an online leadership development course for nurse educators by

An Online Leadership Development Course for Nurse Educators

by

Brenda J. Stutsky [email protected]

A combination course design document and instructor’s guide submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the course DCTE 847 Project in Learning Theory and Computer Applications

Graduate School of Computer and Information Sciences Nova Southeastern University

December 2, 2007

Table of Contents

List of Tables iv List of Figures v Introduction 1 Sections 1. Section One: Design Document 2

Instructional Design Model 2

Instructional Problems 3 Background and Problem 3 Needs Assessment 4 Performance Assessment 8 Learner Characteristics 10 Learner Analysis 10 Contextual Analysis 12 Task Analysis 14 Instructional Objectives 18 Course Goal 19 Objective One 19 Objective Two 19 Objective Three 19 Objective Four 20 Objective Five 20 Objective Six 20 Classification of Instructional Objectives 20 Content Sequencing 21 Instructional Strategies 23 Objective One 25 Objective Two 25 Objective Three 26 Objective Four 27 Objective Five 27 Objective Six 28

ii

Designing the Message 29

2. Section Two: Instructor Manual 32 Development of Instruction and Evaluation 32 Leadership Development for Nurse Educators: Competencies of Leadership Instructor’s Guide 33 Overview 33 Course Description 33 Target Audience 33 Constructivism 34 Role of the Instructor as Facilitator 35 Role of the Coach (Optional) 37 Instructor Resources 37 Online Learning Interface 38 Computer System Requirements for Instructors and Learners 41 Create Readiness 42 Form Groups 43 Main Instructional Strategy: Storytelling 44 Course Outline 45

3. Section Three: Summary 53 Reference List 54

iii

List of Tables

1. Generative Strategy-Content Matrix 24 2. Instructional-Design Theory 29 3. Overview of Weeks Two to Eleven 47 4. Overview of Weeks Twelve to Thirteen 51

iv

List of Figures Figures 1. Modified Flow-Chart of Mager and Pipe’s Human Performance Model 9 2. WRHA Nursing Leadership Development Framework 15 3. Elements within the Component of Business of Health Care 15 4. Elements within the Competencies of Leadership Component 15 5. Elements within the Use of Self Component 16 6. Elements within the Profession of Nursing Component 16 7. Flow of Information Conceptualized in Information-Processing Theory 22 8. Overview of the Wiki Environment 40

v

1

Introduction

Imagine that you are a nursing director employed by a hospital, and your Chief

Nursing Officer approaches you with a concern. She indicates that administrators in the

hospital are having increasing difficulty filling vacant nursing leadership positions. The

Chief Nursing Officer asks you to consider what approaches might be used to address her

concern. After some consideration, you realize that leadership development needs to start

very early in a nurse’s career, and that the development of a leadership course or program

that focuses on fostering a leadership mindset in our new generation of nurses just might

be the solution to the concern.

The situation described above is actually quite close to reality, and in this paper, the

author will outline the development of an online leadership development course for nurse

educators using an instructional design approach. Strong consideration will be given to

incorporating various teaching-learning strategies and design approaches that will meet

the needs of learners with differing learning styles and preferences. This paper is

separated into three main sections: (a) Design Document, (b) Instructor’s Guide, and (c)

Summary. The Design Document section contains the first seven elements of the

instructional design model outlined by Morrison, Ross, and Kemp (2004), while the

second section, namely, the Instructor’s Guide, contains the last two elements. By

working through each element in the instructional design process, a proposed course

entitled, Leadership Development for Nurse Educators: Competencies of Leadership is

presented.

2

Section One: Design Document

Instructional Design Model

Morrison et al. (2004) outline an instructional design model that includes nine

elements: (a) instructional problems, (b) learner characteristics, (c) task analysis, (d)

instructional objectives, (e) content sequencing, (f) instructional strategies, (g) designing

the message, (h) development of instruction, and (i) evaluation. Two other encompassing

features of the model include feedback and management. Morrison et al. note that their

instructional design model is flexible and does not have a specific starting point;

therefore, instructional designers or educators can determine the order in which to

address the various elements.

3

Instructional Problems

Background and Problem

There is growing concern regarding the impending retirement of baby-boomers who

are in leadership positions as nurse managers in clinical practice settings (Redman, 2006;

Sherman, 2005; Sherman & Bishop, 2007), or nurse educators in educational settings

(Bartfay & Howse, 2007; Redman). Recruiting nurses into nursing leadership positions is

a significant challenge (Sherman), and leadership succession planning, a key business

strategy, is needed to ensure that strong pools of well-prepared leaders are available to fill

positions (Redman), for strong leadership is needed at every level of the healthcare

system hierarchy (Canadian Health Services Research Foundation, 2006; Lewis &

Farrell, 2005).

A proactive approach to the recruitment, development, and mentoring of future nurse

leaders is needed (Sherman & Bishop, 2007), and nurse educators, who fulfill the roles of

teacher, supervisor, support person, and role model (Conway & Elwin, 2007) are in a

prime position to foster the development of a leadership mindset within nurses, act as

talent scouts to seek out potential nurse leaders, and promote nursing leadership as a

career track (Sherman & Bishop). The Council on Collegiate Education for Nursing

(2002) also identifies that leadership competencies are a key component of the nurse

educator role. The problem is that nurse educators may not have developed the necessary

leadership competencies themselves to foster a leadership mindset within nurses, or carry

out the role of leadership talent scout.

4

It is important for nurse educators to take advantage of professional development

opportunities, particularly in leadership development, so that they themselves can

enhance their own leadership skills, and in turn promote the development of future nurse

leaders through their roles as teacher, supervisor, support person, and role model. The

notion of offering nursing leadership development opportunities in an online format is

supported by Barker (2004) and Lewis and Farrell (2005). Lewis and Farrell propose that

a distance education model, which focuses on collaboration and learning, rather than

presentation of knowledge, may be beneficial for leadership development. Interestingly,

Lewis and Farrell recommend that a network of educational leaders be formed for

exchanging information, resources, and strategies, for the purpose of pooling resources in

order to develop a distance education program for nursing leadership. Learning activities

in the leadership program could focus on convergent and divergent thinking, decision

making, problem solving, collective action, and group processes. An online environment,

however, is not without challenges, for Barker indicates that educators as well as learners

struggle with the paradigm shift from traditional teaching to learning that is engaging,

deep, long lasting, and achieved in a collaborative online format. The challenge will be to

develop an online professional development course that meets the needs of the nurse

educators who will be enrolled in the course.

Needs Assessment

As outlined in the Background and Problem section, the problem is that nurse

educators may not have developed the necessary leadership competencies themselves to

foster a leadership mindset within nurses, or carry out the role of leadership talent scout.

This problem needs to be confirmed through a needs assessment that includes the

5

following steps: planning, data collection, data analysis, and compiling a final report

(Morrison et al., 2004). Morrison et al. note, “If the designer fails to identify the problem

properly, then the intervention may address only the symptoms, with no resultant change

in the target audience’s performance” (p. 32).

Planning

Defining the target audience is the first step of the planning process (Morrison et al.,

2004). The target audience is all nurse educators employed by the University of Manitoba

(U of M), Faculty of Nursing, who have clinical teaching responsibilities. There are

approximately 90 nurse educators in the target audience, and they are hired into term

positions for the purpose of leading groups of students enrolled in hospital or community-

based clinical nursing practice courses.

The next step in the planning process is determining whether data are required for

each of the six categories of needs including normative, comparative, felt, expressed,

anticipated or future, and critical incident needs (Morrison et al., 2004). Collection of

normative data would not be feasible, as a national standard for nursing leadership

competencies for nurse educators does not exist. The collection of comparative need data

is a possibility by comparing a representative sample of nurse educators from the target

audience with a similar sample of nurses within another educational institution. Felt need

data collection is also a possibility, as most nurse educators should be able to verbalize

the gap between their current performance and their desired performance in relationship

to leadership competencies. The number of nurse educators wanting to attend leadership

conferences, workshops, and community and university courses on leadership, is an

example of an expressed need that could be collected by an instructional designer.

