an ax to grind an ax to grind

An Ax toGrindA PracticalAx Manual


United StatesDepartment ofAgriculture

Forest Service

Technology &DevelopmentProgram

2300 RecreationJuly 1999

United StatesDepartment ofAgriculture

Forest Service

Technology &DevelopmentProgram

2300 RecreationJuly 19999923-2823P-MTDC

About the Author

Passport in Time and Heritage Expeditions are part of the USDA Forest Service’s Heritage Program that allows the public to explore thepast on their national forests.

My Favorite Ax

Bernie Weisgerber is a historic preservation specialist

for the USDA Forest Service. He has been in charge of

the Northern Region’s Historic Preservation Team,

headquartered in Missoula, MT, since 1991. He

worked for the National Park Service’s Historic

Preservation Training Center before coming to

work for the Forest Service.

Bernie and his crew of skilled craftsmen

restore historic Federal buildings, often at

remote sites, using traditional technologies

and materials. The team’s projects often provide training opportunities for

other Federal employees and the general public, as part of the Forest

Service’s Passport in Time and Heritage Expeditions programs. Weisgerber

has twice been a guest craftsman on National Public Broadcasting’s ThisOld House television series.

The Forest Service, United States Department of Agriculture, has developed this information for the guidance of its employees, itscontractors, and its cooperating Federal and State agencies, and is not responsible for the interpretation or use of this information byanyone except its own employees. The use of trade, firm, or corporation names in this publication is for the information and convenienceof the reader, and does not constitute an endorsement by the Department of any product or service to the exclusion of others that may besuitable. The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis ofrace, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political beliefs, sexual orientation, or marital or family status. (Not all prohibitedbases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities who require alternative means for communication of program information (Braille,large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact USDA’s TARGET Center at (202) 720–2600 (voice and TDD). To file a complaint of discrimination,write: USDA, Director, Office of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 1400 Independence Avenue SW, Washington, D.C. 20250-9410, or call (202) 720–5964 (voice and TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer.


Bernie WeisgerberAuthor

Brian VachowskiProject Leader

USDA Forest ServiceTechnology and Development ProgramMissoula, MT

8E82A42—Ax Manual/Video for Heritage Site Restoration

July 1999

Acknowledgments___________________________________________________________________ v

Brief History of the Ax _____________________________________________________________ 1

Evolution of the Ax in America _____________________________________________________________ 1

Ax Types, Patterns, and Uses ______________________________________________________________ 4

American Felling Ax ________________________________________________________________________ 7

Double-Bit Ax ______________________________________________________________________________ 8

Broad Ax ___________________________________________________________________________________ 9

Other Axes and Hatchets __________________________________________________________________ 10

Adzes _____________________________________________________________________________________ 13

Decline of the American Ax _______________________________________________________________ 14

Getting the Hang of It _____________________________________________________________17

Basics of Handle Selection ________________________________________________________________ 19

Hanging Procedure _______________________________________________________________________ 21

Sharpening _______________________________________________________________________________ 27

Using Axes _________________________________________________________________________33

A Most Versatile Tool _____________________________________________________________________ 33

Using an Ax Safely ________________________________________________________________________ 33

Chopping Technique ______________________________________________________________________ 35

Felling Trees ______________________________________________________________________________ 38

Limbing __________________________________________________________________________________ 41

Cutting Pinned-Down Saplings ____________________________________________________________ 42

Bucking __________________________________________________________________________________ 42

Splitting __________________________________________________________________________________ 44

Hewing ___________________________________________________________________________________ 45

Buying an Ax_______________________________________________________________________51

New and Used Axes _______________________________________________________________________ 51

Manufacturers ____________________________________________________________________________ 51

Distributors ______________________________________________________________________________ 53

Organizations _____________________________________________________________________________ 55

Selected References _______________________________________________________________57

T able of Contents

ii

From the time this manuscript began as a series of audio tapes, An

Ax to Grind: A Practical Ax Manual has benefited from a lot of

assistance. I would like to thank the following Missoula Technology and

Development Center staff and other Forest Service employees for their

major contributions.

John Alley (Northern Region) PrintingBob Beckley Photography

Michelle Beneitone Text processingTed J. Cote Design and layout

Gary Hoshide ReviewJim Kautz Photography

Bert Lindler EditingDavid Michael (Apache-Sitgreaves National Forest) Review

Brian Vachowski Project Leader,research, writing,

editingGloria Weisgerber (Northern Region) Review

Mark Wiggins PhotographyJerry Taylor Wolf Research, editing

I would also invite you to look at the companion video program, An Ax

to Grind. Parts 1 and 2 of the program are each 30 minutes long. Copies

are available from MTDC at the address on the inside of the back cover.

Many of the photographs are of axes from Bernie Weisgerber’s personal

collection. Many of the illustrations were drawn by Frederic H. Kock for

Bernard S. Mason’s book, Woodsmanship (1954). The illustrations are

used here by permission of Mrs. Frederic H. Kock.

A cknowledgments

iii

IB rief History of the Ax

I ’ve always had a passion for axes. I receivedmy first ax—a toy—when I was 8 years old,and my first real ax not long afterwards.

Since that time, for over 45 years, I’ve used andcollected all kinds of axes and adzes in myprofessional work restoring historic buildingsand structures.

We cannot explore everything there is to knowabout axes in this publication. What I wouldlike to share with you is a brief background onthe development of axes, the hanging andsharpening of axes, how to use an ax, anddetailed information on certain ax patterns. I’vetried to place the discussion within the contextof working with axes today and from ahistorical perspective of their use within theUSDA Forest Service.

In An Ax to Grind: A Practical Ax Manual, you’llfind:

• A brief look at the history of the ax,especially its evolution in America

• Types and patterns of axes and adzes,showcasing some examples from mypersonal collection and some from oldcatalogs

• How to hang and sharpen an ax, twoessential skills for anyone using an ax

• Various examples of using axes,incorporating historical material

• Where to buy a good ax

• Some other good references about axes thatyou may find useful.

This manual is intended to be a companion tomy video program, An Ax to Grind (99-01-MTDC). The video (Figure 1) was produced bythe Missoula Technology and DevelopmentCenter (MTDC). Copies are available from thecenter. I hope you’ll take a look at it.

Figure 1—The video program, An Ax to Grind (99-01-MTDC),is a companion to this manual. The video is available fromMissoula Technology and Development Center.

...having an ax to grindGetting even for a perceivedwrongdoing.

...barking your knucklesScraping your knuckles on the side ofa log while hewing it.

...can’t get the hang of itCan’t get it right, originally referringto the way an ax handle was mountedto the ax head.

Evolution ofthe Ax in America

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Figure 3—Parts of the ax. (Courtesy of Gränsfors Bruks AB,Sweden.)

Figure 2—Barking your knuckles comes with the territorywhen you choose to hew logs with a broad ax.

Although we still make references to axes inour daily speech, most Americans have alimited knowledge about them (Figure 2),including how to use and properly maintainthem. But the ax, in one form or another, hasbeen around for over 10,000 years—even longerif you consider some of the crude stone toolsused as axes by early man.

While the ax has gone through transformationsfrom stone, copper, bronze, and iron to steel,its overall shape and function have remainedconsistent (Figure 3). The ax was the first realwoodworking tool, one of only a few availablefor a long period. For centuries the ax was oneof mankind’s most useful tools.

The early iron and steel axes used in Americahad European roots. Henry J. Kauffman, in hisintroduction to American Axes (1994), wrote:

Part of the problem of focusing attention onthe American axe arises from the fact thatthe earliest ones used here were made inEurope, and certainly the first ones madehere were European in character. Thus, inthe earliest colonial times a dividing linecould not be drawn between the two catego-

ries. As a matter of fact, the object wasreally a European-American axe. Becauseiron, unlike wood, is similar regardless ofthe place it was made, the essential sub-stance of an axe does not help to identifyits origin. Short of some identifiablemaker’s mark, the manufacturers of most ofour early axes must remain anonymous.

It seems certain that most of the first axesmade in North America were made and usedon the Atlantic seaboard, a few exceptionsoccurring when trading companies broughtin blacksmiths to their centers of exchangeto repair and resharpen axes. As settlersmoved westward and southward, theirneeds were supplied by smiths who wentwith them and were responsive to indi-vidual needs. This procedure was the begin-ning of very high specialization in theforms of axes, a differentiation which waspicked up by the big manufacturers in thenineteenth century. The axes were mostly ofthe felling variety, but there were otherpurposes for which an axe was needed.

Parts of the Axe

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12

Brief History of the Ax

Figure 8—An 18th-century splitting ax, with straight handletypical of early axes.

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Figure 5—An early 20th-century Collins ax manufactured forthe South American market. Note the similarity in design ofthe two axes.

The pace of specialization increased; asevidence of this trend, one manufacturerinformed the writer that at one time thecompany manufactured about three hun-dred different types. The president of theMann Edge Tool Company, in Lewistown,Pennsylvania, reported that in 1969 theywere producing seventy different patterns;however, the bulk of their production in-volved only about twenty.

The ax became quite specialized in Europeduring the Middle Ages and afterward. WhenEuropean colonists dispersed throughout theNew World, they brought their tools and theirknowledge with them. It is not surprising to seethe appearance of trade axes (Figures 4 and 5)and Germanic goose-wing hewing axes. We alsosee examples of older European-stylespecialized axes (Figures 6, 7, and 8) inAmerica.

Figure 4— A 17th-century trade ax,typically made innorthern Spainand traded by theFrench withAmerican Indians.

Americans modified European axes for twoprincipal reasons (Kauffman 1994). First, theEuropean axes were not as well suited to thevirgin stands of huge trees found in America asthey were for the smaller timber stands ofEurope. The European axes were good tools forhewing, but less adequate for felling. Thesecond reason, Kauffman suggests, is that manyof the Europeans who left their homelands foran uncertain future in America were prepared

Figure 6—An 18th-centurymortisingax ortwibilgives anidea of thespecial-izationapparenteven inearly axes.Length,4 feet.

Figure 7—An18th-centuryshinglinghatchet isanotherspecialized ax.Ax head is 51/2inches long by4 inches wide.

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to adapt to survive. Their pioneering spirit bredingenuity.

The need for a better felling ax, the need toprocess huge amounts of timber duringAmerica’s settlement, and American ingenuitymade development of the American felling axinevitable.

Ax Types, Patterns, and Uses

During the 19th century, America’s agrariansociety was not as mobile as our society istoday. People lived their lives in relatively smallgeographic areas. This is one explanation of thehundreds of different ax-head patterns thatdeveloped over the last 150 years.

The individual skills of local blacksmiths andtheir view of what an ax needed were importantfactors in the development of ax-head patterns.Ax patterns became a matter of regionalpreference.

Around the turn of the 19th century, more than300 different ax-head patterns were beingmanufactured in the United States. Many werenearly identical. To simplify identification andeliminate unnecessary or duplicate patterns,the Ax Manufacturers’ Association agreed to seta standard, which resulted in a standard chartof ax patterns (Figure 9).

Certain ax patterns become popular within agiven geographic area, such as the Jersey (myparticular favorite), the Michigan, the Dayton,and the Kentucky (Figure 10). At times, ax headpatterns included a name that related to theiruse. For example, the rafting ax patternoriginated in the day when logs were rafteddown rivers.

Ax-head patterns were also adapted to thetimber that was available in the local area. Thedouble-bit ax was originally developed inPennsylvania (Figure 11). But the double-bitaxes with a long, narrow, heavy ax head and along handle, were developed for cutting largetrees in the Pacific Northwest. Some of thepatterns from this area were the Puget Sound,the Young’s felling pattern, the Redwoodpattern, and the Humboldt pattern.

