addressed in this study focuses on Faculty’s current uses of ICTs
in the English Teacher Education Program as a result of the implementation of
CREAL.
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1.3 Research Questions
i. What technologies are being used at CREAL at the University of Playa
Ancha? How do faculty use them?
ii. What value do faculty perceive in these teaching technologies?
iii. Do these technologies actually enhance student learning?
1.4 Significance of the Study
The following investigation is going to cover i) The impact of ICTs ii) If
technology enhances both teaching and learning iii) Classroom technology and
iv) Faculty use of technology.
Data collected will provide further information about the integration of ICTs and
thus contribute to the betterment of English Language Teaching in technology-
enhanced environments.
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1.5 Limitations of the Study
The study was carried out at UPLA Valparaíso main campus and a total of 6
teachers of the English Teacher Education Program (day) participated in this
research.
1.6 Delimitations of the Study
Although CREAL is used by other language faculty this study is only going to
focus on those who lectured English courses.
1.7 Context
This study Intends to reveal some of the activities that faculty develop at Centro
de Recursos Enseñanza Aprendizaje de Lenguas (CREAL), which aims to:
i. Improve and innovate in the teaching learning process of foreign
languages (FL) to develop effectively the linguistic abilities and skills of the
undergraduate students at Universidad de Playa Ancha.
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ii. Strengthen the teaching, research, dissemination, services and
consultancies in the field of language teaching with application of Information
Communication Technologies (ICTs).
1.8 Instrumentation
The following instrumentation will be used:
i. Teachers' Attitudes Toward Computers Questionnaire (TAC) is a 99-199
item Likert/Semantic Differential Instrument for measuring teachers'
attitudes toward computers on 7-20 subscales. Computer Importance and
Computer Enjoyment are articulated with similar subscales on the Young
Children's Computer Inventory and Computer Attitude Questionnaire.
ii. The Faculty Attitudes Toward Information Technology (FAIT) provides
assessment of university and college faculty attitudes toward new
information technologies. It includes subscales from Teachers Attitudes
Toward Computers Questionnaire 3.2a (such as E-mail use for
instruction) plus background questions tailored for university faculty.
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1.9 Survey design
To answer our research questions two main instruments were used: Teacher
Attitudes Questionnaire (TAC) (Christensen et al, 1996) and the Faculty Attitude
Toward Information Technology (FAIT) (Gilmore, 1998). Like the TAC and FAIT
the survey assesses four categories of faculty attitude toward teaching
technologies: Enthusiasm/Enjoyment, Anxiety, Avoidance and Productivity,
which to be responded, need from this level scale arbitrarily coded:
SA=strongly agree
A=agree
N=neutral
D=disagree,
SD=strongly disagree
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i. Enthusiasm/Enjoyment
Computer-based instructional technologies are now as important to students as
textbooks.
Using the Internet to communicate with my peers and keep abreast of
developments in my field makes me a better instructor
Instructors who want to incorporate computer-based instructional technologies
into their classes get good technical support from the university.
The university provides adequate rewards for instructors who adopt computer-
based instructional technologies.
ii. Anxiety
I am concerned about losing control (ownership) of my teaching materials when
(if) I post them on the web.
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I feel more comfortable with computers than my students do.
Computers cause students a lot of anxiety.
iii. Avoidance
All prospective teachers should have some formal training in the use of
computer-based instructional technologies.
iv. Productivity Improvement
Rather than saving me time, using computer-based instructional technologies
actually requires (would require) more class preparation time.
Instructional technologies let me (would let me) teach larger classes than I could
handle with traditional teaching methods.
I could (can) teach just as well without computers.
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In addition, we assess the extent to which faculty have incorporated Chickering’s
seven principles for good practice in undergraduate education (Chickering,
1987):
i. Encourage contact between students and faculty
Computer-based instructional technologies enhance my in-class interactions
with students.
ii. Develop reciprocity and cooperation among students
Computers tend to isolate students from each other.
Computer-based assignments tend to foster cooperation and teamwork among
students.
iii. Encourage active learning Instructional technologies cannot substitute for live instruction.
Computers teach students to be active learners.
Computer programs can provide for student input and interaction with course
material.
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iv. Provide prompt feedback
I can (could) grade student work more quickly and easily if it is (were) done on
computer.
Outside the classroom, I can handle students’ questions more quickly and
efficiently via e-mail than face-to-face.
v. Emphasize time on task
Students waste a lot of time on computers.
Computer-based instructional technologies actually distract students from the
course content they are supposed to be learning.
The university should provide students easy access to microcomputers
everywhere on campus.
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vi. Communicate high expectations
I get (would get) higher-quality work from students if their assignments are
(were) done on computer.
I tend to be more conscientious about the quality of my teaching materials when
they are disseminated via computer (PowerPoint, the web, etc.).
If students expect the web to deliver all the information they need, they have
less incentive to develop their own knowledge.
The web facilitates plagiarism and erodes respect for intellectual property rights.
Computers are a cause of declining student writing standards.
vii. Respect diverse talents and ways of learning
Computer technologies support diverse student learning styles better than
conventional lectures.
Multimedia allows students to use different learning strategies.
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CHAPTER 2. Technology impact on language
learning
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2.1 Introduction
The problem addressed in this study focuses on the impact of ICTs on students
learning of English as a Foreign Language (FL), considering whether these
technologies enhance language learning and teaching in computer-based
environments.
Technology knowledge and skills are increasingly viewed as essential to
success in the 21st century. Glenn (1997) noted that computers have advanced
from simple machines with limited functions and capabilities to powerful
machines with sophisticated applications and high-speed networking abilities,
and this increase in capacity is impacting education like the rest of society. This
focus on technology stems from its potential to positively impact education.
Technology use in university education and research has historically been
suspect. Several U.S reports have lamented the poor state of teacher
preparation with respect to technology use (e.g., Moursand & Bielfeldt, 1999;
Office of Technology Assessment, 1995; Panel on Educational Technology,
1997; Smerdon et al., 2000). These reports indicate that technology often is not
central to teacher preparation in colleges of education. Problems include limited
use of technology in teacher education courses, an emphasis on teaching about
technology rather than teaching with technology, lack of faculty modeling, and
insufficient faculty professional development opportunities.
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The literature shows that training of university faculty should include the ability to
use the computer for personal use (i.e., word processing, spreadsheets, Internet
searches, and electronic mail) as well as classroom integration (Parker, 1997).
Training and support are significant in helping and facilitating faculty to
effectively integrate technology into classes (Groves & Zemel, 2000; Matthew,
Parker & Wilkinson, 1998). Those who receive training generally show a more
positive attitude toward information technology than do those who have not
received training (Rutherford & Grana, 1995). Five factors will affect faculty’s
engagement, particularly of both self starters in technology and those hesitant in
adopting technology: training, grants and start-up resources, technical support,
assessment, and communication.
Literature reviews in the use of information technology say that as the Internet
and course software become an even larger part of a student’s daily life, faculty
will have to adjust to the fact that they are no longer the major source of
information for their students (Parker, 1997).
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2.2 Changes we have to face
Higher education institutions have experienced a change in the whole education
system of today's society: displacement of the formation processes from
conventional environments to other areas; widespread demand that students
receive the necessary skills for continuous learning; marketing knowledge,
which simultaneously generates opportunities for new markets and
competencies in the field, and so on. The learning varies dramatically. The
traditional educational institutions have to readjust their distribution systems and
communication. Student-user moves in a more flexible world that we called
Cyberspace. Moreover, the changes in this space-time lead to the emergence of
new educational organizations, which are formed as partnerships or networks of
institutions whose educational systems are characterized by expandability and
interconnection.
All this requires higher education institutions a renewal of its procedures and its
administrative structure, to accommodate training pattern alternatives more in
line with the requirements that this new scenario presents. The existence of on-
line courses on the Internet, or experimental projects from some teachers and
departments, does not presuppose a more flexible university.
It is normal in this time of changes brought by advances in technology to speak
about information and communication as the start of a new era, which is usually
called the information society. We can highlight four issues:
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i. The importance of knowledge as a factor in determining safety prosperity
and quality of life;
ii. The global nature of our society;
iii. The ease in which computer technology, telecommunications, and
multimedia allow the rapid exchange of information;
iv. The degree in which the informal collaboration (mainly through networks)
between individuals are replacing formal institutions and social structures such
us corporations, universities and governments.
The changes occurred in higher education institutions present two
demonstrations that can be considered as answers to understand the
phenomenon of the innovation processes:
2.2.1 Changes in the role of teacher.
2.2.2 Changes in the role of the student.
2.2.1 Changes in the role of teacher
The changes happening in the institution, where we can highlight the impact of
ICT, lead inevitably to consider a change in the role of the teacher and his role in
the teaching-learning process in the context of higher education.
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There are several authors who have dealt with the functions to be developed by
the teacher in the learning environments that exploit the potential of computer
communication. Mason (1991), like Heeren and Collis (1993), spoke of three
roles: organizational, social and intellectual. Berge (1995) categorized in the four
areas: educational, social, organizational or administrative and technical.
However, not all of these roles must be played by the same person.
It is generally accepted that the role of the teacher has changed from the
transmission of knowledge to students to be a facilitator for the construction of
its own knowledge (Gisbert and others, 1997; Salinas, 1999, Perez I Garcias, A
2002). It is a vision of the Education in which the student is the focus of attention
and in which the teacher plays a decisive role, meaning to pay attention to those
attitudes that can expand or decrease the distance of the students. The teacher
acts first as a person and then as an expert in the content, promoting students’
personal growth and focusing on facilitating learning rather than transmitting
information. The school and the teacher are no longer sources of knowledge
and he or she needs to act as a guide for students to facilitate the use of
resources and tools they need to explore and develop new knowledge and skills,
act as manager of the learning resources and enhance his or her advisor role.
In this context, it seems convenient that teachers are able to:
i. lead students in the use of the bases of information and knowledge as
well as provide access to work autonomously.
ii. enhance students to become active in the process of self-learning.
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iii. advise and manage the learning environment in which students are using
learning resources. They must be able to guide students in developing
collaborative experiences, monitor student progress; provide feedback to
support the student's work and offer real opportunities for spreading it.
Teachers need support of professional guide services to enable them to
participate completely as experts. They are not only essential elements in any
educational system, but also indispensable to develop changes; therefore they
must have educational and technical resources that enable them to reach their
needs.