6

Anticipated or future needs data in terms of the role of the nurse educator in identifying

and developing future nursing leaders could be collected. Finally, all critical incidents

involving patient care are documented. An instructional designer could contact the

various quality departments for a list of critical incidents and try to determine those

incidents that may be leadership related; however, it may be very difficult to obtain this

type of data. Realistically, the instructional designer in this situation would collect felt,

expressed, and anticipated or future needs data.

In the next stage of the planning process, the instructional designer determines who

will participate in the data collection phase (Morrison et al., 2004). A purposive sample

of a variety of nurse educators and other stakeholders would be desirable and could

include: nurse educators from the target audience; U of M nursing faculty in part-time,

full-time, sessional, and tenured positions; nursing administrators at the U of M; nursing

directors, nursing managers, nurse educators, advanced practice nurses, clinical resource

nurses, and clinical staff nurses employed in hospital or community settings within the

catchment area of the U of M; and students enrolled in all years and all programs offered

by the U of M Faculty of Nursing.

Determining the data collection method is the last step in the planning phase

(Morrison et al., 2004). A combination of small group interviews and a questionnaire

distributed and returned via the regional hospital, community, and university internal

mail system, could be used to collect data. The questionnaire to be developed would

focus on the identification of current and future leadership competencies necessary for

nurse educators with clinical teaching responsibilities.

7

Data Collection

Morrison et al. (2004) indicate that sample size is an important consideration in the

needs assessment process. Gay, Mills, and Airasian (2006) note that for experimental

studies, a minimum of 30 participants are required in each group. Although this needs

assessment would not be considered an experimental study, given the various individuals

identified to be included in the purposive sample, a group of approximately 32

participants seems reasonable. Four small group interviews, consisting of eight

participants, could be held at rotating sites within the region. The instructional designer

could determine after meeting with the four groups, if data collected was becoming

repetitious. If new points continued to be raised, then the need for additional small group

interviews would be assessed.

Scheduling interviews is a consideration for the instructional designer during the data

collection stage (Morrison et al., 2004). The four group interviews would be held on four

separate days. A maximum interview time of one hour would promote the attendance of

nurses who are unable to leave their clinical practice sites for any longer period of time.

Data Analysis

The third stage in the needs assessment process is data analysis (Morrison et al.,

2004). The software program, namely, Statistical Package for the Social Sciences

(SPSS), would be used to analyze questionnaire data and rank order responses to

questions. Qualitative data obtained via small group interviews would be grouped into

themes and prioritized.

8

Compiling a Final Report

In the last stage of needs assessment, a final report is produced that includes the

purpose of the assessment, the process, the results, and the recommendations appropriate

to the problem (Morrison et al., 2004). Without actually conducting a needs assessment,

it would be inappropriate to predict the results; however, one would expect that the

findings in regards to leadership competencies would be similar to those published by

researchers and authors, and that leadership development in the form of a professional

development course would be suggested as an appropriate strategy to enhance the

leadership competencies of nurse educators. Given that the computer literacy level in the

nursing population is questionable (Ali et al., 2005; Doutrich, Hoeksel, Wykoff, &

Thiele, 2005; McDowell & Ma, 2007; McNeil et al., 2003; Wilbright et al., 2006), it is

uncertain whether participants would identify the Internet as an appropriate method of

delivery for the professional development course.

Performance Assessment

To confirm that a professional development program is an appropriate intervention

for leadership development, an instructional designer may use Mager and Pipe’s (1984)

flowchart (see Figure 1). Following Mager and Pipe’s flowchart, the instructional

designer begins with the problem, namely, that nurse educators may not have developed

the necessary leadership competencies themselves to foster a leadership mindset within

nurses, or carry out the role of leadership talent scout. Following the flowchart, the next

step is to determine if the performance discrepancy is important. Deciding that the

discrepancy is indeed important, the next question to answer is whether the performance

discrepancy is a skill deficiency. If the performance discrepancy is not a skill deficiency,

9

there are a variety of questions to be asked and actions to be taken that are not all outlined

in Figure 1. In the situation being described, it is determined that the performance

discrepancy is a result of a skill deficiency that nurse educators are not used to doing;

therefore, formal training is an appropriate option for the instructional designer to pursue.

Figure 1. Modified flow-chart of Mager and Pipe’s human performance model.

10

Learner Characteristics

Learner Analysis

Through observation and experience in working directly with nurse educators since

1991, the author is able to identify general learner characteristics of the target audience.

The nurse educators work part-time in contract non-union positions for the U of M,

Faculty of Nursing; however, the majority of nurse educators also hold an additional

position in either in a hospital or community practice setting as a clinical staff nurse in a

variety of nursing specialties. The nurse educator positions are considered entry-level

positions, and nurses generally apply for and obtain the positions to gain teaching

experience in hopes of obtaining full-time or part-time employment as a nurse educator

within a hospital, community college, or university setting. Some of the nurse educators

will be newly hired, and others may have been employed as contract nurse educators

facilitating student clinical experiences for several years.

Most of nurse educators will have been educated in Canada at a baccalaureate level

in nursing, with a minority having obtained their master’s degree in nursing. A small

number may have obtained a degree in another field prior to entering nursing. Given the

shortage of nurse educators, compromises have been made in regards to hiring criteria in

order to fill vacant nurse educator positions (Bartfay & Howse, 2007); therefore, a small

number of nurse educators will have only obtained a diploma in nursing. The majority of

nurse educators will have had only one leadership course in their undergraduate

education, and the majority will not have pursued any professional development courses

in leadership, given their preference for nursing education as opposed to nursing

administration as a career path. The leadership skill level of the target audience will vary;

11

however, it is expected that most of the nurse educators are at an advanced beginner or

competent level in terms of leadership competencies (i.e., second to third level on a five-

point scale).

The nurse educators are predominantly female, consistent with the general registered

nurse population in Canada where 94.4% of the nurses are female (Canadian Nurses

Association [CNA], 2006). They are primarily Caucasian, English speaking, and born in

Canada. A very small number of nurse educators may potentially have a hidden learning

disability.

It is expected that nurse educators in the target audience have a mixture of

personalities, learning styles, field dependencies, and right versus left-hemispheric

dominant learning preferences. The nurse educators will have above average intelligence

quotient (IQ) scores, and generally have a higher-level locus of control when in

professional nursing situations. The anxiety level of the nurse educators will vary

according to the situation; however, state-trait anxiety scores would be in the normal

range in day-to-day professional nursing situations.

In 2005, the average age of a Canadian registered nurse was 44.7 years of age, an

increase of 1.4 years since the Year 2000 (CNA, 2006), while in the previous year, the

number of nurse educators in the 45-64 years of age category significantly exceeded the

number of nurses in the same age category in the total nursing workforce (CNA &

Canadian Association of Schools of Nursing [CASN], 2006a). In a 2004 survey of

Canadian Schools of Nursing, CNA and CASN (2006b) found that in a sample of 3,171

nurse educators, 1,976 (62%) were over the age of 45, and 1,383 (44%) were over the age

of 50. As indicated, the nurse educator positions are entry-level positions; therefore, the

12

average age of nurse educators in the target audience is probably 10 to 15 years younger

than the average Canadian nurse.

The characteristics of adult learners, as outlined in Morrison et al. (2004), adequately

describe the target audience. The nurse educators are independent and self-directed in

determining their leadership needs and goals. Generally, the motivational level of the

nurse educators towards developing their own leadership competencies will be high. The

nurse educators will welcome a systematically structured leadership course that is

relevant to their current positions, and identify the advantages of participating in such a

course. The nurse educators will prefer a facilitator to guide their learning as opposed to

an authoritarian leader. The nurse educators will have a broad range of work experiences

that can be shared with their peers. With extremely busy work schedules, family

commitments, and out-of-work activities, time is precious for the target audience, and a

major factor to consider when designing the course.

The computer literacy level of the nurse educators will vary from a novice to expert

level; however, given that the nurse educators are younger than the average Canadian

nurse, it is expected that they have a home computer, and have the basic computer skills

to participate in an online course.