We no sooner got started on thisbook than confusion over

terminology set in. The simplest termto decide was “ax” instead of “axe.”Although most historical sources gowith axe, we chose ax because thatspelling is preferred in theGovernment’s style manual. Moreproblematic was the correct term fora single-bit ax. We found single-bitaxes described as a single-bit ax,felling ax, American ax, and pole ax.Although woods workers commonlyrefer to a single-bit ax as a pole ax,dictionaries refer to the pole ax as amedieval battle ax, an ax that’s quite abit different than the axes we arewriting about. Pole ax probably refersto the poll (steel counterweight) onthe back of the head of a modernsingle-bit ax. The trade axes thatpreceded the single-bit ax did nothave a poll. The American ax andfelling ax have slightly differentmeanings to me, so we compromisedon single-bit ax throughout most ofthe text. Whether or not single-bitaxes should be hyphenated is yetanother story. We chose to rely on amodern dictionary for the spelling.

14


Figure 9—Some standard patterns manufactured by True Temper Kelly in 1925.

iv 5


Figure 11—A 19th-century “Hand Made” double-bit ax.

Figure 10—Some Collins Company “American axes” from the company’s1921 catalog.

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Figure 13—My favorite American felling ax, a True TemperKelly Perfect with a Jersey head and 32-inch straight hickoryhandle.

American Felling Ax

During the period in which the trade ax wasbeing introduced to the North AmericanIndians, the felling ax was brought to Americaby settlers from England, France, and Spain.

The 17th-century felling ax was made of twopieces of iron that were hammer welded downthe center of the poll surface. Later axes had athin poll with a flat surface. When NorthAmerican blacksmiths began making the fellingaxes, they forged the poll side of the patternlonger in order to make a lap weld, which gavemore welding surface. This produced a heavierpoll with more weight behind the handle,providing better balance. In essence, this designis the modern ax that we use today (Kauffman1994) (Figure 12).

high-carbon-steel single-bit ax appears in anadvertisement in the October 29, 1859, issue ofScientific American (Kauffman 1994).

The addition of the poll by an unknown NorthAmerican blacksmith is what makes theAmerican felling ax unique. Late 18th-centuryiron axes often had steel insert cutting edges.Earlier European axes with their long bladeswere awkward to use. When North Americansground down the blades after sharpening themmany times, they discovered that they coulduse them to cut more accurately. These axeshad better balance and geometry. The bladewobbled less during the swing. After thisdiscovery, American axes were made withshorter, wider blades.

In the late 18th century, some axes becamealmost square. These axes are often referred toas the American ax (Figure 13). Introduction of

An edge tool maker’s advertisement in thePennsylvania Packet and Daily Advertiser onJuly 7, 1789, shows that the American felling axwas fully developed then. The illustrationclosely resembles the Kentucky pattern madeby the Douglas Ax Company and illustrated inits 1863 catalog. The Jersey pattern, mypersonal favorite, is very similar to the modelof 1789. It is still available. In the mid-19thcentury, some of the American axes were stillmade of both iron and steel. An iron poll and a

Figure 12—Winchester ax and hatchet, Michigan pattern,typical of the American felling ax.

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the Bessemer process for making steel in thelate 19th century made steel affordable. Theentire ax blade could be made of steel. Polishedsteel axes reduce the friction between the bladeand the log. The ax blade can be made eventhinner, allowing size and weight to be reducedwhile maintaining cutting efficiency. Makingthe entire ax wider with a heavier poll gave itmore balance than the narrow, long-bladedEnglish or European ax with little or no poll(Kauffman 1994).

The head of a full-size single-bit ax or poll axweighed 3 to 6 pounds. The handle was 30 to 36inches long.

The single-bit felling ax, or American ax,became the international standard for qualityaxes.

Double-Bit Ax

The first double-bit ax was probably made byWilliam Mann in Pennsylvania at about 1850.The Mann Edge Tool Company is one of the fewAmerican companies still in the business ofmaking axes. By 1860 the double-bit ax was verycommon in the Northeast. The double-bit wasnot widely popular until the last quarter of the19th century when it came into its own in thePacific Northwest (Figure 14).

The double-bit ax weighed from about 21/2 to 5pounds and had a handle that was 26 to 42inches long (Figure 15).

Figure 14—Three double-bit patterns available from Collinsin 1921.

Figure 15—Three representative double-bit patterns:Bluegrass Western pattern double-bit ax (top); True TemperKelly Perfect Michigan pattern double-bit ax (middle); and a21/2-pound reversible cruiser ax, sometimes used for axthrowing (bottom).

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Which is better, a single-bit or double-bit ax?No other question is likely to raise as muchcontroversy among ax enthusiasts as this one.Although the single-bit or poll ax was developedfirst and has remained popular, the double-bitdeveloped a strong following because of itsbalanced feel and versatility. Typically, oneblade was sharpened to a finely honed, narrow“felling edge,” while the second blade wasground slightly blunter, and used for knots,cutting near the ground, or in other instanceswhere a finely sharpened blade was more likelyto be damaged.

The double-bit ax remains a popular utility axin the Western United States, especially amongagencies like the USDA Forest Service. Thesingle-bit ax also remains popular. All of thecompetition axes are single-bit axes. In myopinion, a single-bit ax is a more efficientcutting tool; the double-bit is more versatile.

Broad Ax

Other special-purpose axes helped developAmerica. The hewing ax (also called broad ax orside ax) was used to square timber or flattenthe sides of logs. It was used primarily for logbuildings and timber framing, either in houseor barn construction. Hewn timber was alsoused for railroad ties and trestle bridges.

The goose-wing broad axes (Figure 16) broughtto America by German settlers were the earliesthewing axes commonly used in this country.

These axes were first used in Bucks County, PA.An earlier pattern of hewing ax known as themedieval goose-wing ax occasionally shows up(Figure 17). Goose-wing broad axes were madein both left- and right-handed models. Thegoose-wing handle was offset to the left or rightby fitting it into a bent metal tube forged to thebit. Later hewing axes, known as Americanbroad axes, had a handle that allowed the headto be taken off and re-versed for use by right-handers or left-handers.

Figure 16—An 18th-century Germanic goose-wing hewing ax.There are maker’s marks hammered into the blade.

American broad ax patterns had geographicnames. The most popular were thePennsylvania, Western, Canadian, and, the NewOrleans pattern, my favorite (Figures 18a, b, c,d, and e). Until the 1930’s the Western andCanadian patterns were used to hack railroadties. The slang expression for a person whomade railroad ties was a “tie hacker.”

The hewing ax is the preferred tool forflattening the surface of round logs. In pastcenturies, wood beams were often made bysplitting the logs with some type of mallet andwedge, or glut. Then they were surfaced with anadz or a hewing ax. When iron axes becameavailable, the hewing ax almost replaced theadz. Hewing axes were frequently used toroughly square the logs before they were sawninto boards with a pit saw.

Even after the sawmill became common, thehewing ax was still used for hewing beams andplanks in the Northwest. It was often easier to

Figure 17—A medieval goose-wing ax that differs from theGermanic goose-wing axes brought into the United States byearly settlers.

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Figure 18d—Kelly 20th-century Canadianbroad ax.

Figure 18b—Early 20th-century Douglas, NewOrleans broad ax—myfavorite.

Figure 18e—A 19th-century shipwright’s mast broad ax.

fell the tree, hew it square into cants, and skidthe cants to the building site rather than toload and transport round logs to the sawmillwhere they would be sawn before being broughtback to the building site. The hewing ax hasbeen used in the same manner for about 2,000years.

Figure 18c—Early 20th-century Beatty knife-edge tiehacker’s broad ax.

Other Axes and Hatchets

Axes have other uses besides felling timber andbuilding houses. Splitting axes are used forsplitting firewood or rails. Hatchets, with theirshort heads and handles, are used in thebuilding trades, and for camping and hunting(Figure 19). Some axes and hatchets are usedspecifically for mortising (Figure 20), woodcarving, flooring, shingling, and carpentry(Figures 21a and 21b). Special competition axesare also used in logging contests where peoplechop while racing the clock and each other(Figure 22).

Figure 18a—BeattyPennsylvania broad ax.

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Figure 19—Plumb 21/2-lb boy’s ax with 19-inch handle—myfavorite for log cabin work.

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Figure 20—An 18th-century mortising ax.

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Figure 21a—Some20th-century Plumbhatchets and handaxes.

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Figure 21b—More 20th-century Plumb hatchets and hand axes.

Some axes weren’t used forcutting wood. Ice axes were usedto cut ice from lakes in thewinter so the ice could be usedfor refrigeration during thesummer (Figure 23). Sod or turfaxes were used to chop sod forsod houses (Figure 24). Peoplehave used axes as a weapon forcenturies. Fire axes are used tobreak down doors to enterburning buildings. The Pulaski isan ax tool used to fight wildlandfires (Figure 25). An ax known asa butchering ax was used to killcattle (Figure 26). Axes called“salesman samples” wereminiature versions of full-sizeaxes. Salesmen would carry themto hardware stores todemonstrate their wares.

Figure 22—A Tuatahi competition ax. This New Zealand companyspecializes in custom-made axes and competition crosscut saws.

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Figure 23—A19th-centuryice ax forharvestingpond ice.

Figure 24—A 19th-century sod ax for building sod houses.

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Figure 27b—Plumbrailroad adz.

Figure 27a—Collins lippedshipwright’s adz.

Adzes

The adz is another hewing ordressing tool (Figures 27a, b, c,and d). It has a head that gives itthe appearance of a hoe, but it istempered and sharpened to cutwood. The adz is primarily used fordressing or planing timber that hasbeen hewn by a broad ax. An adz isused for the final dressing in someof our finer hand-built structures.

Figure 25—The Pulaski is a popular wildland firefighting toolthat combines an ax with a grubbing hoe.

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Figure 26—A 19th-century butchering ax.

Figure 27c—Modern carving ax or adz.

Figure 27d—Douglas carpenter’s adz.

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Decline of the American Ax

Some of the leading American ax companieshave included: Collins Company, Mann EdgeTool, Kelly Axe or True Temper Kelly, PlumbAxes, and American Axe and Tool Company.When factory production first began, axes wereproduced by individual blacksmiths hired tomake a complete ax. Gradually an assembly linewas introduced. Improved steels and moreefficient forging processes took most of thehand labor out of ax manufacture. Themanufacturing process and materials evolvedfrom individual blacksmiths hammering outaxes one at a time to the giant drop hammersused today to stamp out fully formed ax heads.

During the 19th century, axes provided the besttechnology to meet the needs of the burgeoningforest products industry. Manufacturersproduced hundreds of patterns for both generalutility and specialized uses.

The use of American axes and their quality wereprobably at their peak during the period from1850 to 1950 (Figure 28). Beginning about 1870,ax production began to drop due to theincreased use of the crosscut saw as a fellingtool. The ax continued to play an important rolefor swamping and limbing trees, but its rolewas diminished.

The introduction of the power saw was thedeath knell of the ax and the crosscut saw. Bythe late 1950’s and early 1960’s, lightweight,efficient chain saws had taken over almost allof the work that previously had beenaccomplished with an ax—felling, bucking, andlimbing.

If you search the Internet for ax, axe, or axes,you will probably find more sites related toguitars (referred to as “ax”) than you will tothose dealing with cold, hard steel. But if youfocus on work in the woods rather than on theInternet, you will see that the ax still occupiesan important place as a woodworking tool.

A Swedish company, Gränsfors Bruks AB, stillmanufactures hand-forged axes (Figure 29).Gabriel Brånby of Gränsfors Bruks provides agood summary of the modern role of the ax(Gränsfors Bruks 1997):

In a certain way we are back at the timebefore the entry of the booming forest in-dustry. There are no axe-using forestworkers any longer. The millions of cubicfeet of pulpwood and timber that todayarrive at the forest industries have neverbeen grazed by an axe. The chain saws,harvesters and logging machines havetaken over completely. Today most axesare used in small-scale activity by peoplelike homeowners, firewood cutters, camp-ers, hunters, joiners, woodworkers, logbuilders.

