an overview of south africa’s schooling system
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An Overview of South Africa’s Schooling System. NicSpaull.com Siyavula Cape Town | 6 December 2013. Outline. SA performs extremely poorly on local and international assessments of educational achievement In large parts of the schooling system there is little learning taking place - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
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An Overview of South Africa’s Schooling System
NicSpaull.comSiyavula Cape Town | 6 December 2013
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Outline
1. SA performs extremely poorly on local and international assessments of educational achievement
2. In large parts of the schooling system there is little learning taking place
3. In SA we have TWO public schooling systems, not one.
4. Selected issues – teacher content knowledge, textbook availability (SMS)
5. Accountability & Capacity
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1) South Africa performs extremely poorly on local
and international assessments of
educational achievement
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State of SA education since transition
• “Although 99.7% of South African children are in school…the outcomes in education are abysmal” (Manuel, 2011)
• “Without ambiguity or the possibility of misinterpretation, the pieces together reveal the predicament of South African primary education” (Fleisch, 2008: 2)
• “Our researchers found that what students know and can do is dismal” (Taylor & Vinjevold, 1999)
• “It is not an overstatement to say that South African education is in crisis.” (Van der Berg & Spaull, 2011)
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Student performance 2003-2011
TIMSS (2003) PIRLS (2006) SACMEQ (2007) ANA (2011)
TIMSS 2003 (Gr8 Maths & Science)
• Out of 50 participating countries (including 6 African countries) SA came last
• Only 10% reached low international benchmark• No improvement from TIMSS 1999-TIMSS 2003
PIRLS 2006 (Gr 4/5 – Reading)
• Out of 45 participating countries SA came last• 87% of gr4 and 78% of Gr 5 learners deemed
to be “at serious risk of not learning to read”
SACMEQ III 2007 (Gr6 – Reading & Maths)• SA came 10/15 for reading and 8/15 for maths
behind countries such as Swaziland, Kenya and Tanzania
ANA 2011 (Gr 1-6 Reading & Maths)• Mean literacy score gr3: 35%• Mean numeracy score gr3: 28%• Mean literacy score gr6: 28%• Mean numeracy score gr6: 30%
TIMSS (2011) prePIRLS (2011)
TIMSS 2011 (Gr9 – Maths & Science)• SA has joint lowest performance of 42 countries• Improvement by 1.5 grade levels (2003-2011)• 76% of grade nine students in 2011 still had not
acquired a basic understanding about whole numbers, decimals, operations or basic graphs, and this is at the improved level of performance
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prePIRLS2011 (Gr 4 Reading)• 29% of SA Gr4 learners completely
illiterate (cannot decode text in any langauge)
• NSES 2007/8/9
• Systemic Evaluations 2007
• Matric exams
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2) In large parts of the schooling system there is
little learning taking place
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Quantifying learning deficits in Gr3
• Following Muralidharan & Zieleniak (2013) we classify students as performing at the grade-appropriate level if they obtain a mean score of 50% or higher on the full set of Grade 3 level questions.
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Systemic 2007 Grade 3 mean score (%) on Grade 3 level items
Quintile 5 Quintile 1-4
Figure 1: Kernel density of mean Grade 3 performance on Grade 3 level items by quintiles of student socioeconomic status (Systemic Evaluation 2007)
(Grade-3-appropriate level)
51%
11%
16% Only the top 16% of grade 3 students are
performing at a Grade 3 level
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NSES question 42NSES followed about 15000 students (266 schools) and tested them in Grade 3 (2007), Grade 4 (2008)
and Grade 5 (2009).
Grade 3 maths curriculum: “Can perform calculations using appropriate symbols to solve problems involving: division of at least 2-digit by 1-digit numbers”
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5Question 42
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
16% 19% 17% 17%
39%13% 10% 12% 12%
14%
13% 14% 14% 15%
13%
59% 57% 57% 55%
35%
Still wrong in Gr5Correct in Gr5Correct in Gr4Correct in Gr3
Even at the end of Grade 5 most (55%+) quintile 1-4 students cannot answer this simple Grade-3-level problem.