Contextual Analysis

“Analysis of the instructional context provides rich data for designing real-world

examples and scenarios” (Tessmer & Richey, as cited in Morrison et al., 2004, p. 65).

Orienting, instructional, and transfer are three types of context analyzed by an

instructional designer (Morrison et al., 2004). The learner is the focus of orienting

13

context, the physical environment and training schedule is the focus of instructional

context, and the opportunities for knowledge transfer is the focus of transfer context.

To determine orienting context, the instructional designer could conduct interviews

with the nurse educators to determine their goals for wanting to enroll in the leadership

development course, and whether the nurse educator perceives leadership development as

important to his or her position. It is expected that for the most part, the nurse educators

will participate online from the comfort of their own homes; therefore, factors that are

normally considered in an analysis of instructional context in a traditional face-to-face

environment, such as lighting, noise, seating, etc. are not applicable. Nurse educators do

have access to computers at the U of M and in the clinical areas; however, these locations

would not be preferred locations for reflection and online participation. The course will

be accessible 24 hours per day to accommodate a wide variety of schedules and needs.

All of the nurse educators work in an environment in which they are expected to

demonstrate their leadership skills on a daily basis; therefore, transfer context

opportunities should be readily available during every clinical shift with students.

14

Task Analysis

With the assistance of subject-matter experts, instructional designers can complete a

task analysis in a variety of ways including topic analysis, procedural analysis, or by

using the critical incident method (Morrison et al., 2004). Topic analysis was selected as

the method of task analysis to determine the facts, concepts, principles and rules,

procedures, and interpersonal skills and attitudes necessary for an online leadership

development course for nurse educators. Work previously completed by a group of five

nurse leaders, including the author of this paper, forms the basis of the topic analysis.

Over the past three years, a group of five subject-matter experts from the Winnipeg

Regional Health Authority (WRHA) developed a nursing leadership framework and

accompanying website for nurses at all levels within the WRHA. The WRHA Nursing

Leadership Development framework (WRHA, 2007) consists of four components,

namely, Business of Health Care, Competencies of Leadership, Use of Self, and

Profession of Nursing (see Figure 2). Each of the components is made up of a variety of

elements (see Figures 3, 4, 5, 6). Behaviors, on a novice to expert scale, are identified for

each of the elements, and there are just over 300 behaviors in the framework. Threads

that are interwoven throughout the framework include critical thinking, change

management, professionalism in nursing, accountability, novice to expert, learn not

blame, and complexity science. Finally, educational strategies, mainly in the form of

suggested readings, are included for each element.

15

Figure 2. WRHA Nursing Leadership Development framework.

Figure 3. Elements within the component of business of health care.

Figure 4. Elements within the competencies of leadership component.

16

Figure 5. Elements within the use of self component.

Figure 6. Elements within the profession of nursing component.

A comprehensive nursing leadership development program would include courses on

each of the four main components and accompanying elements. For the purpose of this

assignment, the focus will be on the development of the Competencies of Leadership

component and associated elements. Elements within the Competencies of Leadership

component are from the leadership work of Kouzes and Posner (2002).

Since 1982, Kouzes and Posner (2003) have asked thousands of individuals to tell

their stories of their personal best leadership experience. Kouzes and Posner found that

when leaders are at their personal best, they engage in the five practices of exemplary

17

leadership: (a) Model the Way, (b) Inspire a Shared Vision, (c) Challenge the Process, (d)

Enable Others to Act, and (e) Encourage the Heart. Associated with each of the five

practices are 10 commitments of leadership: (a) find your voice by clarifying your

personal values; (b) set the example by aligning actions with shared values; (c) envision

the future by imagining exciting and enabling possibilities; (d) enlist others in a common

vision by appealing to shared aspirations; (e) search for opportunities by seeking

innovative ways to change, grow, and improve; (f) experiment and take risks by

constantly generating small wins and learning from mistakes; (g) foster collaboration by

promoting cooperative goals and building trust; (h) strengthen others by sharing power

and discretion; (i) recognize contributions by showing appreciation for individual

excellence; and (j) celebrate the values and victories by creating a spirit of community.

The above five practices and 10 commitments of exemplary leadership form the main

content areas for the online leadership development course for nurse educators.

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Instructional Objectives

Grounded in behaviorism, instructional objectives are designed to “…express in

behavioral terms the instructional outcomes we desire students to achieve. In fact,

behaviorists would argue the only evidence we have of learning comes from the students’

behavior; they can do something after instruction that they could not do before” (Driscoll,

2005, p. 58). Interestingly, there is the thought that instructional objectives actually

destroy the essence and holistic perspective of learning, and have a deleterious effect on

incidental learning (Driscoll). This view is especially true if one adheres to a

constructivist viewpoint where learners are encouraged to identify their own learning

goals (Driscoll). Regardless of whether objectives are of value to the learner, Driscoll

notes that instructional objectives are useful to instructional designers when developing a

course, and are an important element in most instructional design models such as the one

presented by Morrison et al. (2004).

There are several formats for writing objectives (Driscoll). Reilly and Oermann

(1990), for example, classify objectives as either specific or general. Specific objectives

include four elements: (a) description of the learner, (b) description of the type of

behavior expected, (c) description of the conditions under which the learner demonstrates

competence, and (d) a statement of an acceptable standard of performance. General

objectives include three elements: (a) description of the learner, (b) a statement of the

kind of behavior the learner will exhibit to demonstrate competence has been attained,

and (d) a statement of the kind of content to which behavior relates. (Reilly & Oermann,

1990). The objectives for the online leadership development course for nurse educators,

19

developed from a constructivist perspective, include the elements of learner, behavior,

condition, and content, and will be used to guide the instructional designer in the

development of the course.

Terminal objectives or overall course goals are used to describe the overall learning

outcome, while enabling or supporting objectives describe the activities that need to be

learned in order to achieve the goal (Morrison et al., 2004). In the online leadership

development course for nurse educators, there is one course goal and six enabling

objectives.

Course Goal

Nurse educators will foster a leadership mindset in baccalaureate nursing students.

Objective One

Given background information and an example of how leaders Model the Way, nurse

educators will critique their own performance and provide an example of how they

Model the Way with nursing students.

Objective Two

Given background information and an example of how leaders Inspire a Shared

Vision, nurse educators will assess their own behaviors and provide an example of how

they Inspire a Shared Vision with nursing students.

Objective Three

Given background information and an example of how leaders Challenge the

Process, nurse educators will judge their own performance and provide an example of

how they Challenge the Process with nursing students.

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Objective Four

Given background information and an example of how leaders Enable Others to Act,

nurse educators will evaluate their own behaviors and provide an example of how they

Enable Others to Act in clinical teaching situations.

Objective Five

Given background information and an example of how leaders Encourage the Heart,


Encourage the Heart when working with nursing students.

Objective Six

Given a clinical situation involving nursing students, nurse educators act consistently

using the five practices of exemplary leadership.

Classification of Instructional Objectives

Bloom’s taxonomy of cognitive outcomes provides a framework in which to classify

cognitive objectives (Driscoll, 2005). The levels include knowledge, comprehension,

application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. The first five instructional objectives

outlined are all classified at the highest level of the taxonomy, namely, evaluation.

Krathwohl, Bloom, and Masia (as cited in Driscoll, 2005) developed a taxonomy of

affective outcomes that includes five levels, namely, receiving, responding, valuing,

organization, and characterization by value. The sixth objective, is an affective

instructional objective, and is categorized at the highest level, namely, characterization by

value.

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Content Sequencing

Content may be sequenced through either conceptual sequencing or theoretical

elaboration sequencing (Morrison et al., 2004). Conceptual sequencing refers to the

arrangement of concepts based on superordinate, coordinate, and subordinate

relationships. Kouzes and Posner (2003) suggest conceptual sequencing when examining

the five practices of exemplary leadership, starting with Model the Way, then Inspire a

Shared Vision, Challenge the Process, Enable Other to Act, and Encourage the Heart.