Figure 28—During the heyday of American axes, companieswent to great lengths to promote their axes, like this Kelly“Best Axe Made” broad ax.

Figure 29—Modern hand-forged broad ax made by theSwedish Company, Gränsfors Bruks AB.

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Thousands of new axes are sold every year,mostly for the activities Brånby describes.Some historic axes are sold or traded bycollectors (Figure 30). In the Forest Service,axes still play a critical role in designatedwilderness areas where mechanized ormotorized equipment is prohibited by law. Inthese areas, axes, adzes, and crosscut saws areneeded for clearing trails, cutting firewood,managing forest fires, and maintaining orrestoring administrative buildings.

Outside wilderness, axes and adzes are used forhistoric building restoration and as lightweight,convenient, affordable alternatives to chainsaws. To at least a few recreational wood cuttersand craftsmen, the rhythmic sound and motionof chopping are more appealing than the whineand exhaust of a chain saw.

This look at the history of the ax and itsevolution in North America is not complete.Four excellent references for more detailedstudy are: Henry J. Kauffman’s American Axes(1994); Charles A. Heavrin’s The Ax and Man(1997); Alan Klenman’s Ax Makers of NorthAmerica, and Henry Mercer’s AncientCarpenter’s Tools (1960). Full citations forthese sources are in Selected References.

Figure 30—This modern blacksmith-made trade hatchetmight be just the right gift for your sweetheart on Valentine’sDay.

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TT he length, shape, and mounting of an ax handle (also called a helve or haft) is known as the hang. The hang of an ax is

always a matter of personal preference. You musthang your ax to suit you. The cutting edge of awell-hung ax is in an exact line with the end ofthe handle (Figure 31). If you place the ax on atable so that the cutting edge and the handletouch the surface, the cutting edge will touch at apoint one-third from the heel (Figure 32).

In addition to having theblade aligned and set atthe correct angle, aproperly hung ax justfeels right. The head isneither too heavy nor toolight, and the handle isjust the right length. Thehandle may be curved orstraight, depending onyour preference. Thehandle’s diameter shouldfeel comfortable to thegrip, and the handleshould be constructedfrom the highest qualityhickory. I personallyprefer a slim-taperoctagonal handle. I get agood grip, or purchase,on the slim handle and ithas a bit of flex to it,unlike thicker handles.

Many years ago, beforethe proliferation of mass-produced axes, mostusers selected andhandled their own axes.Professionals whoworked with axes were

G etting the Hang of It

very particular about the weight, length, design,geometry, flexibility, and most importantly, thehang of their axes. Such attention allowed themto work faster and made the task easier.

Most felling axes and broad axes were notregularly sold with handles until about 1920. Thepurchaser generally took pride in making andfitting, or hanging, his or her own handle. Manypeople made patterns of the handle they used ona thin board. Sometimes this pattern was handeddown through the family. Some of these patternsstill exist and can be found in old barns andworkshops.

Throughout history, hickory has always been thepreferred wood for percussion tools like axes,mauls, and hammers. In the 18th century,hickory was probably split instead of sawn toobtain a straight and continuous grain essentialfor a quality tool handle. Surviving handles fromthe 17th century show that most were straightpatterns, without the swell at the end of thehandle as is common on both straight and benthandles today (Figures 33 and 34a, b, and c).

The Hangof It

Figure 31—In a correctlyhung ax, the cutting edge isin a direct line with thecenter of the handle (fromthe Axe Manual of PeterMcLaren).

Figure 32—Proper ax-head angle (drawing by Frederic H.Kock).

iv 17

Today, few ax users hang their own axes. Mostprofessionals in ax competitions hang their ownaxes, as do some professional woods workers andcraftsmen.

Most axes with broken handles are thrown out orrelegated to a dusty corner of the garage andreplaced with a new ax from the local discountstore. Often the ax heads thrown into the cornerare of much higher quality (better steel,craftsmanship, temper) than most generic axessold by mass marketers today.

In my opinion, folks who take any pride in theirax skills need to know how to hang and sharpenan ax. They should know how to makeemergency repairs in the field, and they shouldknow how to sharpen and care for their axes tokeep them safe and tuned for peak performance.The most important reason for acquiring theseskills is one of attitude. By hanging andsharpening your own ax, you realize it is your ax,not just a hunk of wood and metal. And you aremore likely to take care of the ax and use itsafely.

Figure 33—Some ax handles available in 1999 from O.P.Link Handle Company (reprinted by permission from O.P.Link Handle Company).

Figure 34b—A 19th-century S-bend broad axhandle.

Figure 34c—A 19th-century dogleg broad ax handle.

Figure 34a—Modern S-bend broad ax handle.

Figure 34a42%

3 3/8 x 1 3/48 x 4 1/8


Figure 34b34%

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Figure 34c38%

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118

Getting the Hang of It

Basics of Handle Selection

Hickory makes the best handles for percussiontools like axes. You seldom see any species otherthan hickory offered by ax-handle companies.

There are several important characteristics youneed to look for in a good ax handle. Generally,you get what you pay for, because the highergrade hickory handles sell at a premium overlower grade handles. Your new handle should beof straight grain, second growth, clear hickory.Cheap, inferior handles tend to break, split, andwarp. If you are going through all the work ofhanging your own ax, you should spend the extradollars to get a high-quality handle. Somecharacteristics you need to look at include:

Color: The best handles are from second growthhickory sapwood, all white in color (Figure 35). Inlower grades, various amounts of red-coloredheartwood are in the handle.

Grain: The highest grade does not have over 17

annual rings per inch of radius, a characteristicof faster-growing second growth trees. Theorientation of the grain is critically important(Figures 36 and 37). If the handle is not straight-grained, it is likely to break.

Figure 35—Hickory cross section. The outer, whitesapwood makes the best ax handles. This particular pieceis too small and too riddled with checks to be goodhandle stock.

Figure 36—The grain of ax handles should run parallel tothe length of the handle and to the wedge slot.

Figure 3738%

3 3/8 x 39 x 8


Figure 37—Grain orientation is important. The handle onthe left has a good orientation. The one on the right doesnot, and is more likely to break under stress.

Figure 3542%

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iv 19


Defects: Various defects, including stain, holes,knots, splits, streaks, and grain deviations alldiminish the grade of the handle.

Camouflaged Defects: Many less-than-perfect axhandles, often on bargain or utility axes, havedefects that are camouflaged. This often helpsmake the ax look better, but you shouldrecognize that good looks can hide defects. Somecommon techniques include staining, painting,or fire-finishing, which hardens and darkens thehandle’s surface.

Handles come in a variety of lengths, typicallyfrom 32 to 36 inches for 3- to 6-pound axes(Figure 38). Often the longer lengths work bestfor big timber and for splitting wood, while theshorter lengths are superior for smaller timberand general utility work. Handles (Figure 39) canbe straight or curved (called a fawn’s foot).Double-bit handles are almost always straight,but for single-bit axes you can choose eithercurved or straight handles. My personalpreference is a straight handle, usually less than

36 inches long. The handle can be oval oroctagonal. I special order O.P. Link handles in aslim-taper, octagonal pattern, a design not foundin their general catalog but one the companymakes for me from the hundreds of patterns theyhave on file.

Figure 38—Longer handles with heavier heads are for bigtimber. Most choppers prefer shorter, lighter axes forsmaller wood (drawing by Frederic H. Kock).

Most ax manufacturers also offer axes withfiberglass or other plastic composite handles.While these may be durable and sturdy andperhaps adequate for splitting mauls, they do notprovide the feel that a hickory handle offers. Youalso cannot customize a fiberglass handle. Theyare not traditional, which matters to me. Andbesides, they are just flat ugly.

Figure 39—Some ax handles, from top: double-bit with toomuch heartwood; handmade 19th-century single-bit; thenext three are new single-bit handles from O.P. Link—fawn’s foot octagonal, straight oval, and my favorite,straight octagonal slim-taper.

Figure 3936%

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120


First, check to see whether you really need a new handle. Often

you can reuse the same handle andjust replace a loose wedge.

Figure 40—Tools needed for hanging an ax include(clockwise, from top left): leather gloves, four-in-handrasp, wood rasp, keyhole rasp, steel drift for double-bitax, steel drift for single-bit ax, hickory drift made from oldhandle, spokeshave, coping saw, and wooden mallet.

Figure 4039%

3 3/8 x 2 5/88 3/4 x 6 3/4

Print to Outside Edge of BordersPRINTPRINTPRINTPRINTPRINT Borders Figure 41—Cut off the old handle just below the ax eye,

close up against the head, with a coping saw. Remove anysteel wedges or screws that may be in the top of thehandle at this time.

Hanging Procedure

Figure 42—Drill out the wooden wedge and part of thehandle from the top side of the ax eye. Power drills work,too.

Figure 4142%

3 3/8 x 3 3/88 x 8


Figure 4242%

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iv 21


Figure 43—Use a wooden or steel drift or swedge to driveout the remainder of the handle. Notice the drift in thecenter is shaped for a single-bit ax, the one on the right isfor a double-bit ax.

Figure 4342%

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Figure 44 —Block up the ax head upside down. Drive thedrift down through the bottom of the ax eye toward the topof the ax eye. The ax eye is tapered larger on the top tofacilitate wedging the handle tight. This taper requires theold handle piece to be driven out the top of the ax eye.

Figure 4442%

3 3/8 x 3 3/88 x 8


Figure 46—Take the new handle and place it next to the axhead. Bring the shoulder of the new handle all the way upto the bottom of the ax eye in its finished mountinglocation. This usually leaves quite a bit of excess wood ontop. Draw a line to show where the excess wood should becut off.

Figure 4642%

3 3/8 x 3 3/88 x 8


Figure 45—If you use a fawn’s foot handle, saw off thehandle about 3/4 inch from the butt end to provide a bluntsurface for pounding with your mallet (drawing byFrederic H. Kock).

122


Figure 47—With the handle in the vise, use a hand saw tocut off the excess wood. Be careful not to split the handle.

Figure 4742%

3 3/8 x 3 3/88 x 8


Figure 48—Using an aggressive wood rasp or a four-in-hand, start dressing down the handle to fit the ax-eyesocket tightly. At this point, be careful not to split off theedges of the handle or to rasp off too much wood. Onceit’s rasped off, it can’t be put back! It usually takes severalrepetitions of rasping and checking for fit to geteverything just right.

Figure 4842%

3 3/8 x 3 3/88 x 8


Figure 49—When the ax is properly hung, the bottom ofthe ax eye should rest on the shoulder of the handle. Drivethe new handle into your ax head for a trial fit. Place thehandle in the eye socket from the bottom. Use a largewooden mallet to strike the bottom of the handle squarelyand firmly. This will draw the weight of the ax head uponto the handle. There’s no need to rest the ax head or thehandle against a solid base. Sight down the cutting edge tosee if the ax edge is in exact line with the end of thehandle (See Figure 31).

Figure 4942%

3 3/8 x 3 3/88 x 8


Figure 50—Drive the handle out again using a drift, andtake one final rasp for a good tight fit down on theshoulder. The ax head will leave marks on the high spotsthat need additional light rasping.

Figure 5042%

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iv 23


Figure 51—Since you’ve cut off the excess portion of thenew handle, the wedge kerf slot is too shallow and mustbe deepened. Use a hand saw to cut the saw kerf deeperfor the wood wedge. The cut should be approximately two-thirds the depth of the ax eye.

Figure 5142%

3 3/8 x 3 3/88 x 8


Figure 52—Time for the final fit. Drive the head on bystriking the bottom of the handle. You can often tell whenthe head will move no farther by the solid sound of thestrike.

Figure 5242%

3 3/8 x 3 3/88 x 8


Figure 53—This handle is properly mounted on theshoulder. Compare this photo with the untrimmed handlesin Figure 39 to see how low on the shoulder this ax headis mounted. There is no excess shoulder, and the handle isready to be wedged.