“The powerful notions of ratio, rate and proportion are built upon the simpler concepts of whole number, multiplication and division, fraction and rational number, and are themselves the precursors to the development of yet more complex concepts such as triangle similarity, trigonometry, gradient and calculus” (Taylor & Reddi, 2013: 194)
(Spaull & Viljoen, forthcoming)
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By Gr 3 all children should be able to read, Gr 4 children should be transitioning from “learning to read” to “reading to learn”
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Did not reach Low International benchmark Intemediate International BenchmarkHigh International Benchmark Advanced International benchmark
Red sections here show the proportion of children that are completely illiterate in Grade 4, i.e. they cannot read in any language
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SACMEQ 2007 – Grade 6
2%
25%
46%
26%
South Africa
By this definition of functional illiteracy, if students are functionally illiterate they cannot read a short and simple text and extract meaning i.e. they cannot read for meaning
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Insurmountable learning deficits(Spaull & Viljoen, forthcoming)
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Rationale
• Learning is a cumulative process that builds on itself i.e. it follows a hierarchical structure (see Gagne, 1962; Aubrey, Dahl, & Godfrey, 2006; Aubrey & Godfrey, 2003; Aunio & Niemivirta, 2010).
• Mathematics, in particular, follows a coherent, explicit and systematically principled structure (vertically integrated subject – Bernstein, 1999)
• With respect to South Africa, Taylor et al. (2003, p. 129):“At the end of the Foundation Phase, learners have only a rudimentary grasp of the principles of reading and writing... it is very hard for learners to make up this cumulative deficit in later years...particularly in those subjects that...[have] vertical demarcation requirements (especially mathematics and science), the sequence, pacing, progression and coverage requirements of the high school curriculum make it virtually impossible for learners who have been disadvantaged by their early schooling to ‘catch-up’ later sufficiently to do themselves justice at the high school exit level.” (see also Schollar, 2008)
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Data
• Systemic Evaluation 2007 (Grade 3)– 51 000+ Gr3 students wrote the test in September in the mother tongue
• NSES 2007/8/9 (Grade 3/4/5)– 15 000 students tested using the SE Gr3 test in Gr 3/4/5 (same test), but test
administered in English in each grade.– NSES Grade 3 test conducted in October (1 month after SE)
• SACMEQ 2007 (Grade 6)– 9071 Gr6 students wrote the test in Eng/Afr
• TIMSS 2011 (Grade 9)– 11969 Gr9 students wrote the TIMSS Gr8 exam in 2011
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Hill, Bloom, Black, Lipsey 2007 - USA
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Quantifying learning in a year in SA
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Insurmountable learning deficits: 0.3 SD
Gr3 Gr4 Gr5 Gr6 Gr7 Gr8 Gr9 Gr10 Gr11 Gr12(NSES 2007/8/9) (SACMEQ
2007)Projections (TIMSS
2011)Projections
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3
4
5
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8
9
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South African Learning Trajectories by National Socioeconomic QuintilesBased on NSES (2007/8/9) for grades 3, 4 and 5, SACMEQ (2007) for grade 6 and
TIMSS (2011) for grade 9)
Quintile 1Quintile 2Quintile 3Quintile 4Quintile 5Q1-4 TrajectoryQ5 Trajectory
Actual grade (and data source)
Effec
tive
grad
e
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Possible simulations?
NB: If SA improved at the best possible rates seen around the world, South Africa would take 34 years to attain the level of performance of non-Asian OECD countries
(Source: Gustafsson, 2013: p. 134)
Minimum years needed to improve
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NB: Using 0.08 SD per year as a benchmark, it would take 16.7 years to raise the average mathematics achievement of Grade 9 students in Quintile 1, 2 and 3 to that of Grade 9 students in Quintile 5 in 2011.
(Source: Gustafsson, 2013: p. 135)
Minimum years needed to improve with actual examples
Possible simulations?