2.2.2 Changes in the role of the student
Like the teacher, the student is in the context of the society of
information and does not conform with the role that traditionally has been
awarded. The educational models do not cover learning processes taking place
through computer communication. The traditional approach consists of
accumulating as much knowledge as possible, but in a changing world that is
not efficient.
There is no doubt that the students in touch with ICTs benefit in many ways,
moving into this new vision of user training. The support and guidance as well as
different technological availability are crucial elements in the exploitation of ICTs
for training in this new situation, but in any case flexibility is required to switch
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from face to face instruction to on-line courses, at the same time flexibility to use
a variety of materials to work autonomously.
As Salinas, J. (1997) said the implications on the role of student consist in:
i. accessing to a wide range of learning resources. They should have
access to a variety of information resources including libraries, databases,
software, multimedia packages, content experts, and other communication
systems.
ii. managing active learning resources. The student must be able to actively
manipulate information, organize information in different ways. Finally, learners
have to possess skills to use the tools of information.
iii. participating in individualized learning experiences. Based on their skills,
knowledge, interests and goals it should be understood that individualized
instruction does not mean isolation but adapted instruction to the specific needs
of each student.
iv. approaching to groups of collaborative learning, allowing students to work
with others to achieve common goals for success and personal satisfaction.
Such activities should not be limited to a specific classroom, but different
localities and schools, providing a more universal and intercultural contact.
v. having experience in problem-solving tasks that are relevant to
contemporary and future jobs.
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CHAPTER 3. Technology in Higher Education
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3.1 Introduction
Educational systems around the world are under increasing pressure to use the
new information and communication technologies (ICTs) to teach students the
knowledge and skills they need in the 21st century.
To effectively manage the power of the new information and communication
technologies (ICTs) to improve learning, the following essential conditions must
be considered:
i. Students and teachers must have access to digital technologies and the
Internet in their classrooms, schools, and teacher education institutions.
ii. High quality, meaningful, and culturally responsive digital content must be
available for teachers and learners.
iii. Teachers must have the knowledge and skills to use the new digital tools
and resources to help all students achieve high academic standards.
ICTs are a major factor in shaping the new global economy and producing rapid
changes in society. Within the past decade, the new ICT tools have
fundamentally changed the way people communicate and do business. They
have produced significant transformations in industry, agriculture, medicine,
business, engineering and other fields. They also have the potential to transform
the nature of education where and how learning takes place and the roles of
students and teachers in the learning process.
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3.2 Changing context
The traditional view of the learning process is typically teacher-centered, with
teachers doing most of the talking and intellectual work, while students are
passive receptacles of the information provided. As noted by Driscoll (1994), we
no longer can view learners as "empty vessels waiting to be filled, but rather as
active organisms seeking meaning." We are entering a new era of digital
learning in which we are in the process of transitioning from "broadcast" learning
to "interactive" learning. Today’s students no longer want to be passive
recipients in the information transfer model of learning. Rather they want to be
active participants in the learning process.
There is growing awareness among educators that the educational system
designed to prepare learners for an agrarian or industrially-based economy will
not provide students with the knowledge and skills they will need to prosper in
the 21st century’s knowledge-based economy and society. The new knowledge-
based global society is one in which:
i. the world’s knowledge base doubles every 2–3 years;
ii. 7,000 scientific and technical articles are published each day;
iii. data sent from satellites orbiting the earth transmit enough data to fill 19
million volumes every two weeks;
iv. graduates of secondary schools in industrialized nations have been
exposed to more information than their grandparents were in a life-time;
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v. there will be as much change in the next three decades as there was in
the last three centuries (National School Board Association, 2002).
The challenge confronting the educational systems is how to transform the
curriculum and teaching-learning process to provide students with the skills to
function effectively in this dynamic, information-rich, and continuously changing
environment.
ICTs provide lots of powerful tools that may help in transforming the present
isolated, teacher-centered and text-bound classrooms into rich, student-focused,
interactive knowledge environments. To meet these challenges, schools must
cover the new technologies and appropriate the new ICT tools for learning.
3.3 Impact in Higher Education
In the USA there is a program called Preparing Tomorrow’s Teachers to use
Technology (PT3). The initiative consists in helping teachers to integrate
technology into their teaching to become effective technology users in the
classroom, to address their content needs and pedagogical practice and provide
effective personalized support on technology and communication, and so model
its use for pre-service teachers.
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To categorize the impact of the PT3 initiative in higher education faculty can
assume four assertions:
Assertion 1: Technology integration must be focused on content needs
1.1 In general, the participants perceived technology as the tool that can
facilitate teaching and learning. They thought that using technology should not
be just for the sake of technology; instead, technology should be used to
accomplish educational missions.
Assertion 2: Personalized support on technology and communication is the most effective way to assist faculty who are trying to integrate technology in the classroom.
2.1 The participants reflected that PT3 (Tomorrow’s Teachers to use
Technology) staff offered a lot of support in their use of technology through
teaching, facilitating, and troubleshooting problems.
Assertion 3: Professional development in a supportive environment can effectively change faculty members’ perceptions and promote use of technology.
3.1 The participation in the PT3 project changed the perceptions and use of
technology of the faculty members who had resisted technology use
Assertion 4: Professional development in technology use needs to take
into consideration individual faculty member’s needs. Exemplary
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technology use is necessary to encourage faculty to incorporate
technology.
4.1 When promoting the faculty’s use of technology, it is necessary to help
faculty members articulate individual needs in their specific fields; otherwise,
technology incorporation will become meaningless.
Faculty profession development in technology use is of great significance to
educational practice. The national PT3 initiative was created to respond to this
need.
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3.4 Benefits of ICTs in Higher Education programs
Studies show that computer-based instruction can individualize instruction and
give instant feedback to students which can be helpful to give the explanation of
the correct answer. The computer is very patient and nonjudgmental and that
motivates students to continue. Students usually learn more in less time when
they receive computer-based instruction and they like their classes and develop
more positive attitudes toward computers when computer-based instruction is
included.
Most students -although not necessarily low-achieving students, who tended to
require more structure- were able to pace better themselves when technology
was used. Student attitudes toward learning and the students' own self-concepts
improved consistently when computers were used for instruction. The use of
technology as a learning tool can make a measurable difference in student
achievement, attitudes, and interactions with teachers and other students.
Numerous studies have demonstrated that technology is particularly valuable in
improving student writing. The ease with which students can edit their written
work on word processors makes them more willing to do so, which in turn
improves the quality of their writing. Studies have shown that students are also
better at critiquing and editing written work that is exchanged over a computer
network with students they know. And student writing that is shared with other
students over a network tends to be of higher quality than writing produced for
in-class use only.
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Kulik, James A. (1994) summarized more than a decade's worth of work spent
analyzing the effectiveness of computers used for instruction. A research
approach called meta-analysis allowed him to add the findings of more than 500
individual studies of computer-based instruction. The studies, conducted
independently by research teams using different methods at eight research
centers, focused on different uses of the computer with different populations.
Some of his conclusions are:
i. Students usually learn more in less time when they receive computer-
based instruction.
ii. Students like their classes more and develop more positive attitudes
toward computers when their classes include computer-based instruction.
iii. Computers do not, however, have positive effects in every area in which
they were studied. In 34 studies that examined students' attitudes toward
subject matter, for instance, the average effect of computer-based instruction
was near zero.
3.5 Difficulties of ICTs in Higher Education programs
Any technology innovation cannot ignore the context in which it will be
developed. The introduction of ICT in teaching is supposed to consider issues
that relate to the characteristics of potential users, both individual and collective.
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It becomes imperative based on an analysis of the context in which innovation
has to be integrated, either from a geographical point of view (population
distribution where our students develop), pedagogical (conceptions and beliefs,
new roles of teacher and students, the great variety of ways of learning,
changing teaching strategies), technology (technological availability of the
institution and users, etc.), institutional or organizational.
The strength of universities in the field of ICT in teaching is in its faculty and
knowledge. But any university is strong in all fields. It is very important the
alliance between the institutions, training equipment, covering all aspects
necessary for the quality of programs (technical, educational, communication,
etc.)
3.6 Use of ICTs in Higher Education
Information Communication Technologies (ICTs) have settled completely in
universities over the past decade. This is showing a significant change in
institutions, changes such as, how to plan and develop university teaching,
administration and academic services to students and the research. We can say
that the use of ICT, especially the Internet, is changing significantly the
institutional departments of universities, from its structure to how to plan and
teach, through the management and academic administration, as well as
research and distribution of knowledge.
29
The potential of ICT in higher education leads to different models of
organizations. Hanna (1998) tells us about 7 different types: distance education
universities based in technology; private institutions aimed at teaching adults;
corporate universities, strategic university-enterprise alliances; organizations of
accreditation and certification; extended traditional universities and global
multinationals universities. You can understand that the success of experiences
to develop in conventional universities depends on the transformation of some
existing structures across networks and lead to cooperation in the design and
distribution of courses and materials for distance education giving rise to real
learning networks.
3.7 Teacher Education
There has been a strong emphasis on restructuring higher education. Despite
funding for the transformation of schools through technology, the classroom of
the early 1990s was still driven by lectures, textbooks, and passive learning.
Research (Marcinkiewicz, 1993/1994) showed that, regardless of the number of
computers available in universities, teachers did not use them. This fact
supports the modification of current teacher training programs. To achieve
integration of technology into the classroom, understanding the ways in which
teachers can effectively use computers is essential.
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3.7.1 Preservice Practices
Findings in a study done by Koohang (1987) suggested that computer
experience can be provided for preservice teachers prior to their involvement in
teaching. Studies have shown that teachers who are trained in technology
coursework are more likely to use computers for their personal use and are also
more likely to integrate them into their classroom (Hochman, Maurer, &
Roebuck, 1993; Kearns, 1992).
Woodrow (1990) and others suggested that courses for novice users should
focus on "user-friendly" computers and software. Students should leave their
first class being able to do something that is practical and that will have an
immediate application. These introductory courses should promote positive
computer attitudes, and they should assure that students (preservice teachers)
are successful. If the students finish the class with a positive attitude toward
computers, they are more likely to apply their newly acquired skills.
3.7.2 Inservice Practices
According to Ritchie and Wiburg (1994), one of the characteristics that set
computer-using teachers apart from others was their access to staff
development activities that included instruction in using teacher productivity
programs (gradebook, word processing, spreadsheets) and instruction that
included using computers with specific subject matter taught by teachers.