Figure 5342%

3 3/8 x 3 3/88 x 8


Figure 54—With a coping saw, cut the protruding handleflush with the ax head.

Figure5442%

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124


Figure 55—The fitted handle is ready for wedging. Use acorrectly sized wooden wedge, usually made of well-seasoned yellow poplar or other hardwood. Avoid plasticor steel wedges.

Figure 5542%

3 3/8 x 3 3/88 x 8


Figure 56—Sometimes the wedge is too thick for the sawkerf and ax eye. If so, thin the wedge out a little bit so thatit can be driven almost full length.

Figure 5642%

3 3/8 x 3 3/88 x 8


Figure 57—Before inserting the wedge in the handle, applya coat of Swel-Lock to the inside kerf cut and the newwooden wedge. Swel-Lock is a product that swells wood.It is not a glue or an adhesive; rather, it penetrates andexpands wood fibers to keep the new handle tight.

Figure 5742%

3 3/8 x 3 3/88 x 8


Figure 58—Insert the wooden wedge. Rest the handle bottom onsomething solid. Drive the wedge squarely and firmly into thekerf with a wooden carpenter’s mallet. If you have set everythingup properly, there should only be 1/4 to 1/2 inch of wedgeprotruding above the top of the handle when the wedge hasbeen driven to the point of refusal. Use a coping saw to cut offany excess wedge.

Figure 5845%

3 3/8 x 3 3/87 7/16 x 7 7/16


iv 25


Figure 59—Sand any paint, varnish, shellac, or wax fromthe handle. Sand the handle smooth on all but 6 inches ofthe butt section. The body of the sanded handle is whereyour hand will slide. You don’t want any splinters orrough wood there.

Figure 5942%

3 3/8 x 3 3/88 x 8


Figure 60—Rough up the lower 6 inches of the buttsection of the handle with a wood rasp. This rough sectionwill give purchase, or grip, to your stationary hand at thebottom of the ax handle.

Figure 6042%

3 3/8 x 3 3/88 x 8


Figure 61—Apply a light coat of raw linseed oil if it isavailable, or boiled linseed oil if it is not. Tung oil willalso work. A regular application of these oils will protectagainst drying and cracking. Wipe off the excess oil.

Figure 6142%

3 3/8 x 3 3/88 x 8


Never insert iron, steel, screws, nails, or anyother metal object down in the wooden wedge totighten the handle, even though you see thisbeing done on many factory-handled axes. Epoxyshould not be used, either. This advice appliesfor the entire life of your ax. The metal wedgestend to split the grain on the hickory handle. Ican’t see any reason why you would want to dothat to a properly hung ax.

A loose handle can be temporarily tightenedeither in the field or in the shop by soaking thehead in a bucket of linseed oil. Never soak thehandle in water, except for short-term, emergencyfield tightening. Water will tighten the handle tothe head, but the water dries out rapidly, leavingthe head looser than before you started.Tightening the handle by soaking it in linseed oilis also a temporary measure. The ax must berewedged or hung again to keep it tight.

Sharpening

126


“Putting your nose to the grindstone” impliestedious, repetitious, and unending work. You willfind that sharpening a dull or abused ax is indeedtedious and repetitious, but to do it right youhave to do it slowly (Figure 62). Along the way,you’ll learn the value of patience, and appreciatethe differences in steel tempering and ax qualityas you sharpen different axes. Best of all, you willappreciate the usefulness of a razor-sharp ax, andthe importance of doing everything you can tokeep it sharp.

Never use an electric high-speed dry bench grinder

With oil and rags, there is a risk ofspontaneous combustion. Be

sure to discard the oily rags or soakthem in buckets of water to preventany accidents.

Figure 62—The right way and wrong way to use a grindingwheel (drawings by Frederic H. Kock).

Figure 63 —Tools for sharpening (clockwise from top left)include leather gloves; ax-bit width gauges; 8-inch, 10-inch,and 12-inch mill bastard files; Carborundum scythe stone;Carbor-undum ax stone; file card; and grooved Carborundumsharpen-ing stone. Natural Arkansas sharpening stones alsowork.

Figure 6340%

3 3/8 x 2 11/168 1/2 x 6 3/4


to sharpen your ax. That type of a grinder willalmost certainly draw the temper from the ax andruin it. Very few people have enough skill to use ahigh-speed grinder without drawing the temperfrom the steel, leaving the steel too soft to hold anedge. The only grindstone that I recommend is oneof the old-style pedal grindstones that stay wet witha constant application of water to the stone. If youdraw the temper from your ax with a high-speedgrinder, you may have ruined the ax for good. Atthe minimum, you’ve drawn the temper for at least3/16 of an inch back from the edge. You can alwaystell when the temper is drawn because the color ofthe steel at the edge turns blue. If this happens toyour ax, you’ve got to remove a lot of steel toreshape the edge back to where it still is tempered.If you use a pedal grindstone, keep it wet, andalways rotate the grindstone toward you and intothe ax, not away from it.

If you don’t have a pedal grindstone, youroptions are limited to a file and whetstone. Thisis how most quality ax sharpening is done today.Few stores carry pedal grindstones. Wear leathergloves (Figure 63) throughout the sharpeningprocess, as the ax will become razor-sharp.

iv 27


Fit your file with a guard to protect your hands(Figure 64). The guards, which keep your fin-gersaway from the sharpened ax blade, can be madefrom leather, wood, or a piece of fire hose.

Clamp the ax to the bench at a comfortable height(Figure 65). Put on gloves to protect your hands.Hold the file as shown. Because you file into theedge of the ax, not away from it, you need glovesin case of a minor slip. Always file into the edge,toward the center of the ax handle, because thiscreates the least amount of burr to remove onthe other side. The single-cut file sharpens onlyon the push stroke. Lift it away from the ax headon the return stroke. If you “saw” with your file,it will fill with metal particles. It will not cut welland it can also be ruined as the file edges arepeened over. Occasionally brush the metalparticles from the file with a file card. Alwaysstore and transport your files so they areprotected from each other and other metal tools.Banging them together will dull their edges.

When sharpening, always try for a fan-shapedeffect on the cheek of the ax (Figure 66). File backfor a distance of approximately 2 to 3 inches fromthe cutting edge right at the middle point of theax. Work your way from the cheek down to theactual edge, keeping a rounded profile. Stop filingonce you have filed one side so that a burr ofmetal can be felt on the back side. Turn the ax

Figure 64—File guards help keep your fingers away fromthe sharpened ax blade.

Figure 6434%

3 3/8 x 2 11/1610 x 8


Figure 65—Clamp the ax to the bench at a comfortableheight for sharpening.

Figure 6542%

3 3/8 x 3 3/88 x 8


Figure 66—When sharpening, try for a fan-shaped effecton the cheek of the ax (drawing by Frederic H. Kock).

Figure 6642%

3 3/8 x 3 3/88 x 8


128


over and repeat the process on the other side ofthe ax. Continue filing on the opposite side untilthe burr goes back over to the first side of the axwhere you started. Stop at this point.

It is time to check the shape of the edge with asharpening gauge (Figure 67). This gauge can behandmade from a piece of cardboard, a smallpiece of brass, or even a piece of wood. See theillustration for the proper shape of your edge.The angle is about 25 degrees, but is slightlyconvex. The gauge is exactly to scale and canserve as a template (Figure 68).

Continue to file equally on both sides of the axuntil the sharpening gauge pattern fits exactly

Figure 67—Use a sharpening gauge to check the shape ofthe edge.

over the edge. If you are sharpening a double-bitax, keep one blade slightly thicker for roughwork and grubbing near the ground, and theother blade shaped according to the sharpeninggauge. Use the properly shaped edge for fast,clean cutting.

Now it is time to hone the edge with a whetstone.The honing process finishes and polishes the

edge and removes the burr. Honing shouldalways be done immediately after reshaping witha file. It should also be done in the field duringuse and every morning before starting the day’sax work. Natural whetstones are quarry stones.My favorites are Arkansas stones, which come indifferent grades. The Washita is my favorite forfast cutting and the Hard Arkansas is my favoritefor finishing. One of the finest finishing oilstones is called a Surgical Black Hard Arkansas.This stone will

Figure 68—A template for a sharpening gauge (reproducedto exact size) and illustrations showing its use (drawingsby Frederic H. Kock).

Figure 6742%

3 3/8 x 3 3/88 x 8


iv 29


Figure 69—Round ax stones, sometimes called pocketstones.

Figure 6940%

3 3/8 x 3 3/168 1/2 x 8


put a razor edge on your ax. Manmade stones areusually oil stones of Carborundum and comewith a coarse and a fine side. Other whetstonesare called water stones and use water to float themetal particles out of the stone instead of oil.Always use oil with an oil stone or water with awater stone to float the metal particles away. Wipethe stone clean of these metal particlesperiodically and apply more oil or water. Waterstones are quite a bit softer than oil stones andtend to cup and wear faster. The advantage of thewater stone is that it rapidly puts a fine polishededge on your ax.

Round artificial ax stones (Figure 69) aresometimes called pocket stones. I know of twotypes. The traditional type has both a coarse anda fine side and is about 1/2 inch thick. Thistraditional ax stone can be dangerous to use,because your fingertips are always in jeopardy.Another type of ax stone has a finger groove inthe center to keep your fingertips out of jeopardy.Both of these round ax stones are ofCarborundum and require oil (Figure 70) to floatthe metal particles off of the stone.

Use the ax stone in a circular motion, workinginto the edge, toward the middle of the ax head(Figure 71). Work one side of the ax with thecoarse stone until it creates a metal burr, thenflip the ax over and use the coarse stone until itpushes the burr back. Switch to the fine side ofthe ax stone and repeat the process until there’sa very fine burr and both sides of the ax edgehave been honed. Honing the edge removes verysmall particles of metal from the blade and causesthe remaining ax metal to burr slightly. This issometimes known as a wire edge or a featheredge. At this point you may want to move to oneof the Arkansas stones like the Hard Arkansasfinishing stone and work the burr back and forthuntil it breaks off or becomes very fine. Irecommend stropping the edge by drawing the axtoward the edge (opposite the direction usedduring sharpening) on a piece of finished leatheror a piece of soft, clear wood like pine. Thisstropping will remove the final burr or wire edge.

The last step is to apply a protective coating to

Figure 70—Use oil to float metal particles off ax stonesmade of Carborundum.

Figure 7034%

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130


the ax head itself (Figure 72). You can clean therust and pitch from the metal with an abrasiveimpregnated rubber eraser block called theWonderbar. Wipe light machine oil over all themetal on both sides of the ax, and then carefullyrub a beeswax and oil mixture into the steel. Themixture will cling to the steel and protect it fromrust. The ax head should be warm to ensurebetter coverage of the mixture.

Always check the ax for sharpness. A honed axwill cut faster, be safer to use, and stay sharplonger. If you look directly into the edge of yourax with the light over your shoulder (eithersunlight or artificial light), the edge that you’vejust honed will reflect no light. If you see anylight reflected from the edge, you need to go backand hone the ax with the stone. Occasionally, ading or a nick in the edge will reflect light just atone point. It is not always necessary to remove

these dings as they will disappear throughrepeated filings. A correctly honed edge is sharpwith no wire edge. It reflects no light. If youfollowed procedures, your edge should be sharpenough to shave with (Figure 73). I sometimescheck the sharpness by carefully dry shaving thehair on the back of

Figure 71—Use the ax stone in a circular motion, workinginto the edge, toward the middle of the ax head (drawingsby Frederic H. Kock).

Figure 7142%

3 3/8 x 3 3/88 x 8


Figure 72—Protective coatings for the ax head.

Figure 7242%

3 3/8 x 2 1/28 x 5 7/8


Figure 73—Shaving hair on the back of your hand is atraditional method of checking an ax’s sharpness. A safermethod is to place your fingernail against the edge. Theedge should bite into your fingernail.