There is allowance, however, to deviate from the sequence if one wishes to focus on a

particular exemplary practice first. The same is true for the 10 commitments of leadership

where two commitments are associated with each exemplary practice.

Elaboration theory focuses on moving from simple to complex tasks (Morrison et al.,

2004). Similar in concept, is that of scaffolding, in which instructors provide guidance to

learners and “…bridge the gap between their current skill levels and a desired skill level”

(Driscoll, 2005, p. 258). As learners are able to complete tasks without assistance, then

the guidance is withdrawn (Greenfield, as cited in Driscoll). Although it is important to

make connections among ideas, and summarize discussions before moving forward

(Garrison, 2006), it may also be important to present the big picture or concepts to

learners first, and then sequence material in order to promote meaningful learning

(Ausubel, as cited in Moseley et al., 2005; Bolliger, 2006; Roberts, 2002). Given the

content that forms the basis for the course, and what is known in regards to elaboration

theory and scaffolding, a nurse educator would need to be familiar with the meaning of

the five practices and ten commitments of exemplary leadership before being able to

22

generate examples of how they demonstrate the five exemplary practices with nursing

students.

When sequencing content, the instructional designer must also consider how

information is coded into memory. Driscoll (2005) notes that constructivists do not

adhere to one model of memory; therefore, it is important to draw from the work of

cognitive theorists and information-processing theory. Information processing models

can be traced back to the work of Atkinson and Shiffrin (as cited in Driscoll), who

conceptualized three stages of memory including sensory memory, working memory, and

long-term memory, along with processes that assist with the transfer of information from

one stage to another (see Figure 7).

Figure 7. Flow of information conceptualized in information-processing theory.

Based on information-processing theory, elaboration theory, scaffolding, and

conceptual sequencing, the content in the online leadership development course will be

sequenced accordingly. The sequencing of content for the online leadership development

course for nurse educators is presented in Section Two of this paper.

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Instructional Strategies

Gagne classified learning into five categories including verbal information,

intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, attitudes, and motor skills (Driscoll, 2005). Gagne

hypothesized that each different learning category requires different types of instruction.

The component display theory, an instructional-design theory, evolved from an attempt

by Merrill to clarify the work of Gagne (Merrill, 1983). The component display theory is

based on the same assumptions as Gagne, namely, different categories of outcomes

require different types of instruction, and outcome categories can be illustrated in a

performance-content matrix (Merrill).

The importance of the performance-content matrix is that an instructional designer

can use the matrix to classify each of the objectives developed for an instructional session

into one of the cells based on the appropriate content and performance categories

(Morrison et al., 2004). Prescriptions can then be designed for each of the objectives that

allow for a flexible approach to developing instructional strategies. According to

Morrison et al., a prescription has two parts including the initial presentation and the

generative strategy. In the initial presentation, content from the task analysis is structured

in such a manner that learning is facilitated. The generative strategy is then used to

increase the depth of processing the information. Stutsky (2006a) previously organized

the generative strategies presented by Morrison et al. into a generative strategy-content

matrix (see Table 1). The matrix will be used to determine the generative strategies for

each instructional objective. It must be noted that the terms generative strategy and

instructional strategy are essentially interchangeable. Morrison et al. note that well-

24

designed instructional strategies prompt learners to make connections between what they

already know and new information that they need to know, and this learning process is

referred to as generative learning, hence, the term generative strategy.

Table 1. Generative Strategy-Content Matrix Generative Strategy

Content

Recall: useful for learning facts and lists

Integration: transform information into an easy form to remember

Organizational: identify how new ideas relate to existing ideas

Elaboration: add ideas to new information

Fact: statement associating one item with another

• Repetition • Rehearsal-practice • Review • Mnemonics • Covertly

rehearsing by simply repeating the fact mentally

• Overtly practice writing the fact

• Answering questions related to the fact

Concept: category to group ideas or things

• Same as Fact • Generate new examples

• Generate non-examples

• Practice determining new instances are examples or non-examples

• Analysis of key ideas

• Categorization of the concept

• Cognitive mapping • Identify critical

attributes

• Generation of a mental image of the concept

• Sentence elaborations

Principles and Rules: statement expressing a relationship between concepts

• Same as Fact • Paraphrase the principles

• Generate examples

• Complete a table categorizing and integrating rules

• Ask the relationship between principles

• Identify key components of the principle

• Compare the principles to similar principles

• Generate the rule • Identify the visual

difference • Develop a decision

tree

• Develop a diagram that explains the principle

• Develop an argument

• Add more information to the content

• Predict the effect • Explain what

happened Procedure: sequence of steps performed to complete a task

• Same as Fact • List the steps • Describe the

steps • Paraphrase the

procedure • Practice the

procedure • Generate

questions about the procedure

• Develop a mental image of the procedure

• Elaborate on the steps: connecting cures, decisions to each step

Interpersonal Skills: development of communication skills and Attitudes: beliefs and associated behaviors

• Same as Fact • Paraphrase the discussion

• Visualize the scenario

• Develop an image

• Mental rehearsal • Identify key

behaviors

• Overt practice: role play

• Imagine a reaction

25

Objective One

Given background information and an example of how leaders Model the Way, nurse

educators will critique their own performance and provide an example of how they

Model the Way with nursing students.

Classification

The objective is classified as a concept. The concept-elaboration cell is determined to

be the best fit within the generative strategy-content matrix.

Initial Presentation

Content to be presented includes:

an overview of the first exemplary practice: Model the Way, and

the two associated leadership commitments: Find Your Voice and Set the

Example.

Generative/Instructional Strategy

Generation of a mental image of the concept is selected as the generative/

instructional strategy.

Objective Two

Given background information and an example of how leaders Inspire a Shared

Vision, nurse educators will assess their own behaviors and provide an example of how

they Inspire a Shared Vision with nursing students.

Classification



26



an overview of the second exemplary practice: Inspire a Shared Vision, and

the two associated leadership commitments: Envision the Future and Enlist

Others.




Objective Three

Given background information and an example of how leaders Challenge the

Process, nurse educators will judge their own performance and provide an example of

how they Challenge the Process with nursing students.

Classification





an overview of the third exemplary practice: Challenge the Process, and

the two associated leadership commitments: Search for Opportunities and

Experiment and Take Risks.




27

Objective Four

Given background information and an example of how leaders Enable Others to Act,


Enable Others to Act in clinical teaching situations.

Classification





an overview of the fourth exemplary practice: Enable Others to Act, and

the two associated leadership commitments: Foster Collaboration and Strengthen

Others.




Objective Five

Given background information and an example of how leaders Encourage the Heart,


Encourage the Heart when working with nursing students.

Classification



28



an overview of the fifth exemplary practice: Encourage the Heart, and

the two associated leadership commitments: Recognize Contributions and

Celebrate the Values and Victories.




Objective Six

Given a clinical situation involving nursing students, nurse educators act consistently

using the five practices of exemplary leadership.

Classification

The objective is classified as interpersonal skills and attitudes. The interpersonal

skills and attitudes-elaboration cell is determined to be the best fit within the generative

strategy-content matrix.


No additional content will be presented by the instructor, as nurse educators will

synthesize ideas and strategies for each of the five exemplary leadership practices.


Overt practice is selected as the generative/instructional strategy.

29

Designing the Message

Morrison et al. (2004) indicate that instructional-design theories are based on

learning theories, and “describe the most effective way of designing the instruction to

achieve an objective” (p. 14). Based on a review of the literature, Stutsky (2006b)

previously developed the Instructional-Design Theory for Online Nursing Leadership

Learning Communities (ITONLLC) (see Table 2). Although the ITONLLC has never

been tested, it is based on constructivism, and can be used as a foundation for the

development of the online leadership development course for nurse educators. The

ITONLLC will form the underlying framework for the next section of this paper.

Table 2. Instructional-Design Theory Instructional-Design Theory for Online Nursing Leadership Learning Communities Goal To foster leadership development through facilitated online communication,

relationship building, collective construction and support of knowledge development, and reflection. An instructional-design theory primarily intended for nurses.