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There are at least three reasons why information received during an in-service
workshop is not implemented in the classroom situations. These include: (a)
failure to conduct a needs analysis to identify knowledge required by users; (b)
presentations limited to factual knowledge which omit higher level thinking
strategies; and (c) failure to incorporate activities which are relevant to the
audience in a collaborative, problem solving approach (Ritchie & Wiburg, 1994).
Ritchie and Wiburg also stated that one-shot inservice is not sufficient to enable
teachers to implement technology in the classroom. This means matching
learning opportunities to the needs of specific teachers so they can choose what
they need to know, how they wish to learn and the time frame in which they will
learn it. Follow up support and coaching after the initial learning experience is
essential to effective staff development. (U. S. Congress, 1995)
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3.8 Technology Integration
The integration of computers into education requires an improvement in the
instruction of teachers. Teachers require education in the use of technology as
an instructional as well as a professional tool (Woodrow, 1992). Throughout the
literature, the recurring solution to integration of technology in the classroom is
teacher education (Burkholder, 1995; Kearsley & Lynch, 1994; Shermis, 1990;
Stoddart & Niederhauser, 1993). Burkholder observed that since the teachers
are the ones who will implement the technology, training should focus on them.
He contended that training should include strategic plans necessary to integrate
the use of technology in the classroom rather than introducing teacher
productivity tools alone (Burkholder, 1995).
Although there may not be agreement on how to involve technology in curricula,
one common goal is to foster favorable attitudes toward computers. If positive
attitudes are developed in students (preservice teachers) other objectives may
become secondary (Bear, Richards & Lancaster, 1987). Measures for assessing
teacher development are also needed because it appears to be an important
part of the change process (Riel & Harasim, 1994).
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CHAPTER 4. The Use of Technology in the Classroom
34
4.1 The Use of Technology in the Classroom
In order to master a foreign language many hours of contact are required, that is
to say, input (reading, listening), production (writing, speaking) and interaction
(Cziko, 2008).
The classroom does not provide sufficient time to master a foreign language so
the ICTs (particularly the Internet) offer a multitude of resources and tools in
order to learn languages autonomously.
With the Internet, students can create a virtual environment of the foreign
language and culture (e.g. social networks), read news, articles and other
materials of interest in the L2, listen to audio and videos (e.g. podcasts) through
a computer or portable MP3 player, write (e.g. emails, articles from Wikipedia,
blogs, etc.) or interact with native speakers (e.g. email, instant messaging,
voice, collaboration on articles from Wikipedia, etc.).
The literature is rich with examples of technology in the classroom. It helps the
emergent learner, students with disabilities, students with language disabilities
and the gifted child. With the cultural and socioeconomic diversity in our schools
today, teaching effectively to these different levels of ability, background,
interests, learning styles and modalities is a major challenge. We usually teach
to the majority since it is somewhat impractical to try to adapt teaching to each
student. Too basic an instruction will help the struggling learner but bore the
35
gifted and vice versa. Thus poorer students are left hanging in their confusion,
and the brightest students miss exciting challenges. With computers as tutors,
each student has the ability to work at their own speed.
Often, students are too confused or embarrassed to ask questions because they
don't want to show their ignorance. With individualized computer instruction,
students can always immediately request help if something is unclear.
Computers help to make it more interactive. They are extremely effective with
the struggling learners because they (unlike humans) have unlimited patience.
Computers can teach via a multitude of modalities depending on the learning
style of the student (Bennett, 2002).
The computer can also be used to educate the smarter students who easily get
bored in a traditional classroom since they reach their goal faster. With
computers, students that finish a unit can go to the next one immediately.
For these bright students, the challenges that computers can offer encourage
self-directed learning.
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Thus for a teacher, technology can be used as an information tool and four main
purposes:
i. Research: finding and gathering new and old information
ii. Management: manipulating, organizing and storing information
iii. Publishing: manipulating, interpreting and organizing information for
presentation
iv. Communication: presenting and sharing information
4.2 Changes in Education
Education is changing; new learning and teaching strategies have an emphasis
on activity, collaboration and exploration. It is very important for teachers that
strategies take place beyond the walls of the classroom so that learning
becomes more embedded in everyday activities. It is clear that ICT can help to
achieve these objectives. Computers are now central to education and their use
is seen as a powerful catalyst to educational change (Becta, 2005). However,
most computers come in the form of the PC which are rows of desktop-bound
boxes and screens and this presents a number of problems, such us:
i. computer designers and educationalists believe that the PC presents
several barriers to use, since as a device it lacks flexibility, and is overly
complex and difficult to use: people spend more time learning about the
computer than using it (Shneiderman, 2000).
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ii. computing as a discipline is in the middle of a paradigm shift. Changing
from being focused on providing an individual with a single multi-purpose
computer, to one which involves the fragmentation of computing power over
many media-rich networked devices, gadgets and systems. Giving students and
teachers the computing power that is constantly available and embedded all
around us.
This means that just as education is beginning to reach the goal of providing a
1:1 PC–pupil ratio, this paradigm shift is rendering the PC out of date.
From the point of view of Higher Education implementations of ICT experts have
identified eight problems:
iii. the differential infrastructure and readiness of different types of higher
education institutions to utilize the technologies’ potential;
iv. the extent to which the ‘old’ distance education technologies and the new
technologies replace teaching/learning practices in classrooms;
v. the role of real problems, barriers and obstacles in applying new
technologies;
vi. the impact of the new technologies on different student clienteles;
vii. information acquisition vs. knowledge construction in higher education;
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viii. cost considerations;
ix. the human capacity to adapt to new learning styles in face of the rapid
development of the technologies; and
x. the organizational cultures of academic and corporate worlds.
Moreover what is offered in the classroom bears is not as flexible, mobile or
friendly as technologies afforded by the digital lifestyle outside the school gates
(Leadbeater, 2005). Although there are some good examples of the use of
innovative digital technology and practice, such as the Islington City Learning
Centre (Dodson 2005), the Savannah project (Naismith et al, 2005), or the
Design Council’s 360-degree flexible classroom project and, in the US, the
Stanford iRoom project.
In order to deliver the educational vision computers need to be more usable,
friendly, flexible and mobile. And as technology blends into the environment
around us, our relationship to the technology – the way we interact with it – will
be of fundamental importance (Anderson, 2005).
The next step is known as human-computer interaction (HCI), and deals in how
we interact with machines and new technologies.
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4.3 The beginning of computer interaction and web based systems
Everything we know over the web comes from hypermedia; an innovation that
has revolutionized the way information is stored, processed, and retrieved in
digital format. The integration of hypermedia into the practice of teaching
provides the simplest form of student-content interaction, enabling user control
of information. Clicking on hyperlinked text or images will take the user to
another page (document, file, or image) that may exist on the user's computer or
on a computer halfway around the world. Today, the World Wide Web (WWW) is
the most popular hypermedia application and is extensively used in education
and commerce.
The WWW is a body of software and set of protocols and conventions that make
it possible for people on the Internet to search for, retrieve, browse, and add
information.
The popularity of web-based teaching and learning has lead to the development
of easy-to-use learning and course management systems. LMS/CMS systems
help teachers to create, store, deliver, and manage content online without the
need for HTML programming. Such systems separate the construction and
display of web pages from their content. They allow for controlling the look and
feel of web pages centrally while distributing responsibility for the content. Each
faculty member or department controls a particular area on the site, including
the ability to delete, reorganize, and edit pages. Examples are Blackboard™,
WebCT, Lotus Learning Space, TopClass, TeleTOP, and WebBoard™, Centra
40
Symposium and Moodle. These tools vary in their characteristics and features,
but generally they all focus on learner centeredness and instructor-friendliness.
They include easy-to-use user interfaces, simple and functional navigation,
communication, and learning assessment and management tools.
Because of the monolithic nature of these LMS platforms, interoperability has
been a problem that some reviewed articles discussed. That is, it is not easy to
move a course design and structure from one LMS to another.
Technology is now available to implement such distributed applications with
open standards like Java, the Apache Software Foundation toolkit, and Open
Source initiatives (Moodle) (Ziad, 2006).
There are also some considerations in WWW-Based Courses, such us:
i. Technical Requirements: Developing new courses for the web or
transforming existing course requires certain technical knowledge and skills
ii. Presentation and Interactivity: learning styles have to be taken into
consideration by faculty members and course designers.
iii. Communication and Feedback: Internet communication is user-controlled
and user-defined.
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iv. Printing from the Web: Material added to a web-based course can save
instructors the effort of printing two or three hundred sets of lecture notes
v. Social Issues: Teaching and learning via the web may create problems
when it comes to social issues.
vi. Academic Honesty: There is a high potential for academic dishonesty in
web-based courses especially in distance education where courses are
delivered purely online
vii. Intellectual Property: Making copyrighted material available to students
online is a big issue in web-based courses.
viii. Authentication Issues: The usage of passwords to access web-based
teaching and learning material has its challenges.
ix. E-mail Misuse: Web-based courses may become targets to hackers
x. People with Disabilities: The Americans with Disabilities Act prohibits
discrimination against people with disabilities.
Smolin and Lawless (2003) believe that becoming literate in the technological
age leads to new responsibilities for teachers. An example is a bilingual
classroom where students were given digital cameras and recorders and had to
interview bilingual businesses in the community. This leads to the development
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of other essential literacies such as technological, visual and information
literacy, all of which incorporate technology and are part of the state and
national standards.
Due to the cultural diversity in America, English is not the primary language for
an increasing percentage of their population. The number of ESL teachers in
schools is increasing in order to accommodate this diverse culture. In order for
these ESL students to receive an appropriate education, technology is a
valuable tool. Teachers use a variety of basic-skills language arts software for
letter recognition, basic vocabulary, and spelling. This helps the students work at
their own pace and a computer offers a nonthreatening way of interacting with
each other.
Native-speaker reading and writing programs are beneficial and especially
programs that "read" stories aloud while showing the text highlighted on the
screen. Writing programs allow students to compose and share their writing with
others (Center on English Learning and Achievement, 2003.).
Technology helps connect multicultural education in a number of ways. Media
and telecommunications are a vital part of today's youth culture. Individuals with
weak or little technological skills will find it difficult to survive in the competitive
and global environment of the future. Technological tools such as web-based
instruction, computer-mediated communication, web quests CD-ROM, and
audio and video streaming are used in multicultural education. It also helps
learners with language differences (Sleeter and Tettegah, 2002).