Figure 7342%

3 3/8 x 3 3/88 x 8


iv 31


my hand. This is a traditional method used in thewoods for years. A safer and equally effective testis to carefully put your fingernail (not your finger)

against the sharpened edge. The edge should biteinto your fingernail and not slide down it.

132


U sing Axes

A Most Versatile Tool

The ax is a wonderful tool. It can be used to fellstanding trees, to buck them into logs, and tolimb them once they are on the ground. Axes canbe used for hewing logs square, or for splittingfirewood or fence rails. The tasks they’re suitedfor range from trail work and fire fighting torestoring historic buildings.

Before you lift an ax to admire it or work with it,you need to recognize its potential danger. An axis a sharp wedge, normally applied with enoughforce to cut something. Whether that“something” is a log, your foot, or the personstanding too close to you depends on your skilland concentration. By taking pride in your work,taking good care of your ax, and learning thecorrect techniques, you can avoid most of thedanger of using an ax.

Master your ax instead of fearing it. You masterax work by practicing it. Chopping is an art. Ittakes years to become an expert. You can learnonly so much by reading manuals and looking atillustrations; the rest you can learn only byswinging. Take a cautious, rather thanaggressive, approach to chopping your first logs.Placement, control, proper stance, and techniqueare far more important than power. Only whenyou have become fully proficient does powerbecome a consideration.

This chapter gives some basic instruction—and afew tricks of the trade—for using an ax for felling,limbing, bucking, splitting, and hewing. It alsodescribes how to use an adz for log work. I’verelied heavily on illustrations from one of myfavorite books about axes, Woodsmanship, byBernard S. Mason (1954). The wonderfulillustrations are by Frederic H. Kock.Unfortunately, it is long out of print, but some ofthe illustrations are reproduced here bypermission. We also used some good informationfrom Fred C. Simmons’ Northeastern Loggers’Handbook (1951).

Bear in mind that some of these historicillustrations do not reflect modern personalprotective equipment, particularly hardhats andeye protection.

Using an Ax Safely

Personal protective equipment that you need forax work varies with the job. Always wear good,stout leather boots, at least 8-inches high. Alwayswear safety glasses or goggles for eye protection.Hard hats are needed when there is any chanceof being struck by something overhead. Hardhats are a must for tree-felling operations.

Some people wear gloves when using an ax, somedon’t. Gloves are a good idea for splittingfirewood, where you are handling many pieces ofsplintered wood. Leather gloves are alwaysrequired while sharpening an ax. For chopping,use your judgment. If leather gloves protect yourhands and help give you a good grip on thehandle, wear them. I personally don’t wear glovesmost of the time because I get a better purchaseon the ax handle without them. The last thing Iwant to happen is for the ax to fly out of myhands on a swing. Then the person next to mereally will need that hard hat!

It’s always a good idea to complete a job hazard analysis that identifies the

safety concerns of the ax work you willbe doing. In the Forest Service, a jobhazard analysis is required. You mustalso describe the safety gear andprocedures you need to follow to do thejob safely. The job hazard analysis cansave your life. Do it!

iv 33

Figure 74—A dull ax or one that is too blunt is more likelyto glance off dangerously than it is to cut (drawing fromthe Northeastern Loggers’ Handbook).

Always carry your sheathed single-bit ax at itspoint of balance near its head with the edgepointing down. The ax should be on yourdownhill side if you are walking on a slope. If youfall or trip, toss the ax away from you. Carry adouble-bit ax at your side. Carrying an ax on yourshoulder is asking for trouble, especially in thewoods or on rough trails. Don’t do it.

Keep track of your ax. Be careful where and howyou lay it down, and remember where it is. If youmust leave your ax unsheathed, lay it flat withthe edge toward a solid object like a log or a wall(Figure 75). Serious accidents are caused bystumbling over or falling on a carelessly placedax.

For temporary safe storage, stick a single-bit ax ina log or a stump. Never lay it down flat out in theopen. Never lean it up against a tree, a wall, orany other object where the edge is exposed. Don’tleave it stuck for long in a block of wood becauseit will rust. A double-bit ax should never be stuckin a log with one edge sticking out. Place yourdouble-bit ax underneath a log lying flat or putone bit into a small piece of wood and then stickthe other bit into a horizontal log. A sheath isbetter than any of these methods.

Here are a few more pointers on ax work:

Figure 75—These methods may work, but it’s better tokeep a protective sheath on your ax (drawings by FredericH. Kock).

134

Using Axes

• Do not chop directly through a knot if youcan chop around it or chop the knot out.Knots often are very hard and can chip yourax or adz.

• Never strike the ground with your ax. If youneed to cut roots, use a grubbing tool like aPulaski or grub hoe. If you have to use an ax,use a “grubbing’’ ax that you don’t care aboutabusing.

• Never try to drive a stake or wedge with theflat side of your double-bit ax. It is almostsure to crack the eye.

• Never use the poll of a single-bit ax forpounding steel wedges. The poll is there forcounter balance to the bit. It is not there forpounding! The poll is not tempered properlyto pound and will become deformed or chipsof steel may fly off. A single-bit ax can besafely used to pound wooden or plasticwedges—that is all!

• The ax head is brittle at extremely coldtemperatures. It is likely to chip unless it iswarmed before using. One way to warm upyour ax is to place it (sheathed of course)under your armpit, for a few minutes. Orwarm it between your hands. If you don’twant to share some of your body heat withyour ax (which by now should be considereda family member), chop very slowly for at least2 minutes in order to warm the ax up in thewood.

Chopping Technique

Chopping is an art. Start out loose and relaxed.Hold the ax with one hand fixed just above theswell at the end of the handle. On the up-stroke,the other hand slides up the handle close to thehead. On the down-stroke, it slides back downthe handle. At the point of impact, it is close tothe lower hand. Each blow lands exactly where itis intended, with the proper force, and at theproper angle. There is no shock to the hands orshoulders. One corner of the ax blade shouldalways be free of the wood, so that a slight twist

brings out the chip and releases the bit withoutundue strain.

Grip—On an ax that is hung properly to fit you,place your left hand about 1 or 2 inches from thebutt end of the handle or helve. Place your righthand about three-fourths of the way up thehandle. This is the proper hold for a right-handedperson (Figure 76).

Forehand Swing—This swing is used to cut theright side of a notch. These instructions are for

right-handed choppers. Raise the ax over yourright shoulder, your hands in the startingposition (Figure 77). Swing the ax down on thelog with a very natural swing motion, your righthand sliding down the handle toward your lefthand at the bottom of the handle. You will endthis motion with both hands at the end of thehandle when the ax strikes the wood. Do notdrive the ax straight into the wood, but insteadcut on an angle about 45° to 50° from the edge ofthe log (Figure 78). Raise the ax again, slide theright hand up about three-fourths of the way onthe handle and start your next swing. Continuethis motion for the forehand swing. Your lefthand never leaves the end of the handle.

Figure 76—The proper ax hold for a right-handed person(drawing by Frederic H. Kock).

iv 35

Using Axes

Figure 78—Cut at a 45° angle to be most effective (drawingby Frederic H. Kock).

Backhand Swing—The backhand swing is usedto cut the left side of the notch (Figure 79). Bringthe ax over the right shoulder as in the forehandswing, but shift your body well to the left so thatthe ax comes down more in line with the left sideof the notch. This backhand swing is somewhatmore difficult to master gracefully. Proper ax usealways includes these two motions, the forehandswing and the backhand swing, always over theright shoulder for right-handed choppers.Changing hand positions instead of using ordeveloping the back swing technique is notconsidered acceptable ax use.

Accuracy is the only thing that counts; the force

Figure 77—Forehand swing (drawings by Frederic H.

Kock).

Figure 79—Backhand swing (drawings by Frederic H.

Kock).

136

Using Axes

Figure 81—Three ways of gripping the ax for precisestrokes: a) two-handed choked grip; b) one-handedchoked grip and; c) one-handed full swing (drawings fromthe Northeastern Loggers Handbook).

Figure 80—Sequence of strokes for most efficientchopping (drawing by Frederic H. Kock).

of the swing is not nearly as important as itsplacement. Chop with a series of strokes: the top,the bottom, and then the middle (Figure 80). Ifyou chop in that order (top, bottom, middle) withboth the forehand swing and the backhandswing, the chip will fly out after your last cut. Onyour last cut in the middle on the backhandswing, you should give a slight twist to the ax asyou sink it into the wood to pop the chip out.Swing with a natural rhythmic and unforcedmotion. Always watch your aim. Leaving one edgeof your ax blade exposed will help ensure itdoesn’t get stuck in the log.

It is best to confine yourself to one grip and do allthe chopping either right- or left-handed,

whichever is your natural swing. In the long run,it is important to learn to chop well both right-handed and left-handed. Being ambidextrous cansave a chopper a lot of trouble in everyday workin the woods, particularly in limbing.

Other grips besides the full-swing chopping gripare used for specific tasks (Figure 81). For carefuland delicate work, such as sharpening stakes,notching house logs, or some limbing, use a two-handed choked grip, with both hands graspingthe ax near the center of the handle. For cutting

brush or sharpening wooden wedges, use a one-handed grip at the ax’s point of balance near thehead. For splitting wood, cutting saplings, orsharpening stakes by yourself, use a one-handedgrip, with your hand about halfway down thehandle. Your spare hand should be nowhere nearthe ax blade during these operations!

iv 37

Using Axes

Figure 82—Using an ax as a plumb. A hard hat is alsorequired here (drawing by Frederic H. Kock).

Felling Trees

This description of felling with an ax is meantonly to give the reader a generalized idea of thefelling procedure. It should not be construed as atraining guide. A faller needs to judge manyvariables—some deadly if misjudged—beforeattempting to cut down a tree. The informationpresented here is just a guide to help preventsome common mistakes. It focuses on axtechniques rather than felling techniques.

Never start chopping until you are sure there areno branches or brush in the way. An ax deflectedby a small branch or twig can cause a seriousaccident. Be sure your fellow workers are in theclear.

Decide the direction in which you want the treeto fall, ideally with the natural lean of the tree. Ifnot, you may have to use special techniques andequipment to offset the lean, techniques a noviceshould not try. Your ax can serve as a plumb todetermine the tree’s natural lean. To do so, holdthe ax in your hand above your head at arm’slength (Figure 82). Grip the very end of thehandle with the ax head down. Use the ax as aplumb to sight around the tree from differentpositions as you walk a circle around the tree. Besure to take into account the crown mass, whichside the branches are on, and whether there ismore weight on one side or the other.

Consider wind direction. A slight breeze on theground can be more powerful at the top of a 60-to 100-foot tree. Wind can change the direction offall with unpredictable results. Heed the warning

of an old country-western song by Sonny James:Don’t Cut Timber on a Windy Day. Decide thedirection you will need to move the log after it isdown on the ground. Try to drop the tree in aclearing, if possible.

After you have determined where the tree is goingto fall, gently swing your ax handle fully extendedover your head in a 360° arc to make sure thereare no obstructions (Figure 83). Walk around thetree at arm’s length with the ax fully extended tomake sure that there are no branches within thiscircumference. Clear the underbrush for anescape path at about a 45° angle to the directionof the planned tree fall. The route should be clearof all vines, branches, and rocks—anything thatyou might trip over. Never stand directly behindthe tree as it falls or during your escape. If thetree kicks back, or if the tree slabs and splits, theback portion will kick straight back.

“Widow makers” are another danger. These areusually dead branches in the tree you’re fellingor in neighboring trees that might be knockeddown by the tree you are cutting. You shouldalways wear personal protective gear during these

Felling is probably the most dangerous and difficult job in the

woods. The USDA Forest Service haslong required specialized training andcertification before any of its employeesare allowed to cut standing trees. Thistraining is required whether chain saws,crosscut saws, or axes are used to fellthe trees.

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Using Axes

Figure 84—Notching a tree to determine the direction offall (drawings by Frederic H. Kock).

used in combination with the ax, the front notchshould be no more than one-third of the diameterof the tree.