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South African teacher content
knowledge
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Importance of basic content knowledge
• Mathematics teachers need “a thorough mastery of the mathematics in several grades beyond that which they expect to teach, as well as of the mathematics in earlier grades” (Conference Board of the Mathematical Sciences, 2001, ch.2).
• Carnoy & Chisholm’s (2008: p. 22) conceptual model distinguishes between basic content knowledge and higher level content knowledge.
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What do South African teachers know relative
to other teachers in Africa?
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SA Grade 6 Mathematics teacher performance on SACMEQ mathematics-teacher test
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600
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750
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850
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950
Series1
Mean Lower bound confidence interval (95%) Upper bound confidence interval (95%)
Mat
hs-t
each
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athe
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SACMEQ III (2007) Mathematics-teacher mathematics test-scores for SACMEQ countries and South African quintiles of school wealth (95% confidence interval incl.)
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Which content areas do South African teachers struggle
with?
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ZAM LES ZAN BOT MAL MOZ NAM SWA SOU ZIM SEY UGA TAN KEN0
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Arithmetic operations (10 Qs) Space and shape (8 Qs) Fractions, ratio and proportion (10 Qs)Algebraic logic (9 Qs) Rate of change (7 Qs)
Country
Perc
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orre
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Figure 2: Mathematics teacher performance by content area (SACMEQ III - 2007)
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Rate of change example (Q17)SACMEQ III (2007) 401/498 Gr6 Mathematics teachers
SACMEQ Maths teacher test Q17
QuintileAvg
1 2 3 4 5Correct 23% 22% 38% 40% 74% 38%
Correct answer (7km):
38% of Gr 6 Maths teachers
7
2 education systems
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Percentage of Grade 6 mathematics teachers with correct answer on Q17 of the SACMEQ III (2007) mathematics teacher test
ZAN MOZ ZAM LES MAL SOU NAM SWA BOT UGA TAN SEY ZIM KEN0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
17%24%
31% 31%35%
38%
38%
49% 49% 51%55%
62%
71%
80%
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What do South African teachers know relative
to international Gr8 students?
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South Afri
ca
Philippines
Portuga
l
Icelan
d
Engla
nd
New Ze
aland
Lithuan
ia
Cypru
s
Latvia
(LSS
)
ZANZIB
AR
Romania
TIMSS
Gr8 Avg
Irelan
d
Switz
erlan
d
SOUTH
AFRICA
MOZAMBIQ
UE
Austria
Russian
Federa
tion
Bulgaria
Slova
k Rep
ublic
Belgium (F
l)
Czech Rep
ublic
SACMEQ
AVG.
Hong Kong
Korea
TANZA
NIAKEN
YA0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
Aver
age
perc
enta
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rrec
t on
16 co
mm
on m
athe
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SACMEQ Grade 6 teachers’ average correct response (dark red) and TIMSS Grade 8 average correct response (light red) on 16 items common to Gr 8 TIMSS Mathematics test 1995 and SACMEQ Grade 6 mathematics teachers test 2007
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Conclusions
Ball et al (2008, p. 409): “Teachers who do not themselves know the subject well are not likely to have the knowledge they need to help students learn this content. At the same time just knowing a subject may well not be sufficient for teaching.”