Values Some of the values upon which this theory is based include the following: • a culture of learning as a collective effort with sharing of knowledge

(Bielaczyc & Collins, 1999); • rich social context as conditions for learning (Ali, Hodson-Carlton, &

Ryan, 2004; Bolliger, 2006; Cooperstein & Kocevar-Weidinger, 2004; Nelson, 1999);

• cultivating supportive, respectful relationships among participants (Nelson);

• creating an environment that supports knowledge development and integration (Registered Nurses’ Association of Ontario [RNAO], 2006);

• self-directed learning (Hannafin, Land, & Oliver, 1999) • divergent critical thinking, multiple perspectives, and reflection (Hannafin

et al.; Kozlowski, 2004; Lee, 2006; Maag & Fonteyn, 2005; Nelson; Pethtel, 2005; Ryan, Hodson-Carlton, Ali, 2005);

• personal experience (Trotter, 2006); • providing tools and resources to aid learning efforts (Hannafin et al.); • knowledge translation and application of learning to nursing practice

(Billings et al., 2006; Jeffries, 2005; Kozlowski, 2004).

30

Table 2 (continued). Instructional-Design Theory Methods Process Activities 1. Create Readiness (Nelson). • Provide an overview of the process and roles (Nelson). • Confirm member expectations (Snyder, 2002). • Set ground rules for how communication takes place (Stone-

McCown & McCormick, 1999). • Provide instruction and practice in group process skills (Nelson). 2. Form Groups (Nelson). • Form small homogeneous groups in terms of level of professional

nursing responsibilities (Ready, 2002). • Establish relationships and trust (Diekelmann & Mendias, 2005;

Lock, 2006; RNAO; Snyder). • Encourage groups to establish operational guidelines (Nelson). 3. Select an Appropriate Problem (Jonassen, 1999). • The problem should be interesting, relevant, and engaging to foster

participant ownership (Jonassen). • The problem should be authentic and professionally relevant

(Jonassen). 4. Provide Related Cases or Stories (Jonassen; Ready) • Effective cases or stories are context-specific, level appropriate,

presented by respected role models, and have drama and high learning value (Ready).

5. Engage in the Trumpet Process (Stone-McCown & McCormick) to Dialogue About Cases or Stories

The Trumpet Process includes the following steps for participants to take:

a. Share experiences to provide a common reference point for discussion.

b. Inventory responses: What was unique? What was common? c. Recognize patterns of unique behavior. d. Own your patterns and understand how each serves you. e. Consider the consequences of each pattern including benefits and

costs. f. Allow alternative patterns, and explore options. g. Evaluate the alternatives. h. Choose the best one for each situation. 6. Synthesize and Reflect (Nelson). • Identify learning gains (Nelson). 7. Provide Closure (Nelson). • Formalize group adjournment through a closure activity (Nelson).

31

Table 2 (continued). Instructional-Design Theory Supportive Activities 1. Provide a Coach (Ready). • An advisor, specializing in leadership, who assists the facilitator

(Ready). • Acts as a resource and tutor (Nelson) to the facilitator. 2. Provide an Online Facilitator (Diekelmann & Mendias). • Creates a supportive presence, and attends to and facilitates

participants’ knowing and connecting with one another (Ali et al., 2004; Diekelmann & Mendias).

• Acts as a resource and tutor (Nelson) to the participants. • Formulates questions to focus participants on important aspects of

content and learning processes (Nelson). 3. Provide Just-In-Time Learner-Selectable Information (Jonassen). • Utilize the Internet as an extension of the learning community

boundaries (Snyder). • Select relevant information, organize the information for

participants, and integrate information (Mayer, 1999) into a nursing leadership website.

• In the nursing leadership website, provide both static and dynamic relevant and easily accessible resources (Hannafin et al.; Jonassen).

32

Section Two: Instructor’s Guide

Development of Instruction and Evaluation

The development of instruction element of the instructional-design process correlates

to the development of an instructor’s guide that outlines details needed to deliver a course

(Morrison et al., 2004). The last two elements in the instructional-design process, namely

development of instruction and evaluation, are combined into an Instructor’s Guide that

is incorporated into the body of this paper as opposed to an appendix. An instructor

wanting to deliver the online leadership development course for nurse educators, which is

entitled, Leadership Development for Nurse Educators: Competencies of Leadership,

would use the Instructor’s Guide to steer the process and would refer to the Design

Document (i.e., Section One of this paper), for further additional details if required.

33

Leadership Development for Nurse Educators: Competencies of Leadership

Instructor’s Guide

Overview

The Competencies of Leadership course is one of four professional development

courses in the Leadership Development for Nurse Educators series. Other courses in the

series include Business of Health Care, Use of Self, and Profession of Nursing. Courses

in the series can be taken in any order.

Course Description

This course explores the five practices and 10 commitments of exemplary leadership

as outlined by well-known leadership authors and researchers James M. Kouzes and

Barry Z. Posner. Guided by a facilitator, learners will have the opportunity to examine

their own leadership competencies, transfer their learning from theory to practice, and

share their experiences in an online learning environment.

Target Audience

The course is designed especially for nurse educators who facilitate the clinical

experiences of undergraduate nursing students. Hereinafter, nurse educators in the target

audience will be referred to as the learner.

Adaptability to Other Populations

With modifications, the course could be adapted to serve the needs of leaders or

nurse educators employed in settings other than an undergraduate nursing program.

34

Constructivism

The underlying learning theory for the course is constructivism. Constructivism is

emerging as the preferred learning approach for creating an online learning community,

and an approach used in the field of instructional design and technology that has gained

acceptance and is highly valued by educators (Bolliger, 2006; Lee, 2006). Numerous

authors (Ali, Hodson-Carlton, & Ryan, 2004; Almala, 2005; Bolliger; Cooperstein &

Kocevar-Weidinger, 2004; Driscoll, 2005; Lee) have written about constructivism and

describe a constructivist learning environment as a complex, situated, and realistic

learning environment used to engage learners in a sense-making process where learners

investigate, discover, explore, build new learning on prior knowledge, and construct their

own meaning to concepts. The conditions for learning are a social context where learners

are viewed as autonomous, independent, self-motivating, engaging, and interactive

individuals. Constructivist learning outcomes focus on reasoning, critical thinking,

understanding and use of knowledge, self-regulation, and mindful reflection (Driscoll,

2005).

Stutsky’s (2006b) Instructional-Design Theory for Online Nursing Leadership

Learning Communities (ITONLLC), as outlined in the Design Document, will be used to

structure the curriculum for the course. Based on constructivism, the ITONLLC outlines

process activities and supportive activities. Process activities include the following:

create readiness, form groups, select an appropriate problem, provide related cases or

stories, engage in the Trumpet Process to dialogue about cases or stories, synthesize and

reflect, and provide closure. Supportive activities include: provide an online facilitator,

provide a coach, and provide just-in time learner-selectable information.

35

Role of the Instructor as Facilitator

Teaching presence or facilitation is a critical and unifying element in an online

learning environment, and it is the role of the instructor or facilitator to provide the

teaching presence necessary to structure, shape, and support a meaningful learning

experience (Garrison, 2006). A facilitator fulfills numerous roles in an online learning

environment including being responsible for establishing trust and a level of comfort

within the learning community (Garrison), creating a supportive presence and attending

to and facilitating participants’ knowing and connecting with one another (Ali et al.,

2004; Diekelmann & Mendias, 2005), and nurturing relationships to promote self-

organization and empowerment (Palloff & Pratt, 2005). Based on a constructivist

perspective, the facilitator needs to be able to provide a realistic learning environment

that challenges the learners while at the same time supporting and encouraging learners to

reflect on processes (Driscoll, 2005).