Use your ax as a sight guide to determine if thenotch is in the proper direction of the fall (Figure85). A double-bit ax is best for this purpose as itmakes a perfect T-square. Place the head of thedouble-bit ax in the front notch that you havejust cut, with the handle pointing directly in theplanned direction of the fall. If the handle doesnot point in the planned direction of the fall, youmust re-chop the notch until the handle pointsin the right direction.

Figures 83—Clear an area completely around the treebefore starting to chop (drawings by Frederic H. Kock).

operations. Hard hats and safety glasses are amust.

Make sure your footing is secure and stable.Chop only when you are well clear of otherpeople. Stand with your weight evenly distributedwith both feet planted about shoulder widthapart. Check the distance to stand from the cutbefore you start to swing. Start swinging with avery gentle easy motion in order to gauge yourdistance and your power stroke.

The first cut will be the front notch or theundercut in the direction of the planned fall(Figure 84). This notch should be about one-thirdto one-half of the diameter of the tree whenfelling strictly with an ax. If a crosscut saw is

iv 39

Using Axes

Figure 87—Plan and clear escape routes at an angle awayfrom the planned direction of fall.

Figure 86—Back notch or the final felling cut.

Figure 85—Using a double-bit ax as a T-square to indicatethe direction of fall.

Now begin the back cut, or the final felling cut,on the opposite side of your front notch. Theback notch should be a minimum of 2 incheshigher on the stump than the front notch. Theback notch is cut to within about 2 inches of thetip of the V on your front notch (Figure 86). Nevercut completely through the back notch to thefront notch.

Direction of fall

When the top of the tree starts to move in thedirection of fall, move a few yards back away fromthe tree at an angle (Figure 87); never movedirectly behind the tree or in front of the fall!Keep your eye on the top of the tree whilemaking your escape. You should get as far fromthe tree as possible. Keep your eye on the treelong enough to make sure not only of itsdirection of fall, but to look for widow makersthat can be thrown back in your direction. As thetree is going down, continue to look overhead.You are only safe once the tree and broken limbsare on the ground.

Escap

e Path

Safety Zone

Safet

y

Zone

Direction of Fall

45˚

45˚ Alternate Path

Remember the rule when placing your cuts tocreate a notch—near, far, and middle to removeeach chip. Always place the front notch and theback notch as low on the tree as possible whilestanding safely and comfortably. As the backnotch gets deeper, closing in on the 2 remaininginches of hinge wood, keep glancing toward thetop of the tree. The tree will start moving there

Cutting through the hinge wood is the single most dangerous thing a

novice faller can do. Never cut throughthe hinge wood! If you do, you will haveabsolutely no control over the directionthe tree will fall, and it could very wellfall on you.

Front notch

first, allowing you to detect whether the tree isgoing to fall in the planned direction. A gust ofwind blowing opposite the planned direction offall can get you into serious trouble at this point.

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Using Axes

Figures 89—Guidelines for limbing (drawing by FredericH. Kock).

Figure 88—Cut the underside of the branch when loppingbranches (drawings by Frederic H. Kock).

Limbing

After the tree is on the ground, the next step isremoving its branches, called limbing. Start atthe butt of the log and work toward the top,cutting on the underside of the branches (Figure88). Always limb from the opposite side of the logwith the log separating you from the ax. Limbingis a dangerous operation because of the chanceof glancing blows (Figure 89) when the ax doesnot dig into the wood.

You need to pay attention to branches that areunder compression, those that bear the weight ofthe log. When the limb is cut, the limb mayspring free, striking you. The log can also roll.

Limbing is like other chopping in most ways. Thesame grips on the ax handle are used and theswing is the same. Much of the ax work, however,is performed in constricted, awkward positions.Some branches are large, others small. You needgood judgment to place the right amount of forcebehind each swing of the ax.

The danger of accidents from an ax that has beendeflected by branches is much greater than withclear chopping. One important precaution is toclear interfering branches

When you use an ax for both thefront and back notches instead of

using a crosscut saw for the backnotch, you cannot use a wedge tosecure the direction of fall. This is onedisadvantage of using an ax instead of asaw for the back notch.

BRANCH ON THEFAR SIDE

NEVER ON THE NEARSIDE

NEVER STRADDLETHE LOG

iv 41

Using Axes

Figure 90—Cutting off a large limb.

before attempting to chop a large limb. If the logis so large that you cannot reach over it to limb,chop the top branches off first. Stand on top ofthe tree trunk to chop the side branches. Cuteach limb flush with the trunk; leave no stobs orpig ears.

The inexperienced chopper should do very littlelimbing while standing on the log. Experiencedchoppers with sure control of the ax will be ableto work safely in the more hazardous positions.

For large limbs, particularly on hardwoods, it isoften necessary to cut a notch similar to thatused in cutting down a tree (Figure 90). Cut fromthe lower side of the limb, as always, and keepthe bottom of the notch even with the trunk

A good suggestion from Ian Barlow, trails and wilderness expert on the

Nez Perce National Forest:

No matter how hard you try to avoid it,sometimes you have to limb on thesame side of the log that you arestanding on. When that happens, agood rule of thumb is to never let yourax handle or your ax head drop belowthe level of your hands while you’rechopping. If you never let your ax headbreak a plane that’s parallel with theground, you can’t cut your feet.

surface. The vertical side of the notch shouldslope somewhat with the angle of the limb. Oftena larger notch is easier to cut than a smaller one.The downward cut is made with the grain of thewood and not directly across it.

A word should be said about hemlock knots.These knots are very hard, especially on deadlimbs. It is sometimes better to break off smalllimbs with the poll of the ax than to try to chopthem. It is easy to take a huge nick out of the axbit by swinging too hard at right angles to ahemlock limb. This is more likely to happen incold weather, when the ax is more brittle. In suchcases, warm the ax bit before using it on suchlimbs. If possible, use an ax with a blunter taperthan you would for ordinary chopping. As a finalprecaution, chop lightly at an angle to, or with,the grain, and do not attempt to twist out thechips.

Cutting Pinned-DownSaplings

A dangerous job that goes along with limbing iscutting off bowed-over saplings, whose tops havebeen pinned down by the fallen tree. Never cutthem by giving either the top or the butt a whackwith the ax from the outside. They can spring outlike a catapult, with a force that can easily breaka jaw or arm. The trick is to cut the bowed-overtree from the inside. If this is impossible, give thestrained fibers on the outside a light touch withthe ax to partially release the strain before fullysevering the sapling.

Bucking

Bucking means cutting a tree into log lengths orfirewood bolts once it is on the ground. Often itis also necessary to buck logs that have fallenacross trails. Most bucking is done with the saw,but there is nothing wrong with using an ax forthis job. A good chopper can often buck a log inthe same time it takes to set up a crosscut saw

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Using Axes

Figure 92—Size the notch to close halfway through the logif you can chop both sides of the log. If you can only cuton one side, the notch will have to be much larger(drawings by Frederic H. Kock).

Figure 91—Top view of the sequence of cuts made by anexperienced right-handed chopper standing on top of thelog. The final power stroke is offset slightly.

and use it to cut a log.

The beginning chopper should stand on theground to the side of the log. Make sure you havefirm footing. Take a wide stance and chopbetween your feet, turning your body in thedirection of the ax stroke as you cut first oneside of the notch, then the other. Again, keepingthe handle parallel with the ground will preventfoot injuries.

For an experienced ax user, the proper positionfor bucking is to stand directly on top of the logand chop halfway through one side. Turn aroundand chop halfway through the other side to finishthe cut. These two V-notches will meet right inthe middle of the log (Figure 91).

On logs that are small enough to be rolled over,

FIRSTCUTSECOND CUT

POWERSTROKE TOFINISH IT OFF

you can achieve the same economy withoutstanding on the log. Stand on the ground andchop a V-notch on the top, then roll the log overand chop a V-notch on the bottom.

Often it is necessary to chop a large log whilestanding on the ground. You must make a verylarge V-notch to chop all the way through fromjust one side. You also risk hitting your cutting

edge on a rock as you finish the cut.

How wide should you cut your V-notch? The

most common mistake is to make the V-notchtoo small (Figure 92). This pinches the middle ofthe V-notch before you reach the center of the log.You will quickly find that chips will not clear from anotch that is too wide. If a very large log is bucked,you need to make your notch narrow and thenwiden it out; the chips won’t clear if you start thenotch much wider than 10 to 12 inches.

The advantages of chopping two V- notches in a log instead of one large

V-notch is simply a matter of ease ofchopping. Chopping two smaller V-notches is easier and takes less timethan cutting one large notch.

TOP VIEW

SIDEVIEW

iv 43

Using Axes

On a large log you increase the size of the notchby chopping out one side. Always remember yourhigh, low, and middle technique for placing axblows. Make three forehand swings, high, low,and middle, followed by three backhand swings. Ifyou are standing on the log, your first swingshould strike high at the top of the log; thesecond at the bottom of log; and the third right inthe middle. If you follow any other sequence, theax will stick in the wood. The last stroke, strokenumber six, throws the chip on the ground(Figure 80).

Splitting

The wood to be split is cut into stove lengths thatcan be anywhere from 12 to 24 inches long.Stand the wood on end, either on the ground oron a chopping block, if the wood has been cutstraight with a chain saw or crosscut saw. If theends are uneven, the wood needs to be placed ina crotch of a downed tree to hold it upright(Figure 93).

You should have a designated splitting ax. Itsblade should have a much steeper angle than afelling and bucking ax. Take advantage of existingcracks or checks in the wood to help direct yourfirst blow, because the first split is generally themost difficult. Swing straight down toward thetop of the block. Use your body weight, with yourknees snapping into position just as you hit theblock of wood. Give the ax handle a slight twistjust as the bit hits the block (Figure 94). Thisthrows the block of wood apart and prevents theax from sticking. The real secret of splitting woodwith an ax is in this little twist right at the end ofthe stroke.

G ive a slight twist to the ax on this last chip-removal stroke. This twist

will help bust the chips out and keepthe ax from sticking in the log.

Figure 93—Safe and unsafe techniques for splitting wood(drawings by Frederic H. Kock).

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Using Axes

Figure 94—Twist the ax head as it enters the wood to keepit from sticking (drawing by Frederic H. Kock).

On a knotty, gnarly block of wood you’ll need tostart your split from the outside edges and slaboff the sides. Inevitably, your ax will becomestuck in the block you are trying to split. Thebest way to remove it without damaging the ax isto rap the end of the handle sharply downwardwith the palm of your hand without holding thehandle.

Hewing

Hewing is shaping a log with an ax or an adz. Theprimary tools are the single-bit ax and the hewingor broad ax. The single-bit ax is used for scoring,a process of chopping cuts perpendicular to thelength of the log down to a chalk line marked onthe log. This line marks the edge where you wantthe flat, hewn surface.

Follow the scoring process with broad ax hewing.An adz is sometimes used for the final dressing ofthe hewn log. Hewing can convert a round logfrom the woods into a square timber or a partiallysquared timber called a cant. Hewing doesn’twork well on dry logs, so hew green, freshly cutlogs. Here is a summary of the steps to follow:

1. Remove the bark from the log using adrawknife (Figure 95), bark spud (Figure 96),or possibly your single-bit ax. Place the logcrossways on two other short sections of logthat have a V-notch chopped in them tocradle the log. The log to be hewn should be

placed in these V-notched cross sections,called yokes, at a height that is comfortableto hew. The position should be about kneehigh or a little bit higher.

Place wood chips, a wood slab, or an oldboard on the ground underneath the log to

Figure 95—Removing bark from a green log with adrawknife.

Figure 9534%

3 3/8 x 2 3/810 x 7


Figure 96—Using a bark spud.