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Hypermedia is used as a learning tool for students with Limited English
Proficiency (LEP) (Bermudez and Palumbo, 1994). It enables users to access
information in a non-linear and self-tailored fashion by creating individualized
learning environments. In today's cultural diversity and multitude of learning
styles and intelligences, any technology that can individualize learning is
beneficial. Contrary to a book where the content is structured, hypermedia
allows the learner to determine the access order. Thus information can be linked
together in a variety of ways. Since the learning medium is student-centered, it
can proceed in his/her way and pace.
Assistive technologies (AT) are used to assist students in a variety of instruction
modes. Various AT devices help students to organize their thoughts or work by
using flow charts, graphic organizers or some high-tech word processing
software. Note-taking devices include optical character recognition,
microcassette recorders or videotapes. Various word processing devices are
also available for writing assistance. These aid in spelling, grammar and
punctuation errors, editing, revising and motivation. Telecommunications and
multimedia transport students beyond their physical environment to access
electronic information. Tools are also available to help students develop and
improve cognitive and problem-solving skills. Various multimedia CD-ROM-
based application programs for assisted reading and customizing instructional
materials to meet the various disabilities of students also provide a learning tool
for these students (Behrmann, 1995).
44
By using an interactive software literacy curriculum on children from 3 to 5 years
old and with moderate disabilities, children can gain concepts related to stories,
sequences, and story making. They learn to read words on a page from left to
right, and from top to bottom. Social interaction skills and emergent writing are
positively affected. If the information given to the child is meaningful, they retain
it for long periods of time (Hutinger, 2001).
The Internet is another technological tool that can be integrated into the
classroom. This can be done in three ways - Internet Workshop, Internet Project,
and Internet Inquiry (Leu and Leu, 1999). Internet Workshop is helpful in
introducing students to sites for an upcoming unit and develops useful
background knowledge. Internet Project involves collaborative learning between
two or more classrooms that takes place over the Internet. Two basic types of
Internet Projects exist and are used by teachers: web site Internet projects and
projects created by teachers who find one another on the Internet. These
projects can be used for primary, middle and high school grades. Internet Inquiry
is a student-directed activity where individuals or groups identify an important
question and then gather information as they seek answers to their question.
Internet Inquiry includes five phases: question; search; analyze; compose; and
publish.
Technology is also a very helpful tool in foreign language classes. With the use
of e-mail, chat rooms, Web cam and a collaborative Web site, French students
at University of Southern California (USC) were linked to native speakers in
France (Wood, 2002).
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The online learning enhances the traditional textbook and gives students a
personal connection to native French speakers. Their information comes from
real people rather than textbooks and is also related to real-life. The fact that
other people read what they write makes learning fun and exciting and also
improves reading and writing skills. This reflects what students do in their daily
lives: (e-mailing friends, chatting, etc.). It is the form of communication they use
in real life, so there should be no reason that it cannot be incorporated into their
language class. U.S. Secretary of Education Rod Paige strongly promoted e-
learning during his NCLB tour across America (Denver, CO - Tour Stop 15,
2002). He shared the notion believed by many that e-learning is a powerful tool
for parents and schools and that students can use it to learn languages with
native speakers. In addition to using e-mails for foreign language classes, it is
also an excellent medium for global communication and collaboration (Smolin
and Lawless, 2003). ePALS.com (http://www.epals.com) is referred to as the
world's largest online classroom community. Both students and teachers can
communicate in a variety of languages, engage in specific group discussions
and work on global collaborative projects. Technology enables them to share
their work with a wider authentic audience. This helps influence their writing
skills, their observation and reporting skills and develops effective
communication abilities.
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Feldman (2002) summarized the ways in which technology supports early
literacy. The teacher should facilitate the use of technology based on the
instructional objective(s) being taught. Some of these are:
i. Appropriate software that supports instructional outcomes helps
developing higher-level reasoning and problem solving skills.
ii. Electronic Books benefit young readers, ESOL and Special Education
students.
iii. Word processing helps students write more fluently.
iv. CDs make accommodations for different languages and allow students to
hear directions in their native language but require them to read the stories and
do word work in English.
v. The World Wide Web makes different types of reading materials more
accessible to students. Text size can be increased for students with visual
impairments and vocabulary can be simplified for emerging readers.
vi. Virtual Field Trips allow children to travel beyond the classroom without
actually leaving. Digital Images allow students to record and document their
experiences.
Technology has also been used in interdisciplinary inquiry such as linking
science and literature. Howes, Hamilton and Zaskoda (2003) show this by
creating a web site to support middle school teachers and students in making
this connection. The environment for this could include the community
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surrounding the school i.e. actual places, situations and issues around the
neighborhood to help give real-life meaning that students could associate with.
Another application of technology in the classroom is the use of Assistive
Technologies and especially for students with mild disabilities (Behrmann,
1995). There are seven areas where ATs are used to assist students with mild
disabilities. They are:
i. Organization: Low-tech solutions help teach students to organize their
thoughts or work using flow charts and task analysis, and outlining using graphic
organizers.
ii. Note taking: Optical character recognition is software that can transform
typewritten material into computer-readable text using a scanner. Notes read by
a voice synthesizer helps students with reading difficulties to review the notes.
Videotaping class sessions are helpful for visual learners who pick up on images
or body language. Laptop or notebook computers also provide note-taking
assistance.
iii. Writing assistance: Word processing is one of the most important
applications. Computers and word processing software help students with
spelling, grammar, punctuation errors, organizing, editing, and revising, and
interest in writing. Word prediction helps those that have difficulties with word
recall or spelling.
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iv. Productivity: Assistive productivity tools help students to work on math or
other subjects that may require calculating, categorizing, grouping, and
predicting events.
v. Access to reference materials: A computer and an internet connection
help student’s access to electronic information. Students establish interaction
with other students, motivating them to generate more text and thus improve
literacy. Multimedia-based use of text, pictures, audio, and video in reference-
based software helps the learning needs of students with mild disabilities.
vi. Cognitive assistance: Multimedia CD-ROM-based application programs
assist in reading. These CD-based books include high-interest stories and use
multimedia to motivate students to read. These books highlight words as they
are read, or pronounce syllables and word definitions. Bilingual books help
students read in their native language while being exposed to a second
language.
vii. Materials modification: Powerful multimedia authoring and presentation
tools are used to develop and modify computer-based instructional materials for
students with mild disabilities by including video, animation, and text into
hypermedia-based instruction.
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Computers can provide universal success by dividing lessons into segments to
the extent needed to make sure that everyone can accomplish something. They
deliver results accurately and quickly (Bennett, 2002). The closer the connection
between the action and reward, the more valuable and more effective is the
reward. With computers and technology, learning can be a 24/7 process.
Teaching will not be bound by time constraints.
Rushin (2003) has experienced the use of technology in the classroom. It helps
make a better teacher. When students see their teacher trying new things, they
become more engaged in the process. Technology allows students to see the
whole world as a resource with themselves being in charge of their destiny. It
also benefits students because they have choices and opportunities to explore
and share information to a greater extent than available in a traditional
classroom.
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4.4 New technologies and the rise of social networks (Web 2.0)
Since the beginning of the internet in the early 1990s the web has begun to
mature and evolve. Nowadays it common to see an easy access to broadband
networks, new digital technologies and services available, and the focus on what
is social (including ways of working, and connecting people) that have cultural,
philosophical and educational repercussions.
Social networks and collaborative working groups are forming. All are driven by,
and have in common, the fact that they are making intensive use of a collection
of emerging technologies to communicate and evolve communities of ideas in
virtual spaces that are helping to radically change working practices (Cych,
2006).
With the arise of open source technologies the speed of development is getting
faster, the bubble of web 2.0 is giving us monthly, weekly or even hourly
applications. Blogs, wikis, moblogs, vlogs, folksonomies and podcasting are all
recent examples of these new ways of communicating that are built on and
exploiting these systems. They are all part of what has become known as Web
2.0 (Cych, 2006).
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4.4.1 Web 2.0
The term Web 2.0 describes the changing in the use of World Wide Web
technology and web design that aim to enhance creativity, communications,
secure information sharing, collaboration and functionality of the web. Web 2.0
concepts have led to the development and evolution of web culture communities
and hosted services, such as social-networking sites, video sharing sites, wikis,
blogs, and folksonomies. Although the term suggests a new version of the World
Wide Web, it does not refer to an update to any technical specifications, but
rather to changes in the ways software developers and end-users utilize the
Web. According to Tim O'Reilly “Web 2.0 is the business revolution in the
computer industry caused by the move to the Internet as a platform, and an
attempt to understand the rules for success on that new platform” (O’Reilly,
2004)
Rather than seeing Web 2.0 as part of the business revolution it also has
implications on education and here are some possible parallels in education:
i. Customers – learners
ii. Product – knowledge and skills
iii. Web services – educational services/pedagogy
iv. Personalization and choice – differentiation/personalized learning.
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These services which are focused on collaboration and innovation appear to be
enabling a new form of collective intelligence, which many educational
practitioners are exploiting to make new models of teaching and learning.
4.4.2 Web 2.0 Applications and education
Flickr allows users to upload photographs and then collectively add comments
to them; it also allows students or teachers to tag photos with data.
Google Maps, Geo Tagging and Google Earth allow you to zoom into any
area on the globe and overlay or tag information anywhere in the maps.
Wikis. The word wiki is a Hawaiian term for hurry. Wikis are websites that allow
users to add, edit and delete content; it is usually a joint collaboration on the part
of several authors.
Blogs. The term blog comes from weblog and is a website for which an
individual or a group generates text, photographs, audio fles and/or links,
typically but not always on a daily or otherwise regular basis.
Moblogs or mobileblogs are blogs with photos taken and sent by mobile
phones to dedicated websites.
Vlogs or videoblogs are closely related to moblogs in that videophones can be
used to post content.
Podcasts or audio broadcasting over the web gets its name from the
combination of iPod and broadcasting. Podcasting helps students to create
content over the web and also as an input in the learning of a new language.
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Peer-to-peer computing (P2P) is a direct communication or collaboration
(mostly fle sharing) between computers, where none is simply client or server,
but where all machines are equals (peers). Skype uses P2P technology and
enables you to hold whole audio conferences online for free. Skype also allows
you to make telephone calls for free to other users online.