Group cohesion that goes beyond polite dialogue is important in sustaining a

community, and the facilitator needs to build and maintain group cohesion through

collaborative activities (Garrison, 2006). Group cohesion and social interaction, however,

is not indicative of cognitive presence or engagement (Garrison & Cleveland-Innes,

2005), and it is the role of the facilitator to facilitate cognitive presence by scaffolding

discussions (Waltonen-Moore, Stuart, Newton, Oswald, & Varonis, 2006), making

connections among ideas, and summarizing discussions (Garrison). The teaching

presence that a facilitator provides in an online learning environment can be powerful in

triggering discussion and facilitating a deep approach to learning where students embrace

concepts and search for meaning in the material (Garrison & Cleveland-Innes). As

36

cognitive activities become more challenging, the facilitator needs to keep discussions

focused, identify issues needing clarification, and move the discussion forward

(Garrison). With any interactions, there is a potential for conflict, and Palloff and Pratt

(2005) and Garrison note that the facilitator needs to be comfortable in an environment

that has a reasonable degree of chaos and conflict, and intervene when necessary to keep

the anxiety levels of the learners at a manageable level.

By fulfilling these numerous roles, the facilitator is attending to a variety of learners’

needs. For example, extraverted students tend to prefer collaborative learning approaches

and often become “…dependent on the hustle and bustle of the external world for

suggestions about how to proceed” (Perry & Ball, 2004, p. 13). The introverted students

who “…need to shut out the external distractions in order to prepare their ideas,”

(DiTiberio, as Perry & Ball, p. 13) may feel more uncomfortable, but do have time in an

asynchronous environment to prepare their responses in private. Students with a

preference for feeling over thinking, as measured by the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

(MBTI) (Hammer, 2004), tend to be right-hemispheric dominant learners, prefer holistic

learning, and base their decision making on values and subjective evaluations; therefore,

a more social environment would be beneficial (Hammer; Perry & Ball). Thinkers, who

are more closely related to left-hemispheric dominant learners and tend to base their

decisions on logic and cause and effect (Hammer; Perry & Ball), may also benefit from

objective ideas that are generated from the facilitator moving the discussion from a social

presence to a cognitive presence. Students with diverging or accommodating learning

styles, as measured by the Kolb Learning Style Inventory (Kolb, 2005), will thrive in a

social environment in which ideas can be generated from interacting with people, and

37

will challenge convergers and assimilators to become more balanced in their approach to

learning (Kolb).

Role of the Coach (Optional)

Instructors who facilitate this course may benefit from having a coach who acts as a

guide, a tutor, and a leadership resource to the instructor (Nelson, 1999; Ready, 2002). If

needed, the coach may assist the instructor in scaffolding discussions (Ausubel, as cited

in Moseley et al., 2005; Chen, 2007; Cooperstein & Kocevar-Weidinger, 2004; Hannafin

et al., 1999; Waltonen-Moore et al., 2006) by providing suggestions to the instructor. The

coach may also be able to provide suggestions for dealing with different learning styles

and preferences among group members. The coach may be a colleague, an administrator

within your department, or an external consultant that is hired on a contract basis.

Instructor Resources

Required resources include two textbooks, one document, and administrator access

to the online Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI), an assessment tool developed by

Kouzes and Posner to measure competency in the five exemplary leadership practices

(John Wiley & Sons, 2007):

Kouzes, J. M., & Posner, B. Z. (2002). The Leadership Challenge (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Kouzes, J. M., & Posner, B. Z. (2003). The Leadership Challenge Workbook. San

Francisco: Jossey-Bass. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (2007). Leadership practices inventory (LPI) online 3.0: A

leadership challenge resource. Retrieved November 1, 2007, from http://www.lpionline.com/lpi/

Winnipeg Regional Health Authority. (n.d.). Nursing leadership development

framework. Retrieved November 1, 2007 from http://www.hsc.mb.ca/leadership/folders/Framework/Overview/Framework%20Components,%20Elements,%20and%20Behaviours.pdf

http://www.lpionline.com/lpi/

http://www.hsc.mb.ca/leadership/folders/Framework/Overview/Framework%20Components,%20Elements,%20and%20Behaviours.pdf


38

Online Learning Interface Overview

The online learning interface to be used for the course is that of a wiki. Beldarrain

(2006) claims that a constructivist learning environment that meets the needs of the 21st

century learner can be fostered using online collaborative tools and versatile social

software available through a wiki. A wiki is a collection of webpages that are

interconnected and organized as required and collectively authored with users being able

to add content and edit the content of other users (Beldarrain, 2006; Best, 2006; Bold,

2006; Duffy & Bruns, 2006). A wiki does not follow a predetermined taxonomic

hierarchical structure such as one would observe in a blog, and can be thought of as a

spatial structure that is infinitely expandable, self-organizing, and self-regulating (Best;

Duffy & Bruns). Wikis are easily navigated, users do not need to know hypertext markup

language (HTML) programming, and files can be managed and categorized (Duffy &

Bruns). Every page of a wiki has an edit button and a history page that tracks edits and

allows users to revert to previous versions of a page (Beldarrain; Duffy & Bruns;

Richardson, 2006). A key feature of a wiki environment is that it allows for group

collaboration and information sharing (Best; Bold; Duffy & Bruns; Richardson). Bold

indicates that the main advantage of a wiki is that changes can be made to documents

through live edit, via a browser window on the Internet, as opposed to collaborating on a

document via a course management system that requires saving and uploading

documents.

39

Organization

McAllister and Moyle (2006) designed a web-based course to prepare Australian

clinical educators for their role in assisting nursing students to gain confidence and

develop clinical skills. The course was designed around the concept of a village, with a

community hall for congregating, a classroom cottage containing course related

information, an art gallery cottage where participants were asked to post images

reflective of a community, and a craft shop with an animated image of a patchwork quilt

that grew as participants added their wisdom in regards to clinical teaching. Participants

in the course focused on two main tasks, namely, reflecting on learning theories and the

practice of clinical education, and reporting on a clinical teaching strategy that they had

used or intended to use in the clinical area.

A concept similar to that presented by McAllister and Moyle (2006) will be used for

this course, with the metaphor being a university (see Figure 8). There will be an

auditorium for large group interaction, classrooms for smaller group interaction, a

bulletin board for general course information including the syllabus and interactive

tutorials, a lounge for social conversation, a suggestion box for learners to provide

ongoing evaluative feedback regarding the course or any other general suggestions, and a

library separated into two areas including a reserve section containing an overview of

material related to the five practices and 10 commitments of exemplary leadership, and a

resource section containing a wide variety of resources posted by the instructor and the

learners. The resource section of the library will allow for Just-In-Time Learner-

Selectable Information as outlined in the ITONLLC.

40

CLASSROOM

CLASSROOM

AUDITORIUM(Large Group Interaction)

CLASSROOMS:Number Depends

on Total Class Size

(Small Group Interaction)

BULLETIN BOARD

(General Course Information,

Syllabus, Tutorials)

LOUNGE(Social

Conversation)

LIBRARY

LIBRARY RESERVE(Content

Overviews for Objectives)

LIBRARY RESOURCE(Instructor &

Learner Posted)

SUGGESTION BOX

(Ongoing Course Evaluation)

Figure 8. Overview of the wiki environment.

Learner Considerations

Given the learner characteristics outlined in the Design Document, specifically, that

the learners have multiple demands on their time, computer literacy ranges from novice

to expert, and the course is a non-credit voluntary professional development course, it is

important that the online learning interface minimizes cognitive load, allows for effective

human-computer interaction in terms of navigation and ease of use, and allows for

effective information-processing. Keeping the wiki interface organized into discrete

sections, and housing all required resources within one area, should decrease cognitive

overload, and decrease the disorientation that field dependent learners sometimes

experience in an online learning environment (Alomyan, 2004). Cognitive load and

disorientation will also be minimized by containing external links to the library resource

section, allowing for documents to be easily downloaded and printed, and highlighting

content and wiki sections with appropriate headings, bullets, fonts, colors, and visual cues

41

where appropriate (Alomyan, 2004; Chang & Ley, 2006; Gilbert, Morton, & Rowley,

2007; Oh & Lim, 2005; Mayer, 1999). Incorporating an ever-expanding resource section

into the wiki caters to the needs of field independent learners who thrive in environments

in which they have the freedom to choose their own learning paths (Alomyan).