Figure 9634%

3 3/8 x 2 3/810 x 7


keep the broad ax from digging into dirt androcks. Clamp the log to the yokes with logdogs, big iron staples driven into both theyoke and the log at both ends (Figure 97).This keeps the log from moving from itsproper position.

iv 45

Using Axes

Figure 98—Lay out the dimensions of the beam on thesmall end on the log.

2. Using a level or a plumb bob (Figure 98),scribe a vertical line on the small end of thelog to mark the depth to which you want tohew. Then, to make sure the log is large

Figure 97—Use a log dog to secure the log to the yoke.

Figure 97a44%

3 x 3 3/46 7/8 x 8 5/8


enough, measure out the final enddimensions of the cant or beam you wish tocreate. Scribe this layout on the small end ofthe log first, because it is more difficult to fitit there than on the large end of the log.

3. Now move to the large or butt end of the logand repeat the process of scribing the enddimensions of the beam or cant.

4. Snap a chalk line from the upper corner ofthe layout on one end to the correspondingcorner on the other end (Figure 99). It iseasier to do if you first cut a notch in the logwith your pocket knife immediately abovethe scribed vertical line. Drive a nail into thevertical line just deep enough to hold oneend of the chalk line. Run the chalk line upthrough the notch and along the length ofthe log (Figure 100). Then, holding the linetightly at the other end, snap the line byraising it straight up and letting it go.

5. Next, score the log. To start scoring withyour single-bit ax, stand on top of the log.

Plumb bob

Narrow endof log Figure 99—The chalk line will mark the top side of the

hewn surface.

Figure 9937%

3 3/8 x 2 1/29 x 6 5/8


Figure 97b44%

3 x 3 3/46 7/8 x 8 5/8


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Using Axes

Figure 100—Here’s a way to secure one end of the chalkline while you move to the other end.

Chop to the depth of the chalk line in thecenter, or for a large-diameter log, takechops high, low, and in the middle. Do notburst (clear) the chips. Each of these swingsis done with the forehand swing only. Thisprocess is called slash scoring. It is the mostcommon method of scoring. The slashes areplaced 3 to 4 inches apart down the length ofthe log.

On a large log, scoring is easier using amethod called “juggling” (Figure 101). Injuggling, you score the log by chopping aseries of shallow V-notches to the depth ofthe chalk line. To do this, stand on top ofthe log and cut with both the forehand swingand the backhand swing. Then, still workingfrom the top of the log with your single-bitax, chop parallel to the log with the grain tosplit off the chips between the V-notches(spaced 10 to 12 inches apart, Figure 102).

Figure 101—In the scoring technique called juggling, youcut a shallow V-notch down to the depth of the chalk line.Slash scoring is a different technique that doesn’t involvecutting a V-notch.

Figure 10148%

3 3/8 x 3 5/167 x 6 7/8


Figure 102—Finish the juggling process by removing theexcess wood between V-notches with a single-bit ax.

Figure 10248%

3 3/8 x 3 5/167 x 6 7/8


Nail inline to hold endof chalk line

Cut notch

Run chalk line up over notch and down length of log

iv 47

Using Axes

6. Hewing with the broad ax is the next step(Figure 103). In a right-handed swing, yourleft hand should be on the end of the broadax handle, with your right hand holding thehandle near the ax head. Standing on theground, spread your legs apart so they areout of harm’s way, and swing straight downtoward the ground. Follow the chalk line,breaking the remaining wood between thescoring slashes, or between the V-notchesleft from juggling.

Generally only two sides of the log werehewn in cabin building, the exterior and theinterior walls. If you want to hew all foursides, you will need to rotate the log 90° andrepeat the process on the remaining twosides.

7. Use an adz to give a more finishedappearance to the hewn log. The traditionalmethod of using the adz is to roll the log 90°so the hewn side is face up. Stand on top ofthe hewn face and cut directly toward yourtoes. As you might imagine, this can be adangerous operation for someone who isunskilled. The adz needs to be razor sharpto cut well. The utmost concentration isneeded to swing the adz with enough powerfor it to do its job but not enough to sliceyour toes (Figure 104). On small logs, yousometimes can straddle the log and swingthe adz between your legs (Figure 105).

I f a chip of wood gets stuck to the ax bit, which often happens while

hewing, stop and remove the chipcarefully from the ax blade. A chip stuckto the bit of the ax will guarantee aglancing blow when you begin your nextcut.

Figure 103—Hew down to the chalk line, removing theexcess wood left after scoring.

Figure 10337%

3 3/8 x 2 1/29 x 6 5/8


After scoring and hewing the first side of thelog, move the log dogs one at time so the logdoes not shift off plumb. The opposite sideof the log is then freed up but is still held ina plumb position. Repeat the scoring andhewing process on the opposite side of thelog. At this point the log is flat on two sides.

Figure 104—Adz work requires the utmost concentrationto avoid cutting your feet.

Figure 10450%

3 3/8 x 4 1/46 3/4 x 8 1/2


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Using Axes

Figure 105—You may be able to straddle a small log whenusing an adz (drawing by Frederic H. Kock).

H istoric log buildings often display the tooling marks of ax and adz

work, best seen on the interior walls. Itis often possible to tell if the hewer wasright- or left-handed by the position ofthe scoring marks and the broad axmarks. There is also a great differencebetween the tooling marks left by abroad ax and those left by an adz.

iv 49

Using Axes

150

Using Axes

B uying an Ax

New and Used Axes

Acquiring a good ax is almost as difficult today aslearning to use one properly. The majority ofAmerican ax manufacturers have gone out ofbusiness; only a few are left in the United States.A few ax companies in other countries, includingSweden, Australia, and New Zealand, stillmanufacture quality axes. I have found the steeland fit of imported Chinese axes to be of verypoor quality. These are often sold as generic “noname” axes at discount outlets. Let the buyerbeware.

Buying a quality used ax at a secondhand store,flea market, or farm auction may be your bestbet. Most used axes are also abused axes, butabout 1 out of 10 is still usable. The price isusually right. Used axes can often be picked upfor half the cost of a new ax. Look not only at theax’s condition, but take the ax’s manufacturerand its headpattern intoconsideration.The quality ofsteel and thetempering ofold axes isoften superiorto that of newaxes (Figure106). Thehelve or thehandle is notof anyimportance atthis point.Shop onlyfor the axhead andplan torehang it tofit yourneeds.

Manufacturers

Ames/Woodings-Verona manufactures qualitystriking tools, including axes and hatchets.Woodings-Verona is a division of the much largerAmes Company.

World Wide Web: http://www.ames.com

Ames Lawn and Garden ToolsBox 1774Parkersburg, WV 26102Phone: (800) 624-2654 or (304) 424-3000Fax: (304) 424-3399

Barco Industries, Inc., and sister company,Phoenix Forging Company, Inc., have a large lineof striking tools, including axes and hatchets.These tools are marketed under the Barco name,as well as the registered trademarks Rocket, KellyPerfect, Kelly Woodslasher, Woodslasher, andLight Duty.

Barco Industries, Inc.1020 Macarthur RoadReading, PA 19605Phone: (800) 234-8665Fax: (610) 374-6320

Bear Creek Tool Company specializes in hand-forged broadaxes and about 15 types of adzes.Their products have been used during a numberof historical restoration projects. This is a smallfamily operation owned by Charlie Wilkins.

Bear Creek Tool Company201 North Bear Creek RoadMarshall, NC 28753Phone: (828) 649-2671

Collins Axe Company is part of the Mann EdgeTool Company. The Collins name has beenassociated with axes since 1826. The companyoffers a broad line of axes and replacementhandles. Mann Edge Tool Company supplies axheads to other manufacturers to market underdifferent labels. Collins offers professionalquality, 100% USA-made striking tools.

Figure 106—Telling if an ax isdefective or abused (drawing courtesyof Snow & Nealley, Bangor, Maine).

A Defective Axe willbreak as shown below byNumbers 1, 2 and 4, or ifsoft, the edge will bend.

Number 3 representssound breaks which areno fault of the axe or itsmaker. Misuse of a goodaxe is the cause. Dealerswill allow no claim underany circumstance for abreak of this character.

This break may often beavoided by warming the axebefore using on a very coldday.

If an Axe breaks across orunder the eye, and the pollis not battered, the axe isprobably defective; but ifthe poll is battered it issafe to assume that the axeis not at fault. Axes are notdesigned or intended to beused as mauls or wedges.2

4

3 24 4

1 4

iv 51

Collins Axe CompanyWater & Dorcas StreetsP.O. Box 351Lewistown, PA 17044Phone: (800) 248-8303 or (717) 248-9628Fax: (717) 248-4846

Cooper Tools is a conglomerate thatmanufactures hammers, axes, and chisels underthe well-known Plumb trademark. Cooper Toolsalso owns the Nicholson, Lufkin, and Crescenttrademarks, among many others.

Cooper Tools3535 Glenwood AvenueP.O. Box 30110Raleigh, NC 27622Phone: (919) 781-7200Fax: (919) 783-2116E-mail: [email protected]

Council Tool Company was founded in 1886 byJohn Pickett Council who developed tools for theturpentine harvesting industry. Today Councilproducts include a full line of quality axes andother tools.

Council Tool Company345 Pecan LaneP.O. Box 165Lake Waccamaw, NC 28450-0165Phone: (919) 646-3011Fax: (910) 646-4414

Estwing Manufacturing Company offers a fullline of axes, hatchets, and wood splitting tools.Most of these tools offer tubular or solid steelhandles.

Estwing Manufacturing Company, Inc.2647 8th StreetRockford, IL 61109-1120Phone: (815) 397-9558Fax: (815) 397-8665E-mail: [email protected]

Gränsfors Bruks AB is a Swedish companyestablished in 1902. The company offers a fullline of hand-forged traditional and specialty axesand hatchets, each stamped with the initials ofthe craftsman who forged it.

A sister company, Gränsfors Bruks, Inc., islocated in Summerville, South Carolina. Itimports and markets Gränsfors Bruks axes andspring steel wrecking bars, in addition to otherproducts.

World Wide Web: http://www.gransfors.com

Gränsfors Bruks AB820 70 BergsjöSWEDENPhone: +46 (0) 6527-1090Fax: +46 (0) 6521-4002E-mail: [email protected]

Gränsfors Bruks, Inc.821 West 5th North StreetP.O. Box 818Summerville SC 29484Phone: (800) 433-2863 or (843) 875-0240Fax: (843) 821-2285E-mail: [email protected]

O.P. Link Handle Company is the largestmanufacturer of hickory striking tool handlesand farming tool handles in the United States.The Link family of handle makers operatesfactories in Salem, IN; Sequatchie, TN; Crossville,TN; and Hope, AR. The company can createalmost any ax handle from the patterns shown inits catalog and from its inventory of less-popularhandle patterns.

O.P. Link Handle Company403 S. Main StreetSalem, IN 47167-1323Phone: (800) 992-9171 or (812) 883-2981Fax: (812) 883-1672

Peavey Manufacturing Company was founded in1857 by Joseph Peavey, who developed theoriginal “Peavey.” Peavey does not manufactureaxes, but it does make a host of log-moving andlog-working tools and handles, including canthooks, draw shaves, and its namesake tool, thePeavey.

World Wide Web: http//www.peaveymfg.comE-mail: [email protected]

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Buying an Ax

Peavey Manufacturing CompanyRoute 9P.O. Box 129Eddington, ME 04428Phone: (888) 244-0955 or (207) 843-7861Fax: (207) 843-5005

Snow & Nealley, Bangor, ME, is a family-ownedand operated business that has been producinghigh-quality axes and woodworking tools since1864.

World Wide Web: http://www.sntools.com

Snow and Nealley, Inc.P.O. Box 876Bangor, ME 04402-0876Phone: (800) 790-8363Fax: (207) 941-0857E-mail: [email protected]

Sandvik Saws and Tools Company hasdeveloped from a provincial Swedish steelworksinto an international, materials engineeringconglomerate. Milford, Bahco, Belzer, andLindström are some of the brands nowincorporated under the Sandvik Saws and Toolsdivision. The company manufactures high-qualitysharpening tools, saws, and forestry tools.