BitTorrent is a swarmcasting technology. Swarmcasting enables web
content, especially rich media (video) files, to be sent across the internet more
efficiently than traditional routes. The content or original file is broken into much
smaller packets, which are then distributed to any computers that have
requested them.
Broadcasting technologies are making possible to people or institutions to
generate their content. The University of Stanford subscribes a Youtube channel
in which they published courses and materials to everyone.
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CHAPTER 5. Attitudes
55
5.1 Attitudes
Attitudes are usually defined as a disposition or tendency to respond positively
or negatively towards a certain thing (idea, object, person, situation). They
encompass, or are closely related to, our opinions and beliefs and are based
upon our experiences. Since attitudes often relate in some way to interaction
with others, they represent an important link between cognitive and social
psychology. As far as instruction is concerned, a great deal of learning involves
acquiring or changing attitudes.
5.2 Teachers’ attitudes
The teachers’ attitudes in relation to the use of Information Communication
Technologies (ICT) in their teaching task are a key aspect. Most studies, where
the degree of implementation of ICT in schools appears, include a paragraph
referring to the teachers attitudes (Barajas et al, 2002; Gargallo et al, 2003;
Knezek et al, 2000; Van Braak, 2001; Peralta, 2002; Kollias, 2002; Galanouli et
al, 2004; Shapka and Ferrari, 2003; Orellana et al, 2003) because they are a
good predictor of the introduction and integration of ICT in schools and institutes
(Ruthven, Hennessy and Denaey, 2004; Mooij, 2004). In fact, teachers with a
high level of competence (knowledge and personal use of ICT) but with negative
attitudes towards integration are contrary to the use of computers and internet in
the classroom to create enriched learning environments (Demetriadis et al,
2003; Gargallo et al, 2003). For these reasons, we believe it is essential to know
the attitudes of teachers, before making any intervention in the field of ICT. The
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importance of attitudes in using the computer has led to the development of
instruments such as: Computer Attitude Scale of Loyd and Gressard's (1984);
Attitude Toward Scale of Computer Usage Popovich, Hyde and Zakrajsek
(1987) Measure of Computer Attitude Kay's (1993), or Teachers' Attitudes
Toward Computers (TAC) Christensen and Knezet (1998).
Learning about teacher’s attitudes toward the use of information technology can
be an important condition for the implementation of ICTs. Therefore scales
related attitudes toward new technologies often include items related to the use
of computer or complementary scales have been created such as Teachers'
Attitudes Toward Information Technology (TAT) and Faculty Attitudes Toward
Information Technology (FAIT) (Knezek et al, 2000). Teacher training in
integrating ICT also involves more positive attitudes to encourage educational
innovation (Gilmore, 1998; Jacobsen, 2000; Whittier and Lara, 2003; Kollias,
2002; Galanouli, Murphy and Gardner, 2004). Gilmore (1998) found that
teachers’ attitudes who had received training improved significantly compared to
the group of teachers who did not receive such training. As regards teachers’
attitudes towards innovation, it is necessary to note that is more popular than a
discussion of research results in education.
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Research has shown that one of the facts that hinder integration of technology in
education is teachers' reluctant attitudes to changes. Teachers have to deal with
major changes at the same time integrate these technologies which can lead to
a feeling of excessive burden and reactions of anxiety and resistance.
Hurt, Joseph and Cook (1977) define the term "innovativeness", in the opposite
direction to resistance to change; this is a characteristic of personality which
implies a positive attitude towards innovation. The perception of the
characteristics of the environment also influences their attitudes. Fulk, Schmitz
and Steinfield (1990) argue that the decision of an individual to take a particular
mean, in this case ICT, according to the characteristics of a task is not an
objective and rational fact. As Van Den Hooff (1994) has shown individuals are
influenced both by their past experiences and by the views of others. The study
by Van Braak (2001) analyzes elements such as economic benefit, reliability
and effectiveness in achieving goals, flexibility in instruction, the need perceived
to enter into instruction, consistency with innovation, technical complexity,
finding that in all of them there are differences in the perception, being more
positive among teachers who used the computer mediated communication
(CMC).
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5.3 Students’ perception
According to Metzger, Flanagin, and Zwarun’s (2003) report, college students
rely very heavily on the Web for both general and academic information and
they expect this usage to increase over time. The report has further stated that
college students tend to believe information from the Internet more fully than do
people from a more general adult population.
Sheard and Lynch’s (2003) study on learner diversity has indicated that different
students do experience and react to an online environment in different ways
depending on their previous experience and that no one format is going to meet
the needs of all students. Therefore, constant challenges for online learning are
students’ familiarity with the learning environment and their skills and confidence
with the Internet and information technology. Van Soest, Canon, and Grant
(2000) strongly suggest that using a Web forum can encourage dialogue among
students as well as between students and the professor and thus can enhance
learning within a safe environment.
Despite many variables, gender does not significantly affect student perceptions
of distance education (Peters, 2001) Assuming that there is no gender
difference in the use of e-mail, Gefen and Straub (1997) suggest that gender
should be included in information technology diffusion models along with other
cultural effects and that the same mode of communication may be perceived
differently by the genders. Generally, boys love the computer or the machine for
itself and like to spend long hours tinkering and game-playing on computers,
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whereas girls are far more likely to reject emotional identification with the
computer or the machine as a second self and instead think of it in
dispassionate and instrumental terms as just a tool (Sofia, 1998): “Gender
differences in attitudes toward computers and styles of computer learning could
be interpreted differently from a perspective that is critical of technotopianism
(technological utopianism), alert to masculinist tendency, and more sensitive to
the relations between individual and cultural social groups” (p. 30). Koohang’s
(2004) study focused on students’ perceptions toward the use of the digital
library in weekly Web-based distance learning assignments portion of a hybrid
instructional program and found that age is not a significant factor but gender
and prior experience with the Internet are significant factors. In other words,
male students have significantly higher positive perceptions toward the use of
the digital library, and students who have more prior experience with the Internet
have significantly higher positive perceptions toward the use of the digital
library.
Inoue’s (1999-2000) study searched for an answer to the question of whether or
not gender differences would associate with academic status (graduate vs.
undergraduate students) on university students’ preference for learning by
computer-assisted instruction (CAI). The results of analysis of variance
(ANOVA) have found that the main effect of gender is not significant, whereas
the main effect of academic status is significant. This means that graduate
students do favor CAI more than do undergraduate students. The study has
further indicated the significant differences between undergraduate females and
graduate males, supporting the assumption that computer experiences have a
stronger effect than do gender differences on attitudes toward the use of
computers in learning. It may be that graduate students have more computer
experiences. Since computer literacy skills increase as time passes, the chance
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of “give CAI a try” becomes higher. Although Inoue’s study does not reveal
exactly why graduate students favor CAI more than do undergraduate students,
such learning experiences as using CAI give maximum opportunities to all
students with different backgrounds and academic expectations in the graduate
program.
Finally, the importance of recognizing the cultural diversity of students has
inspired much recent discussion and research in higher education; racially
diverse environments, when properly nurtured, lead to both quantitative and
qualitative gains in educational outcomes for all students, including higher
retention rates and greater overall satisfaction with college (Ila-Parasnis, 2005).
Positive affective benefits for students using technology are also reported in the
foreign language classroom context. Sanaoui and Lapkin (1992) found that
technology encouraged the development of independent learning characteristics
in high school students of French. In an e-mail exchange project between these
students and native French speakers, students assumed increased
responsibility for their learning and broadened their cultural awareness.
Beauvois (1998) found that students participating in a Local Area Network (LAN)
writing project showed positive attitudes about learning in that setting. She
concluded that students felt positive because the LAN represented a low-anxiety
situation and because they had more control than in a traditional classroom.
61
These results support findings from an earlier study (Beauvois, 1994) in which
the researcher concluded that the LAN is an effective motivating force.
Warschauer (1996) identified three common factors of student motivation
provided by a technology-enhanced setting: communication, empowerment, and
learning. "Communication" is represented by the finding that students liked the
ability to communicate with others and to engage in real communicative acts.
"Empowerment" describes the finding that students felt empowered in the
technology environment since they felt less isolated and were less afraid to
contact others. The "learning" factor describes the finding that students believed
the computer gave them certain kinds of control over their learning by enabling
them to learn faster and more independently and to write more creatively.
Students in the computer- mediated communication project reported positive
attitudes which could be attributed to these factors.
Another study on computer-mediated instruction for English writing skills by
Hartman, Neuwirth, Kiesler, Sproull, Cochran, Palmquist, and Zabrow (1995)
concluded that the use of technology redistributes teacher and classmate
attentions so that less able students can become more active participants in the
class. Additionally, Beauvois (1998) found more student-to-student interaction in
networked classes than in traditional classes.
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CHAPTER 6. Questionnaires TAC and FAIT
63
6.1 TAC
6.1.1 Description of the Teachers' Attitudes Toward Computers
Teachers' Attitudes Toward Computers Questionnaire (TAC) is a 99-199 item
Likert/Semantic Differential Instrument for measuring teachers' attitudes toward
computers on 7-20 subscales.
6.1.2 Reliability
Internal Consistency
Table 3a. Internal Consistency Reliability for 7-Factor Structure of the TAC
Subscales Alpha No. of Variables
F1 (Enthusiasm/Enjoyment) .98 30
F2 (Anxiety) .98 30
F3 (Avoidance/Acceptance) .90 13
F4 (E-mail for Classroom Learning) .95 11
F5 (Negative Impact on Society) .85 11
F6 (Productivity) .96 30
F7 (Kay's Semantic) .94 10
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6.1.3 Administration
This questionnaire is composed of well-validated portions of several attitudinal
surveys that have been used with teachers in the past. As a result, different
subscales can be extracted from the instrument and used alone. Administration
normally requires 20-40 minutes, depending on whether a short or long version
is used, and the audience. The long form is sometimes administered in two
sittings.
65
6.2 FAIT
6.2.1 Description of the Faculty Attitudes Toward Information Technology
The Faculty Attitudes Toward Information Technology (FAIT) provides
assessment of university and college faculty attitudes toward new information
technologies. It includes subscales from Teachers Attitudes Toward Computers
Questionnaire 3.2a (such as E-mail use for instruction) plus background
questions tailored for university faculty.