Information-processing will be enhanced for all types of learners through chunking

material appropriately within the various sections of the wiki (Driscoll, 2005; Renkl &

Atkinson, as cited in Tempelman-Kluit, 2006; Roberts, 2002). The facilitator will

continually monitoring the wiki and synthesize and organize information as needed to

prevent the wiki from becoming unwieldy.

Computer System Requirements for Instructors and Learners IBM Compatible Computer

Processor Pentium II 266 MHz processor or faster Operating System Windows 95/98/ME/NT/2000/XP Memory 64 MB of RAM Disk Space 20 MB of free disk space Connection 28.8 kbps Internet connection Internet Browser Internet Explorer 4.0 OR Netscape 4.7 Software Microsoft Word, Adobe Acrobat Reader, Macromedia Flash

Player, and an Email program Macintosh

Processor G3 233 MHz Operating System OS 9.0/9.1/9.2, OSX 10.1, 10.2 Memory OS9: 64 MB RAM OR OSX: 128 MB RAM Disk Space 20 MB of free disk space Connection 28.8 kbps Internet connection* Internet Browser Internet Explorer 4.0 OR Netscape 4.7 Software Microsoft Word, Adobe Acrobat Reader, Macromedia Flash

Player, and an Email program

42

Create Readiness

Prior to the course going live, the instructor will need to consider the process

activities within the Create Readiness section of the ITONLLC. Having course

information available in advance is important (Mupinga, Nora, & Yaw, 2006) to decrease

learner anxiety and assist learners in preparing for the course. Given that it is a non-credit

voluntary course and the learners have multiple demands on their time, it is also

important to keep pre-course preparation to a minimum. The pre-course package, to be

provided to learners at least one month prior to the start of the course, needs to include a

hard-copy course syllabus, a multimedia compact disc tutorial, and instructions for

completing the online Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI). All pre-course package

materials will need to be uploaded to the bulletin board section of the wiki.

Included in the course syllabus is instructor contact information, the course goal,

course description, an overview of the role of the facilitator and the role of the learner

including group process skills, computer system requirements, instructional objectives,

learning activities and methods, and general ground rules for communication. The

multimedia interactive compact disc tutorial, to be developed via Adobe Captivate

software, will cater to the needs of both auditory and visual learners, outline all of the

features of the wiki, provide general instructions for navigating, posting and editing text,

and uploading and downloading documents. The tutorial will include a section devoted to

group process skills within a wiki environment.

In order for each learner to get a baseline measurement of their own perception of

their leadership abilities, learners will complete the online LPI at least two weeks prior to

the start of the course. The LPI measures leadership competencies in the five exemplary

43

practices of leadership including Model the Way, Inspire a Shared Vision, Challenge the

Process, Enable Others to Act, and Encourage the Heart. To get a better picture of each

learner’s leadership competencies, learners will have the option of requesting that

colleagues and supervisors also assess the learner’s leadership competencies. An online

report of the LPI will be generated and returned via email to the learner at least one week

prior to the start of the course.

Approximately one month prior to the beginning of each university term, a meeting

is held with all of the nurse educators who will be facilitating clinical experiences. This

meeting is an opportune time to meet all of the learners who will be participating in the

course, allow those nurse educators who have not enrolled in the course the opportunity

to do so, hand-out the pre-course package, outline the process for completing the LPI,

and present a short five to ten minute introductory voiced Microsoft PowerPoint

presentation. The PowerPoint presentation includes a general overview of the course, the

benefits to the learners in terms of their own leadership development, and the skills that

they will acquire to eventually act as a talent scouts seeking out potential nurse leaders,

promoting nursing leadership as a career track, and generally fostering the development

of a leadership mindset within the students enrolled in the undergraduate nursing

program.

Form Groups

As outlined in the ITONLLC, small groups need to be formed in terms of level of

professional nursing responsibilities, and in this course, professional responsibility refers

to the clinical practice setting. For example, those nurse educators who facilitate nursing

practice in a community setting would benefit from being in the same group, similarly,

44

those who facilitate clinical practice in a hospital setting would benefit from being in the

same group. Rutherfoord (2006), however, found that the strongest teams were those that

were heterogeneous in terms of MBTI results; therefore, one would think that a group

that is heterogeneous in terms of leadership strengths would also be beneficial. Therefore,

small homogeneous groups of a maximum of seven learners will be formed based on

professional responsibility; however, there will be a heterogeneous mixture of learners

within the small groups in terms of LPI results. Learners will discover which group they

are assigned to on the first day of the course.

Main Instructional Strategy: Storytelling

Consistent with constructivism, storytelling has been used as a teaching-learning

strategy for leadership development in the business community (Ready, 2002), for the

development of a community healthcare management course (Schwartz & Abbott, 2007),

in the diagnosing health problems with medical students (D’Alessandro, Lewis, and

D’Alessandro, 2004), and in a graduate level nurse educator practicum (Cangelosi &

Whitt, 2006). Stories are told for different purposes such as sparking action,

communicating who you are, transmitting values, fostering collaboration, sharing

knowledge, and leading people into the future (Denning, 2006). The content of a story

and the manner in which a story is told varies according to the objective to be achieved;

however, it is important to remember that a story is told for a purpose and not an end in

itself (Denning). Effective stories are context-specific, have drama and high learning

value, and are framed at an appropriate level so learners can visualize themselves in the

story and reflect on appropriate actions (Ready, 2002).

45

When examining the learning outcomes of constructivism, namely, reasoning,

critical thinking, understanding and use of knowledge, self-regulation, and mindful

reflection (Driscoll, 2005), it becomes evident that through the effective use of

storytelling, guided by a facilitator, these learning outcomes can be achieved. Storytelling

will challenge learners with differing learning styles and preferences. For example, it is

proposed that the underlying artistic abilities of right-hemispheric dominant learners will

be of benefit in generating the stories, while the left-hemispheric dominant learners will

prefer analyzing the stories. Learners with a preference for feeling over thinking will be

better able to add a human perspective to their stories; however, the thinkers will be

better at finding patterns within the stories. Learners with a diverging learning style

should excel in delivering the stories, and convergers, similar to the thinkers, will thrive

when analyzing the stories.

Course Outline

Course Length and Segmenting

The course is 14 weeks in duration, covering the length of time the nurse educators

facilitate clinical practice (i.e., 13 weeks), plus one additional week prior to the start of

their contract term. The course is segmented according to the objectives. Tempelman-

Kluit (2006) notes that segmenting allows for time between learning tasks so that the

learner is able to process information prior to proceeding to the next learning task.

Segmenting can reduce cognitive load or allow the learner to manage the load more

efficiently (Bruning, Schraw, Norby, & Ronning, as cited in Tempelman-Kluit, 2006).

46

Week One

As outlined in the ITONCCL, it is important to begin to establish relationships and

trust after the groups are formed. In preparation, the instructor needs to develop and

videotape a short Welcome to the Course message that will be posted in the auditorium

section of the wiki, along with the written text of the videotaped message. The written

text is not only a backup in the even that there is a technical problem with viewing the

video, but it provides another medium for learning. Included in the video will be

instructions for the first week of class that will focus on each student posting, within their

small groups, a short story about themselves that lets other group members know who

they are, at which healthcare site they are facilitating clinical practice, something

interesting about themselves, and their learning goal(s) for the course. In the video, the

small groups will also be encouraged, but not required, to establish operational guidelines

as outlined in the ITONLLC. The use of a video will not only add to the social aspect of

the course, but learners will make use of both visual and verbal processing channels that

allows learners to create meaning that leads to schema connections and enhanced long-

term memory utilization (Mayer, as cited in Tempelman-Kluit, 2006).

Weeks Two to Eleven

Outlined in Table 3 is a compilation of instructional objectives, pre-course

preparatory instructor activities, the main instructional strategy for the objective, and the

process activities as outlined in the ITONLLC. The information in Table 3 is based on

information presented in the Design Document. Essentially, the same instructional

strategy and process activities will be used for the first five objectives of the course.