World Wide Web: http://www.sandvik.com

Sandvik Saws & Tools CompanyP.O. Box 2036Scranton, PA 18501Phone: (800) 828-9893Fax: (800) 877-5687

Tuatahi Axes and Saws in New Zealand grindsand manufactures premium quality axes andsaws for export to countries all over the world.Much of its inventory is custom made. Productsavailable include competition racing axes, workaxes, crosscut racing saws, knives, and grubbers.Bailey’s is the distributor for Tuatahi products inthe United States.

Tuatahi Axes and Saws203 High StreetMastertonNew Zealand

Phone: (011) 646-377-3728Fax: (011) 646-377-5343

Bailey’sWorld Wide Web: http://www.bbaileys.com

Bailey’s, Western DivisionP.O. Box 55044650 Highway 101Laytonville, CA 95454Phone: (707) 984-6133Fax: (707) 984-8115E-mail: [email protected]

Bailey’s, Southeastern DivisionP.O. Box 9088196 Edwards DriveJackson, TN 38314Phone: (901) 422-1300Fax: (901) 422-6118E-mail: [email protected]

Vaughan and Bushnell Mfg. Company offers aline of striking tools, axes, hammers, andhatchets.

World Wide Web: http://www.vaughanmfg.com

Vaughan and Bushnell Mfg. Company11414 Maple AvenueHebron, IL 60034Phone: (603) 224-4669Fax: (815) 648-4300E-mail: [email protected]

Distributors

Ben Meadows Company carries several brands ofaxes and hatchets, as well as a wide selection ofequipment for natural resource managers.

World Wide Web: http://www.benmeadows.com

Ben Meadows Company3589 Broad StreetAtlanta, GA 30341Phone: (800) 241-6401Fax: (800) 628-2068

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The Country Workshops has been providinginstruction on Swedish carving techniques andother traditional woodworking skills since 1978.It also has an online store where axes, adzes, andother traditional woodworking tools can bepurchased.

World Wide Web: http://www.countryworkshops.org/toolhewing.html

The Country Workshops90 Mill Creek RoadMarshall, NC 28753-9321Phone: (704) 656-2280E-mail: [email protected]

Forestry Suppliers, Inc., carries a large line ofaxes and hatchets from several manufacturers, aswell as supplies for forestry, engineering, andenvironmental science.

World Wide Web: http://www.forestry-suppliers.com

Forestry Suppliers, Inc.P.O. Box 8397Jackson, MS 39284-9397Phone: (800) 647-5368Fax: (800) 543-4203

Garrett Wade Company offers a large selectionof traditional woodworking products, includinghandtools, axes, and adzes.

World Wide Web: http://www.garrettwade.com/home.html

Garrett Wade Company161 Avenue of the AmericasNew York, NY 10013Phone: (800) 221-2942Fax: (800) 566-9525E-mail: [email protected]

Lee Valley Tools is another large supplier oftraditional handtools, including axes, adzes, andlog building tools. The company is based inCanada, but has an operation in the UnitedStates.

World Wide Web: http:// www.leevalley.com

Lee Valley Tools, Ltd.P.O. Box 1780Ogdensburg, NY 13669-6780Phone: (800) 871-8158Fax: (800) 513-7885

Lester C. Kenway Trail Services, founded in1994, features handtools by such companies asSnow & Nealley, Collins, Peavey, and Sandvick. Italso specializes in rock-moving equipment.

Lester C. Kenway Trail Services15 Westwood RoadBangor, ME 04401Phone: (207) 947-2723Fax: (207) 945-6050E-mail: [email protected]

Sticks & Stones Unlimited, Inc., distributesthe machine-knife stone, Item No. SB-74. This 4-by 11/2-inch oilstone has a groove cut into itscircumference to help protect fingers fromsharpened edges. This stone works well forsharpening axes as an alternative to the thinner,traditional round stone. The company distributesother stones and sharpening tools.

Sticks & Stones Unlimited, Inc.1800 East Northwest ParkwaySouthlake, TX 76092Phone: (800) 966-7574 or (817) 488-9500Fax: (817) 488-5397

Woodcraft, in business since 1928, is a goodsource for broadaxes, adzes, hatchets, and otherwoodworking tools.

World Wide Web: http://www.woodcraft.com

Woodcraft210 Wood County Industrial ParkP.O. Box 1686Parkersburg, WV 26102-1686Phone: (800) 225-1153Fax: (304) 428-8271

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Organizations

Many organizations have been established forpersons who collect or use old tools. Theorganizations typically publish newsletters andhold meetings to display, discuss, and tradetools. The two largest national tool collectingorganizations in North America are the EarlyAmerican Industries Association and the Mid-West Tool Collectors Association.

Early American Industries Associationc/o Elton Hall167 Bakerville RoadSouth Dartmouth, MA 02748

World Wide Web: http://www.eaiainfo.org

The purpose of the Early American IndustriesAssociation, Inc., founded in 1933, is toencourage the study and better understanding ofearly American industries in the home, in theshop, on the farm, and on the sea; also todiscover, identify, classify, preserve, and exhibitobsolete tools, implements, and mechanicaldevices that were used in early America. Theassociation also offers its members a greatselection of books at reduced prices.

Mid-West Tool Collectors AssociationWilliam R. Rigler, TreasurerRR 2, Box 152Wartrace, TN 37183

World Wide Web: http://www.mwtca.org

The Mid-West Tool Collectors Association is anonprofit international organization dedicated tothe study, preservation and understanding of theearly tools, implements, and devices used by ourancestors in their homes, shops, on the farmsand on the seas, and to a better perception of theindustries and crafts in which these tools wereused as well as the craftsmen who used them. M-WTCA was started by 16 Chicago-area toolcollectors in 1968 and has grown to 3,900members in all 50 states and 5 other countries.

Regional organizations (many more exist; theseorganizations are among the largest)

Pacific Northwest Tool Collectors (PNTC)Jean Racine, Treasurer12780 SW 231st Pl.Hillsboro, OR 97123

Potomac Antique Tools and IndustriesAssociation, Inc. (PATINA)Greg Wilinski, Sec./Treasurer7007 Hundsford LaneSpringfield, VA 22153

Preserving Arts and Skills of the Trades(PAST) Tool OrganizationAllan Foster, Membership Director5200 Lawton AvenueOakland, CA 94618

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S elected ReferencesAndrews, Ralph W. 1984. Timber. Exton, PA: SchifferPublishing, Ltd.

Andrews, Ralph W. 1984. This was logging! Selectedphotographs of Darius Kinsey. ISBN: 0-88740-035-3.Exton, PA: Schiffer Publishing, Ltd. 157 p.

Andrews, Ralph W. Glory days of logging. CopyrightSuperior Publishing Co., MCMLVI, Seattle, WA. NewYork: Bonanza Books. 176 p.

Berg, Elizabet, ed. 1997. The axe book. ISBN: 91-970447-6-8. Sweden: Gränsfors Bruks AB. 36 p.

Bohn, Dave. 1986. Kinsey, photographer. ISBN: 0-87701-287-3. San Francisco: Chronicle Books. 319 p.

Fickes, Clyde P.; Groben, W. Ellis. 1945. Buildingwith logs. Publ. No. 579. Washington, D.C.: U.S.Department Of Agriculture. 68 p.

Foley, Vernard; Moyer, Richard H. 1977. TheAmerican ax — was it better? Chronicle of the EarlyAmerican Industries Association. XXX. June.

Gamble, James D. 1986. Broad axes. ISBN: 0-9617220-0-2. Los Altos, CA: Tanro Co.

Goodman, W. L. 1964. The history of woodworkingtools. London: G. Bell and Sons. 208 p.

Grismer, Jerome T.; Kendrick, Clyde H. 1985.American embossed axes. Columbia, MO: GeneralPrinting Service. 177 p.

Hallman, Richard. 1988. Handtools for trail work.Gen. Tech. Rep. 8823-2601-MTDC. Missoula, MT:U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,Missoula Technology and Development Center. 54 p.

Heavrin, Charles A. 1998. The axe and man.Memphis, TN: Charles Heavrin. 182 p.

Hodgkinson, Ralph. 1965. Tools of the woodworker:axes, adzes and hatchets. 1965. History Tech.Leaflet 28. American Association for State andLocal History. History News. 20 (5). May.

Kijowski, Gene W., ed. 1990. Directory of Americantool makers: colonial times to 1899. Early AmericanIndustries Association. 394 p.

Klenman, Alan. 1990. Axe makers of North America.Victoria, BC: Whistle Punk Books. 112 p.

Klenman, Allen. 1981. Axes made, found or sold inCanada. Victoria, BC: Idealetter Services. 44 p.

Kauffman, Henry J. 1994. American axes. ISBN: 1-883294-12-6. Elverson, PA: Olde Springfield Shoppe.151 p.

Mason, Bernard S., drawings by Frederic H. Kock.1954. Woodsmanship. Library of Congress Card No.54-5406. New York: A.S. Barnes and Co., Inc. 90 p.

McLaren, Peter. [1929]. Axe manual of PeterMcLaren. Philadelphia, PA: Fayette R. Plumb, Inc.84 p.

Mercer, Henry C. 1960. Ancient carpenters’ tools.Doylestown, PA: Bucks County Historical Society.

Mercer, Henry C. 1967. The origin of log houses inthe United States. Doylestown, PA: Bucks CountyHistorical Society. 31 p.

Phelps, Hermann. 1982. The craft of log building.ISBN: 0-9691019-1-0. Ottawa, Ontario: Lee ValleyTools. 328 p.

Salaman, R.A., rev. by Philip Walker. 1990.Dictionary of woodworking tools, c.1700-1970. ISBN:0-942391-51-9. Newtown, CT: Taunton Press. 546 p.

Sellens, Alvin. 1990. Dictionary of American handtools. ISBN: 0-9612068-4-5. Augusta, KS: AlvinSellens. 546 p.

Simmons, Fred C. 1951. Northeastern loggers’handbook. Agriculture Handbook No. 6. Washington,D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture.

Sloane, Eric. 1974. A museum of early Americantools. ISBN: 345-24675-6-295. New York: BallantineBooks. 108 p.

Sorden, L.G.; Vallier, Jacque. 1986. Lumberjack.ISBN: 0-942802-12-8. North Word, Inc. 261 p.

Williams, Richard L. 1976. The loggers. Library ofCongress Card No. 75-24792. New York: Time-LifeBooks. 240 p.

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Selected References

Notes:

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Notes:

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Library Card

Weisgerber, Bernie; Vachowski, Brian, 1999. An Ax to Grind: A Practical AxManual. Technical Report, 9923-2823-MTDC. Missoula, MT: U.S. Department ofAgriculture, Forest Service, Missoula Technology and Development Center. 60 p.

A practical and detailed handbook about axes and their historic and continuingusage. Describes types and patterns of axes and adzes, with many photos andillustrations. Shows how to hang (re-handle) and sharpen axes. Describes properax usage for tree felling, limbing, bucking, splitting, and hewing. Lists procure-ment sources and selected references.

Keywords: axes, adzes, hand tools, hewing, historic buildings, historic forestrypractices, log cabin restoration, traditional Americana

Additional single copies of this document may be ordered from:

USDA Forest ServiceMissoula Technology and Development CenterBuilding 1, Fort MissoulaMissoula, MT 59804-7294Phone: (406) 329-3900Fax: (406) 329-3719IBM: pubs/wo,mtdcE-mail: pubs/[email protected]

For additional technical information, contact Brian Vachowski at theaddress above.

Phone: (406) 329-3935Fax: (406) 329-3719IBM: bvachowski/wo,mtdcE-mail: bvachowski/[email protected]

An electronic copy of this document is available on the Forest Service’s FSWeb Intranet at:

http://fsweb.mtdc.wo.fs.fed.us

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