6.2.2 Reliability
Internal Consistency
Table 5. Internal Consistency for 7-Factor Structure of the FAIT
Subscales Alpha No. of Variables
F1 (Enthusiasm) .96 15
F2 (Anxiety) .98 15
F3 (Avoidance) .74 6
F4 (E-mail) .95 11
F5 (Negative Impact on Society) .84 10
F6 (Classroom Learning Productivity) .90 14
F7 (Kay Semantic) .94 10
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6.2.3 Administration
Recommended Administration Procedures
Faculty Attitudes Toward Information Technology (FAIT)
This instrument is a subset of the 7-factor structure of the TAC, with the items
rearranged in scale order. As a result it is quick and reliable and can be used as
several scales independently. Normal completion time is less than 15 minutes.
6.2.4 Scoring
Scoring the Survey of Faculty Attitudes Toward Information Technology (FAIT 1.1) Questionnaire
6.2.4.1 Introduction
The Survey of Faculty Attitudes Toward Information Technology (FAIT 1.0)
gathers data on five separate indices from respondents. FAIT is drawn from a
subset of the Survey of Teachers' Attitudes Toward Computers which is a 99-
199 item Likert/Semantic Differential instrument for measuring teachers'
attitudes toward computers. The subset (TACv3.2a) uses 105 items to gather
data on seven factors: Enthusiasm, Anxiety, Avoidance, E-mail for Classroom
Learning, Negative Impact on Society, Productivity Improvement, and Semantic
Perception of Computers. The FAIT (v1.0) uses 68 items on a five point Likert
67
instrument to gather data on five factors: Enthusiasm/Enjoyment (F1), Anxiety
(F2), Productivity Improvement (F6), Avoidance (F3) and E-mail Use for
Classroom Learning (F4). The following sections describe how to score each
scale.
6.2.4.2Faculty Attitudes Toward Information Technology - Scoring
The recommended procedure for manual scoring is to simply sum the numeric
values of the responses for the related items to produce the various subscale
scores. However, some items on the FAIT have negative wording and must be
reversed before adding to the others. These items are 12, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20,
22, 23, 24, 25, 27, 29, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 54, 55, and 57.
One simple way is to use a colored pen to circle the reflected values of the
numbers marked by the respondents for these items. If the respondent circled
1, make it 5: if the respondent circled 4 make it 2. For example, the subscale
Enthusiasm/Enjoyment (F1) will be the sum of 15 items (item 1 through item 15),
with items 12, and 14 reversed before inclusion in the sum. To generate an
average for each subscale, take the sum of the items and divide by the number
of items. Reminder: The item number and the variable number (to be used with
statistical packages) are the same.
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CHAPTER 7. The Seven Principles for Good
Practice in Undergraduate Education
69
7.1 The Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate Education
The "Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate Education," originally
published in the American Association for Higher Education (AAHE) Bulletin
(Chickering & Gamson, 1987), are a popular framework for evaluating teaching
in traditional, face-to-face courses. The principles are based on 50 years of
higher education research (Chickering & Reisser, 1993). A faculty inventory
(Johnson Foundation, "Faculty," 1989) and an institutional inventory (Johnson
Foundation, "Institutional," 1989) based on these principles have helped faculty
members and higher-education institutions examine and improve their teaching
practices.
7.1.1 Encourages contact between students and faculty
Frequent student – instructor contact in and out of classes is a most important
factor in student motivation and involvement. Instructor concern helps students
get through rough times and keep on working. Knowing a few instructors well
enhances students’ intellectual commitment and encourages them to think about
their own values and future plans.
70
Implementation Ideas:
i. Share past experiences, values, and attitudes.
ii. Design activity that brings students to your office during the first weeks of
class.
iii. Try to get to know your students by name by the end of the first three
weeks of the semester.
iv. Attend, support, and sponsor events led by student groups.
v. Treat students as human beings with full real lives; ask how they are
doing.
vi. Hold “out of class” review sessions.
vii. Use email regularly to encourage and inform.
viii. Hold regular “hours” in the students’ building or residence halls where
students can stop by for informal visits.
ix. Take students to professional meetings or other events in your field.
7.1.2 Develops reciprocity and cooperation among students
Learning is enhanced when it is more like a team effort than a solo race. Good
learning, like good work, is collaborative and social, not competitive and
isolated. Working with others often increases involvement in learning. Sharing
one’s own ideas and responding to others’ reactions improves thinking and
deepens understanding.
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Implementation ideas:
i. Ask students to share each other’s backgrounds and academic interests.
ii. Encourage students to prepare together for classes or exams.
iii. Create study groups within your course.
iv. Ask students to give constructive feedback on each other’s work and to
explain difficult ideas to each other.
v. Use small group discussions, collaborative projects in and out of class,
group presentations, and case study analysis.
vi. Ask students to discuss key concepts with other students whose
backgrounds and viewpoints are different from their own.
vii. Encourage students to work together.
7.1.3 Encourages active learning
Learning is not a spectator sport. Students do not learn much just sitting in
classes listening to instructors, memorizing assignments, and spitting out
answers. They must talk about what they are learning, write about it, relate it to
past experiences, and apply it to their daily lives. They must make what they
learn part of themselves.
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Implementation Ideas (encourage active learning):
i. Ask students to present their work to the class.
ii. Give students concrete, real life situations to analyze.
iii. Ask students to summarize similarities and differences among research
findings, artistic works or laboratory results.
iv. Model asking questions, listening behaviors, and feedback.
v. Encourage use of professional journals.
vi. Use technology to encourage active learning.
vii. Encourage use of internships, study abroad, service learning and clinical
opportunities.
viii. Use class time to work on projects.
7.1.4 Gives prompt feedback
Knowing what you know and don’t know focuses learning. Students need
appropriate feedback on performance to benefit from courses. In getting started,
students need help in assessing existing knowledge and competence. In
classes, students need frequent opportunities to perform and receive
suggestions for improvement. At various points during college, and at the end,
students need chances to reflect on what they have learned, what they still need
to know, and how to assess themselves.
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Implementation Ideas:
i. Return examinations promptly, preferably within a week, if not sooner.
ii. Schedule brief meetings with the students to discuss their progress.
iii. Prepare problems or exercises that give students immediate feedback on
how well they are doing. (e.g., Classroom Assessment Techniques, T.
Angelo, 1993)
iv. Give frequent quizzes and homework assignments to help students
monitor their progress.
v. Give students written comments on the strengths and weakness of their
tests/papers.
vi. Give students focused feedback on their work early in the term.
vii. Consider giving a mid-term assessment or progress report.
viii. Be clear in relating performance level/expectations to grade.
ix. Communicate regularly with students via email about various aspects of
the class.
7.1.5 Emphasizes time on task
Time plus energy equals learning. There is no substitute for time on task.
Learning to use one’s time well is critical for students and professionals alike.
Students need help in learning effective time management. Allocating realistic
amounts of time means effective learning for students and effective teaching for
instructors.
74
Implementation Ideas:
iii. Communicate to students the amount of time they should spend
preparing for class.
iv. Expect students to complete their assignments promptly.
v. Underscore the importance of regular work, steady application, self-
pacing, scheduling.
vi. Divide class into timed segments so as to keep on task.
vii. Meet with students who fall behind to discuss their study habits,
schedules.
viii. Don’t hesitate to refer students to learning skills professionals on campus.
ix. Use technology to make resources easily available to students.
x. Consider using mastery learning, contract learning, and computer
assisted instruction as appropriate.
7.1.6 Communicates high expectations
Expect more and you will get it. High expectations are important for everyone—
for the poorly prepared, for those unwilling to exert themselves, and for the
bright and well motivated. Expecting students to perform well becomes a self-
fulfilling prophecy when instructors hold high expectations for themselves and
make extra efforts.
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Implementation Ideas:
i. Make your expectations clear at the beginning of the course both in
writing and orally. Tell them you expect them to work hard.
ii. Periodically discuss how well the class is doing during the course of the
semester.
iii. Encourage students to write; require drafts of work. Give students
opportunities to revise their work.
iv. Set up study guidelines.
v. Publish students’ work on a course website. This often motivates
students to higher levels of performance.
vi. Be energized and enthusiastic in your interaction with students.
7.1.7 Respects diverse talents and ways of learning
There are many roads to learning. People bring different talents and styles of
learning to college. Students rich in hands-on experiences may not do so well
with theory. Students need the opportunity to show their talents and learn in
ways that work for them. They can be pushed to learning in new ways that do
not come so easily.
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Implementation Ideas:
i. Use a range of teaching activities to address a broad spectrum of
students.
ii. Provide extra material or exercises for students who lack essential
background knowledge or skills.
iii. Identify students’ learning styles, backgrounds at the beginning of the
semester.
iv. Use different activities in class – videos, discussions, lecture, groups,
guest speakers, pair work.
v. Use different assignment methods – written, oral, projects, etc. so as to
engage as many ways of learning as possible – visual, auditory.
vi. Give students a real-world problem to solve that has multiple solutions.
Provide examples, questions to guide them.
Technology is not enough, the seven principles cannot be implemented by
experts alone, or even by faculty alone. Students need to become familiar with
the principles and be more confident as regards their autonomous learning.
When they face teaching strategies and course requirements that use
technologies opposite to the principles, students should move to alternatives
that serve them better. If teaching focuses simply on memorizing prepackaged
information, whether delivered by a faculty lecture or computer, students should
reach for a different course, look for additional resources or complementary
experiences, establish their own study groups, or go to the professor for more
significant activities and feedback.
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Faculty members who already work with students in ways consistent with the
principles need to be tough-minded about the software- and technology-assisted
interactions they create and buy into. They need to avoid materials that are
simply didactic, and search instead for those that are interactive, problem
oriented, relevant to real-world issues, and that remind student motivation.
Institutional policies concerning learning resources and technology support need
to give high priority to user-friendly hardware, software, and communication
media that help faculty and students use technologies efficiently and effectively.
Investments in professional development for faculty members, plus training and
computer lab assistance for students, will be necessary if learning potentials are
to be realized.
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CHAPTER 8. Methodology
79
8.1 Subjects and Procedures
8.1.1 Subjects
The study was carried out at UPLA Valparaíso main campus and included a
sample of 5 teachers from English Teacher Education Program (1 male and 4
female) who lecture English courses at CREAL.
Two criteria were used to choose the sample:
1. Teach an English course.
2. Having lectured at CREAL either first, second or both semesters (2008).
Table 1. Survey sample.