Instructors will use the required resources to develop the content overviews for each of

47

the objectives. Content overviews for each section will be no longer than two computer

screens in length to try to prevent cognitive overload. Content overviews for all

objectives will be posted in the reserve section of the library prior to the start of the

course. Learners will be prompted by the facilitator to review the related content

overviews at the beginning of each block of weeks.

Table 3. Overview of Weeks Two to Eleven Objective One

Given background information and an example of how leaders Model the Way, nurse educators will critique their own performance and provide an example of how they Model the Way with nursing students.

Instructor Pre-Course Preparation

Content to be developed and posted in the bulletin board section includes an overview of Model the Way, and the two associated leadership commitments: Find Your Voice and Set the Example.

Instructional Strategy

Generation of a mental image of the concept: Storytelling will be used by the instructor to provide the initial example and by the learners when they provide an example of how they Model the Way with nursing students.

Week 2-3

Process Activities*

• Select an appropriate problem • Provide a related story • Engage in the trumpet process to dialogue about the

story • Synthesize and reflect

Objective Two

Given background information and an example of how leaders Inspire a Shared Vision, nurse educators will assess their own behaviors and provide an example of how they Inspire a Shared Vision with nursing students.


Content to be developed and posted in the bulletin board section includes an overview of Inspire a Shared Vision, and the two associated leadership commitments: Envision the Future and Enlist Others.


Generation of a mental image of the concept: Storytelling will be used by the instructor to provide the initial example and by the learners when they provide an example of how they Inspire a Shared Vision with nursing students.

Week 4-5

Process Activities*

Same as Week 2-3 Objective One.

48

Table 3 (continued). Overview of Weeks Two to Eleven

Objective Three

Given background information and an example of how leaders Challenge the Process, nurse educators will judge their own performance and provide an example of how they Challenge the Process with nursing students.


Content to be developed and posted in the bulletin board section includes an overview of Challenge the Process, and the two associated leadership commitments: Search for Opportunities and Experiment and Take Risks.


Generation of a mental image of the concept: Storytelling will be used by the instructor to provide the initial example and by the learners when they provide an example of how they Challenge the Process with nursing students.

Week 6-7

Process Activities*


Objective Four

Given background information and an example of how leaders Enable Others to Act, nurse educators will evaluate their own behaviors and provide an example of how they Enable Others to Act in clinical teaching situations.


Content to be developed and posted in the bulletin board section includes an overview Enable Others to Act, and the two associated leadership commitments: Foster Collaboration and Strengthen Others.


Generation of a mental image of the concept: Storytelling will be used by the instructor to provide the initial example and by the learners when they provide an example of how they Enable Others to Act with nursing students.

Week 8-9

Process Activities*


49

Table 3 (continued). Overview of Weeks Two to Eleven

Objective Five

Given background information and an example of how leaders Encourage the Heart, nurse educators will evaluate their own behaviors and provide an example of how they Encourage the Heart when working with nursing students.


Content to be developed and posted in the bulletin board section includes an overview Encourage the Heart, and the two associated leadership commitments: Recognize Contributions and Celebrate the Values and Victories.

Week 10-11


Generation of a mental image of the concept: Storytelling will be used by the instructor to provide the initial example and by the learners when they provide an example of how they Encourage the Heart with nursing students.

Process Activities*


The storytelling process, based on the ITONLLC, involves four main stages: (a)

select an appropriate problem, (b) provide the story, (c) engage in the Trumpet Process to

dialogue about the story, and (d) synthesize and reflect. For each objective and

accompanying block of weeks, the instructor will first post an appropriate problem

pertaining to the objective in the auditorium section of the wiki. The problem will be a

maximum of two sentences. Next, the instructor will generate one example of a story that

pertains to the problem. The provision of an example will not only be of benefit to field

dependent learners in organizing their thoughts (Mupinga et al., 2006), but will guide all

learners in the process. Given that there could be seven learners in each group, it will be

important for time management and cognitive overload to keep the stories concise and

limit the length of the story to a maximum of one computer screen.

Learners will then work within their small groups, each generating and posting a

story in their own classroom. All stories should be posted by the end of the first week of

the two-week block to allow time to engage in the Trumpet Process during the second

50

week. During the second week, the Trumpet Process, as outlined in the ITONLLC, will

be used as a guideline to collectively analyze the stories of all learners in the group and

generate one comprehensive summary per group of stories for a particular objective. The

same problem originally posted in the auditorium will be posted in each classroom with a

list of accompanying questions. It will be important for the instructor to continue to

scaffold the discussion as the learners work through the questions. The questions include

the following: (a) What was unique about the stories? (b) What were some common

themes in the stories? (c) What patterns of leadership behaviors do you recognize in the

stories? (d) What leadership behaviors were of benefit in dealing with the problem? (e)

What leadership behaviors could be changed to better deal with the problem? (f) Are

there any other leadership behaviors that may be of benefit in dealing with the problem

that were not identified in the story? (g) What overall leadership behaviors are important

for dealing with this problem?

Wang, Moore, Wedman, and Shyu (2003) describe how capturing the collective

knowledge of the community in the form of an electronic case library of stories can be

beneficial to community members so that they can apply the lessons learned from

preserved stories to current and future situations. The course instructor will ensure that

the learners have continued access, after the course is completed, to an online resource

section similar to the one within the library that will contain the stories shared during the

course, related summaries that were generated, and a continuing growing list of

resources.

51

Week Twelve to Thirteen

The twelfth and thirteenth weeks of the course are devoted to general sharing of

leadership stories of the learners’ choice in any one of the five practices of exemplary

leadership (see Table 4). The learners will reflect on their leadership development since

the start of the course, and post their own stories in the classrooms. The learners will have

the option of analyzing the story themselves, posting the story without an analysis, or

incorporating an analysis into the story.

Table 4. Overview of Weeks Twelve to Thirteen Objective Six

Given a clinical situation involving nursing students, nurse educators act consistently using the five practices of exemplary leadership.


None.


Overt practice and storytelling.

Week 12-13

Process Activities

Provide a related story.

During Week 12, the learners will again be asked to complete the online LPI, with

optional input from colleagues or supervisors. The instructor will email LPI reports back

to the learners by Week 14.

Week Fourteen

The final week of the course is dedicated to the last two process activities in the

ITONLLC, namely, Synthesize and Reflect, and Provide Closure. The instructor will be

responsible for synthesizing total group learning and observations, and reflecting on

changes seen in LPI reports. As learners were encouraged to post ongoing evaluative

course feedback to the suggestion box, the instructor will encourage learners to make any

final course comments in the suggestion box.

52

In terms of learner evaluation, and consistent with a constructivist perspective, the

focus of evaluation will not be specifically on whether a learner did or did not achieve the

objectives of the course, for the instructional objectives were essentially used to facilitate

the instructional design process as opposed to determining participant learning. In the

first week, learners were asked to include their learning goals in their first story about

themselves. In the final week, learners will be asked to refer back to their initial story and

identify whether they achieved their own learning goals for the course, and share their

findings in the auditorium.

53

Section Three: Summary

Outlined in this paper is an online leadership development course for nurse

educators that was developed using Morrison et al.’s (2004) instructional design model to

guide the process. Grounded in constructivism, the course entitled, Leadership

Development for Nurse Educators: Competencies of Leadership, is one course proposed

to be offered in a series of four courses designed to not only develop the leadership

competencies of nurse educators, but to ultimately facilitate nurse educators transferring

their own learning to those students that they teach, and fostering a leadership mindset in

our new generation of nurses. Through a constructivist learning approach, and adhering

to design principles that take into consideration the differing learning styles and

preferences of participants enrolled in the course, it is hoped that nurse educators will

achieve their own learning outcomes that focus on reasoning, critical thinking,

understanding and use of knowledge, self-regulation, and mindful reflection. It is also

hoped that a lasting community of learning will be established in which nurse educators

can continue to share their learning resources and continue to development their

leadership competencies beyond the end of the course.

54

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