Male teachers % Female teachers % Total teachers
2
33
4
67
6
It should be noted that the selected sample of teachers (6 out of 11) represents
the professors teaching an English course in the English Teacher Education
Program at CREAL during the academic year 2008, and who also lectured the
course.
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8.1.2 Procedures
Due to time constraints, the survey was hand-delivered to faculty members in
December, 2008. Then it was uploaded using LimeService (Limesurvey / PHP
surveyor) in January, 2008.
8.2 Data Analysis
The survey results were automatically obtained from the Limesurvey / PHP
surveyor and then transferred into a spreadsheet. Qualitative data from the
open-ended questions of the survey were also analyzed and used to build up a
better picture of Technology’s impact using CREAL.
81
CHAPTER 9. Summary of Findings and Conclusions
82
9.1 Summary of Findings
The research survey response rate was 83% (5/6). Results will be presented in
four parts, each of them supported by tables and graphics. The description of
each part can be summarized as follows:
i. The first part of the survey questionnaire asks instructors about their use of
and proficiency with, computers and associated classroom technologies.
ii. The second part of the survey questionnaire addresses technology specifics
for each course the respondent teaches. Instructors are asked what tools they
use in preparing their courses and what other ICTs they use in the classroom.
The survey also asks the instructor to categorize the style of instruction (lecture,
lab, team learning, etc.).
iii. The third part of the survey elicits overall instructor attitudes toward teaching
technologies. Several instruments have been developed that measure these
attitudes. Among the most widely cited are the Computer Attitudes Scale (CAS)
(Gressard & Loyd, 1985), the CAQ Faculty Attitudes toward Information
Technology Attitude Questionnaire, (FAIT) (Gilmore, 1998) and the Teachers'
Attitudes Toward Computers Questionnaire (TAC) (Christiansen and Knesek).
iv. The fourth part of the survey elicits the use of the Seven Principles for Good
Practice in Undergraduate Education, originally published in the American
Association for Higher Education (AAHE) Bulletin (Chickering & Gamson, 1987),
giving a framework for evaluating teaching in traditional, face-to-face courses.
83
First part
Question A asked faculty’s gender. The distribution according to gender was 1
male (20%) and 4 females (80%).
Question B asked faculty’s age in years. The largest group 60% of respondents
was 30-50, and the over 50 group accounted for 40% (Figure 1).
Figure 1
Question C asked faculty’s education. The entire group reported holding a
Master degree.
Questions Nº 1 asked faculty’s experience with computers. Three groups of
respondents, 1-5 years 20%, 6-10 40% and 16+ 20% years of experience, we
consider one unanswered question 20% (Figure 2).
Figure 2
84
Question Nº 2 asked faculty’s self-assessment of their computer skills and the
results presented in table 2 reveal the use of computer technologies are in most
cases at an intermediate to advanced level e.g. Windows OS, E-mail and Web
browser with 60%. Production software (Word processing, Spreadsheet,
Database and Web development) statistics show that they are commonly used,
but Web 2.0 applications (Blog, Podcast) need further implementation. CMS
applications reveal adaptation and integration. (Table 2)
Computer Skills Never Use Novice Intermediate Advanced Expert
Windows OS 0% 0% 60% 40% 0%
Mac OS 80% 20% 0% 0% 0%
Linux 100% 0% 0% 0% 0%
E-mail 0% 0% 20% 60% 20%
Web browser 0% 0% 20% 60% 20%
Word processing 0% 20% 40% 20% 20%
Spreadsheet 0% 20% 60% 0% 20%
Database 40% 40% 0% 20% 0%
Web page development 20% 40% 40% 0% 0%
Custom Scripting/Programming 80% 20% 0% 0% 0%
Blog 60% 20% 20% 0% 0%
Podcast 20% 60% 0% 0% 20%
CMS (Moodle, Symposium) 0% 40% 40% 0% 20%
Table 2
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Question Nº 3 asked how important computer technologies in each of their
instructional activities are (Table 3)
Irrelevant
Unimportant
Somewhat Important
Moderately Important
Essential
Course preparation 0% 0% 20% 60% 20%
Classroom delivery 0% 0% 20% 60% 20%
Student communication
0% 0% 20% 60% 20%
Course maintenance
0% 0% 20% 60% 20%
Assessment of student learning
0% 20% 60% 20% 0%
Table 3
In most cases computer technologies are moderately important (60%) showing
the new role of the teacher and students in this new era. However, the
assessment of students learning show that it is still somewhat important (60%)
for faculty.
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Second Part
Question Nº 4 asked if one of the courses faculty are currently lecturing has a
Course Management System (CMS) and the elements it contains (Table 4)
If one of the courses you are currently lecturing has a Course Management System (CMS), for instance Moodle, check the elements it contains
Option Faculty %
1. Syllabus 4 80%
2. Class calendar 3 60%
3. Reading list 4 80%
4. Class notes 3 60%
5. Text of lectures 1 20%
6. Assignments 4 80%
7. On-line quizzes/exams 2 40%
8. Links to external (non-UD) web resources 3 20%
9. Streaming video/audio of your lectures 2 40%
10. Streaming video/audio from external (non-UD, YouTube) source 2 40%
11. Course Management System is password-protected 3 60%
12. Course Management System access is restricted to creal.upla.cl domain only
2 40%
Table 4
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Question Nº5 asked faculty’s to indicate which of three characteristics best
describes their class. The results show that classes are primarily team learning
(80%) (Figure 3)
Figure 3
Question Nº6 asked faculty to indicate any equipment that was installed in the
classroom but NOT used in their course (“N”); installed equipment that they did
use (“U”) and equipment that they brought to the classroom yourself (“B”) (Table
5)
Classroom equipment * N U B
Audiotape player/recorder 20% 20% 20% 40%
Videotape player/recorder 20% 60% 20% 0%
Standard overhead projector 20% 40% 40% 0%
Standard slide projector 40% 40% 20% 0%
Laptop/Notebook computer 40% 40% 20% 0%
LCD computer display panel 40% 60% 0% 0%
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CD-ROM 20% 20% 60% 0%
DVD 40% 40% 20% 0%
Document camera 40% 60% 0% 0%
Videoconferencing (one-way) 40% 60% 0% 0%
Videoconferencing (two-way) 40% 60% 0% 0%
Network connection 20% 20% 60% 0%
Data Projector 20% 40% 40% 0%
Video Projector 40% 60% 0% 0%
Cable TV 40% 60% 0% 0%
Have you ever taught in computer classroom? 40% 0% 60% 0%
Do your students use computing sites to complete their work? 0% 0% 100% 0%
Table 5
* Unanswered questions %
89
Question Nº 7 asked faculty’s to indicate which of the options best describes
how they develop technology-based course materials. The results show that
they develop technology-based course materials to communicate with their
students in between classes (60%). Most of their development time is spent
writing and answering e-mail. The 40% remaining is used a) to develop their
own customized course materials (20%) and b) short presentations and other
course materials that require a few hours of preparation time before each class
(20%).(Figure 4)
Figure 4
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Third part
From questions 8 to 18 faculty were asked about their attitudes toward teaching
technologies organized into four areas or domains: I. Enthusiasm/enjoyment, II.
Anxiety,III. Avoidance and IV Productivity improvement (Table 6).
SD = Strongly Disagree, D = Disagree, N = Neutral, A = Agree, SA = Strongly Agree
SD D N A SA
I. Enthusiasm/Enjoyment
8. Computer-based instructional technologies are now as
important to students as textbooks.
0% 0% 20% 40% 40%
9. Using the Internet to communicate with my peers and keep
abreast of developments in my field makes me a better
instructor.
0% 0% 40% 60% 0%
10. Instructors who want to incorporate computer-based
instructional technologies into their classes get good technical
support from the university.
0% 0% 20% 40% 40%
11. The university provides adequate rewards for instructors
who adopt computer-based instructional technologies.
20% 40% 20% 20% 0%
II. Anxiety
12. I am concerned about losing control (ownership) of my
teaching materials when (if) I post them on the web.
60% 20% 20% 0% 0%
13. I feel more comfortable with computers than my students
do.
20% 20% 20% 40% 0%
14. Computers cause students a lot of anxiety. 0% 40% 60% 0% 0%
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III. Avoidance
15. All prospective teachers should have some formal training
in the use of computer-based instructional technologies.
0% 0% 0% 20% 80%
IV. Productivity Improvement
16. Rather than saving me time, using computer-based
instructional technologies actually requires (would require)
more class preparation time.
0% 0% 0% 80% 20%
17. Instructional technologies let me (would let me) teach
larger classes than I could handle with traditional teaching
methods.
20% 20% 40% 0% 20%
18. I could (can) teach just as well without computers. 0% 20% 0% 60% 20%
Table 6
92
Fourth part
From questions 19 to 36 faculty were asked about the Seven Principles for
Good Practice in Undergraduate Education (Table 7)
SD = Strongly Disagree, D = Disagree, N = Neutral, A = Agree, SA = Strongly Agree
Seven Principles SD D N A SA
I. Encourage contact between students and faculty
19. Computer-based instructional technologies enhance my in-class
interactions with students.
0% 0% 40% 40% 20%
II. Develop reciprocity and cooperation among students
20. Computers tend to isolate students from each other. 0% 80% 20% 0% 0%
21. Computer-based assignments tend to foster cooperation and
teamwork among students.
0% 0% 40% 40% 20%
III. Encourage active learning
22. Instructional technologies cannot substitute for live instruction. 0% 0% 20% 60% 20%
23. Computers teach students to be active learners. 0% 0% 40% 60% 0%
24. Computer programs can provide for student input and interaction
with course material.
0% 0% 0% 100% 0%
IV. Provide prompt feedback
25. I can (could) grade student work more quickly and easily if it is
(were) done on computer.
20% 0% 20% 40% 20%
26. Outside the classroom, I can handle students’ questions more
quickly and efficiently via e-mail than face-to-face.
20% 20% 20% 20% 20%
V. Emphasize time on task
27. Students waste a lot of time on computers. 20% 40% 20% 20% 0%
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28. Computer-based instructional technologies actually distract
students from the course content they are supposed to be learning.
0% 60% 40% 0% 0%
29. The university should provide students easy access to
microcomputers everywhere on campus.
0% 0% 20% 20% 60%
VI. Communicate high expectations
30. I get (would get) higher quality work from students if their
assignments are (were) done on computer.
20% 0% 40% 40% 0%
31. I tend to be more conscientious about the quality of my teaching
materials when they are disseminated via computer (PowerPoint, the
web, etc.).
20% 20% 40% 0% 20%
32. If students expect the web to deliver all the information they need,
they have less incentive to develop their own knowledge.
20% 0% 40% 40% 0%
33. The web facilitates plagiarism and erodes respect for intellectual
property rights.
0% 0% 40% 40% 20%
34. Computers are a cause of declining student writing standards. 40% 20% 20% 0% 20%
VII. Respect diverse talents and ways of learning
35. Computer technologies support diverse student learning styles
better than conventional lectures.
20% 0% 0% 60% 20%
36. Multimedia allows students to use different learning strategies. 0% 0% 0% 40% 60%
Table 7
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Question Nº36 asked faculty’s about Technology's impact on the learning
process. The results give a clear sign that technology enhances (60%) and
dramatically improves the learning process (40%). (Figure 5)
Figure 5
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9.2 Conclusions
In relation to the research questions we can conclude the following:
i. What technologies are being used at CREAL at the University of
Playa Ancha? How do faculty use them?
Results show that the technologies most regularly used in their courses at
CREAL are: Standard overhead projector, CD-ROM, Network connection, Data
Projector and Audio tape player/recorder. Moreover, results show that most of
faculty members have taught in computer classroom and that all of their
students use computing sites to complete their work.
Course Management System (CMS) was also reported to be used by faculty
(Moodle and Centra Symposium). They reported the most important elements it
contains being: syllabus, reading lists, class notes and assignments. In relation
to the characteristics best describes their class results show that classes are
primarily team learning.
In terms of how faculty develop their technology-based course materials results
show that they develop them to communicate with their students in between
classes.
ii. What value do faculty perceive in these teaching technologies?
Findings of this research show that considering Enthusiasm/enjoyment, Anxiety,
Avoidance and Productivity improvement results may vary.
96
Taking into account the first domain we can conclude that faculty are aware that
technology is present in their work and the University has provided good
technical support. Likewise, data results revealed that teachers’ attitudes who
had received training improved significantly compared to the group of teachers
who did not receive such training. But that improvement should be rewarded by
the institution, and as it is shown in the results this is not accomplished.
From the second domain we can conclude that it is not a problem for faculty to
keep control of their teaching materials nor that computers cause anxiety on
their students. However, faculty are not clear if their use of computers is more
comfortable than that of their students’.
In the third domain faculty reported a total agreement that all prospective
teachers should have some formal training in the use of computer-based
instructional technologies, something that it is also mentioned in the literature.
Lastly, and coincidently with research, the fourth domain shows that faculty use
more time developing their teaching materials. However, they also reported that
they can teach with or without computers as well.
On the other hand faculty are not clear if instructional technologies let them
teach larger classes than they could handle with traditional teaching methods.
iii. Do these technologies actually enhance student learning?
Results show that technology actually enhances the learning process and this is
reflected in their use of the Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate
Education.
For instance faculty reported that Computer-based instructional technologies
enhance their in-class interactions with students. Moreover, they disagree that
97
computers tend to isolate students from each other; however, they agree that
computers tend to foster cooperation and teamwork among students.
Also faculty agree that instructional technologies cannot substitute face to face
instruction, but it is very important for students because it may help them
become active learners and provide input and interaction with course materials.
In terms of feedback faculty report that inside the classroom they can grade their
student’s progress easily, but they are not sure about what really happens
outside. More investigation about students’ use of computers outside the
classroom is needed. However, taking into account the last topic mentioned,
faculty perceive that their students do not waste time with computers or get
distracted from their goal.
One important topic here is access to use computers and the web everywhere
on campus, something that during the past few years has been in constant
progress.
As getting information has always been important faculty are also aware that
without regulations the web facilitates plagiarism and if students expect the web
to deliver all the information they need, they have less incentive to develop their
own knowledge. However, faculty also agree that computers are not a cause of
declining student writing standards as shown in the literature.
Finally, faculty agree that computer technologies respect diverse talents and
ways of learning. This coincides with the research done in the sense that
computer technologies support diverse student learning styles and use different
learning strategies.
98
References
99
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Appendix
118
An Assessment of Faculty Uses of ICTs in the English Teacher Education Program is a thesis
conducted by Carolina Guerrero and Manuel Herrera, which intends to evaluate the impact of
new technologies on language learning at UPLA.
There are a total of 37 questions that will take an average of 15 minutes to complete from start
to finish.
Thanks for taking the time to complete this survey; your participation is greatly appreciated.
Carolina Guerrero
Manuel Herrera
Personal Information
A) Gender:
Male Female
B) Age:
21-24 25-29 30-34 35-39
40-44 45-49 50-54 55+
C) Education:
Bachelor’s degree Master's degree Doctorate or professional degree
119
I. Use of and proficiency with computers and associated classroom technologies
1. Faculty’s experience with computers
None < 1 year 1-5 years 6-10 years 11-15 years 16+ years
2. Self-assessment of your computer skills
Computer Skills
0
Never Use
1
Novice
2
Intermediate
3
Advanced
4
Expert
Windows OS
Mac OS
Linux
Web browser
Word processing
Spreadsheet
Database
Web page development
Custom Scripting/Programming
120
Blog
Podcast
CMS (Moodle, Symposium, other)
3. How important are computer technologies in each of your instructional activities
0
Irrelevant
1
Unimportant
2
Somewhat Important
3
Moderately Important
4
Essential
Course preparation
Classroom delivery
Student communication
Course maintenance
Assessment of student learning
121
II. Technology specifics for the course(s) you teach
Course Management System
4. If one of the courses you are currently lecturing has a Course Management System (CMS),
for instance Moodle, check the elements it contains
_____ Syllabus
_____ Class calendar
_____ Reading list
_____ Class notes
_____ Text of lectures
_____ Assignments
_____ On-line quizzes/exams
_____ Links to external (non-UD) web resources
_____ Streaming video/audio of your lectures
_____ Streaming video/audio from external (non-UD, YouTube) source
_____ Course Management System is password-protected
_____ Course Management System access is restricted to creal.upla.cl domain only
122
5. Please indicate which of the following best describes your class:
____ Primarily lecture-based (may include projected computer demos, PowerPoint, etc.)
____ Primarily lab-based (students work individually; each may have a computer)
____ Primarily team learning (student teams; each team may have a computer)
Classroom technologies
6. Please indicate any equipment that was installed in the classroom but NOT used in your
course (“N”); installed equipment that you did use (“U”) and equipment that you brought to the
classroom yourself (“B”):
Classroom equipment N U B
Audiotape player/recorder
Videotape player/recorder
Standard overhead projector
Standard slide projector
Laptop/Notebook computer
LCD computer display panel
CD-ROM
DVD
123
Document camera
Videoconferencing (one-way)
Videoconferencing (two-way)
Network connection
Data Projector
Video Projector
Cable TV
Have you ever taught in computer classroom?
Do your students use computing sites to complete their work?
7. Which of the following best describes how you develop technology-based course materials?
_____ Not Applicable
_____ I develop my own customized course materials (interactive tutorials, web sites,
multimedia resources) that require a significant amount of development time before the course
or class date.
_____ I develop short presentations and other course materials that require a few hours of
preparation time before each class.
_____ I use off-the-shelf courseware material or commercial software packages that don't
require a large amount of pre-class development time.
_____ I use technology to communicate with my students in between classes. Most of my
development time is spent writing and answering e-mail.
124
III. Attitudes toward teaching technologies
SD = Strongly Disagree, D = Disagree, N = Neutral, A = Agree, SA = Strongly Agree
SD D N A SA
I. Enthusiasm/Enjoyment
8. Computer-based instructional technologies are now as important to students as textbooks.
9. Using the Internet to communicate with my peers and keep abreast of developments in my field makes me a better instructor.
10. Instructors who want to incorporate computer-based instructional technologies into their classes get good technical support from the university.
11. The university provides adequate rewards for instructors who adopt computer-based instructional technologies.
II. Anxiety
12. I am concerned about losing control (ownership) of my teaching materials when (if) I post them on the web.
13. I feel more comfortable with computers than my students do.
14. Computers cause students a lot of anxiety.
III. Avoidance
15. All prospective teachers should have some formal training in the use of computer-based instructional technologies.
IV. Productivity Improvement
16. Rather than saving me time, using computer-based instructional technologies actually requires (would require) more class preparation time.
17. Instructional technologies let me (would let me) teach larger classes than I could handle with traditional teaching methods.
18. I could (can) teach just as well without computers.
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IV Seven Principles for good practice in undergraduate education
SD = Strongly Disagree, D = Disagree, N = Neutral, A = Agree, SA = Strongly Agree
SD D N A SA
I. Encourage contact between students and faculty
19. Computer-based instructional technologies enhance my in-class interactions with students.
II. Develop reciprocity and cooperation among students
20. Computers tend to isolate students from each other.
21. Computer-based assignments tend to foster cooperation and
teamwork among students.
III. Encourage active learning
22. Instructional technologies cannot substitute for live instruction.
23. Computers teach students to be active learners.
24. Computer programs can provide for student input and interaction with course material.
IV. Provide prompt feedback
25. I can (could) grade student work more quickly and easily if it is (were) done on computer.
26. Outside the classroom, I can handle students’ questions more quickly and efficiently via e-mail than face-to-face.
V. Emphasize time on task
27. Students waste a lot of time on computers.
28. Computer-based instructional technologies actually distract students from the course content they are supposed to be learning.
29. The university should provide students easy access to microcomputers everywhere on campus.
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VI. Communicate high expectations
30. I get (would get) higher quality work from students if their assignments are (were) done on computer.
31. I tend to be more conscientious about the quality of my teaching materials when they are disseminated via computer (PowerPoint, the web, etc.).
32. If students expect the web to deliver all the information they need, they have less incentive to develop their own knowledge.
33. The web facilitates plagiarism and erodes respect for intellectual property rights.
34. Computers are a cause of declining student writing standards.
VII. Respect diverse talents and ways of learning
35. Computer technologies support diverse student learning styles better than conventional lectures.
36. Multimedia allows students to use different learning strategies.
37. Technology's impact on the learning process (choose one)
_____ Interferes
_____ Has no effect
_____ Enhances
_____ Dramatically improves
_____ No opinion
_____ None of the above (Please explain in the box below):