What can Siyavula do about low teacher CK? NDP suggests that interventions should not expect a high degree of
capacity/competence – i.e. they should be tailored to work in low capacity contexts (i.e. majority of SA)
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3) In South Africa we have TWO public
schooling systems not one
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School Monitoring Survey (2011)2000 schools
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SMS 2011
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SMS2011
thisthis
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Bimodality – indisputable fact0
.005
.01
.015
.02
Den
sity
0 20 40 60 80 100Literacy score (%)
Black WhiteIndian Asian
U-ANA 2011
Kernel Density of Literacy Score by Race (KZN)
0.0
02.0
04.0
06.0
08
Den
sity
0 200 400 600 800 1000Learner Reading Score
Poorest 25% Second poorest 25%Second wealthiest 25% Wealthiest 25%
0.0
01
.00
2.0
03
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4.0
05
kden
sity
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adin
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st s
core
0 200 400 600 800reading test score
African language schools English/Afrikaans schools
0.0
05.0
1.0
15.0
2.0
25D
ensity
0 20 40 60 80 100Numeracy score 2008
Ex-DET/ Homelands schools Historically white schools
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4D
ensi
ty
0 20 40 60 80 100Average school literacy score
Quintile 1 Quintile 2Quintile 3 Quintile 4Quintile 5
U-ANA 2011
Kernel Density of School Literacy by Quintile
PIRLS / TIMSS / SACMEQ / NSES / ANA / Matric… by Wealth / Language / Location / Dept…
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Education and inequality?
Type of education
Quality of education
Duration of
education
SA is one of the top 3 most
unequal countries in the world
Between 78% and 85% of
total inequality is explained by
wage inequality
Wages
• IQ• Motivation• Social
networks• Discrimination
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Attai
nmen
tQ
ualit
yTy
pe
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High SES background
+ECDHigh quality primary school
High quality
secondaryschool
Low SES background
Low quality primary school
Low quality secondary
school
Unequal society
17% Semi-Skilled (31%)
Unskilled(19%)
Unemployed
(Broad - 33%)
Labour Market
High productivity jobs and incomes (17%)
• Mainly professional, managerial & skilled jobs
• Requires graduates, good quality matric or good vocational skills
• Historically mainly white
Low productivity jobs & incomes
• Often manual or low skill jobs
• Limited or low quality education
• Minimum wage can exceed productivity
University/FET
• Type of institution (FET or University)
• Quality of institution • Type of qualification
(diploma, degree etc.)• Field of study
(Engineering, Arts etc.)
• Vocational training• Affirmative action
Majority (80%)
Some motivated, lucky or talented students make the transition
Minority (20%)
- Big demand for good schools despite fees
- Some scholarships/bursaries
cf. Servaas van der Berg – QLFS 2011
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SOLUTION?
Accountability AND Capacity
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“Only when schools have both the incentive to respond to an accountability system as well as the capacity to do so will there be an improvement in student outcomes.” (p22)
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Binding constraints approach
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“The left hand barrel has horizontal wooden slabs, while the right hand side barrel has vertical slabs. The volume in the first barrel depends on the sum of the width of all slabs. Increasing the width of any slab will increase the volume of the barrel. So a strategy on improving anything you can, when you can, while you can, would be effective. The volume in the second barrel is determined by the length of the shortest slab. Two implications of the second barrel are that the impact of a change in a slab on the volume of the barrel depends on whether it is the binding constraint or not. If not, the impact is zero. If it is the binding constraint, the impact will depend on the distance between the shortest slab and the next shortest slab” (Hausmann, Klinger, & Wagner, 2008, p. 17).
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4 “Take-Home” points
Many things we have not discussed – Grade-R/ECD, teacher unions, LOLT, teacher training (in- and pre-), RCTs etc.
1. South Africa performs extremely poorly on local and international assessments of educational achievement.
2. In large parts of the schooling system there is very little learning taking place.
3. In SA we have two public schooling systems not one.
4. Strategies for improvement need to focus on 1) accountability, 2) capacity, 3) alignment.
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Thank youComments & Questions?
This presentation and papers available online at:
www.nicspaull.com/research
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Insurmountable learning deficits: 0.3 SD
Gr3 Gr4 Gr5 Gr6 Gr7 Gr8 Gr9 Gr10 Gr11 Gr12(NSES 2007/8/9) (SACMEQ
2007)Projections (TIMSS
2011)Projections
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
South African Learning Trajectories by National Socioeconomic QuintilesBased on NSES (2007/8/9) for grades 3, 4 and 5, SACMEQ (2007) for grade 6 and
TIMSS (2011) for grade 9)
Quintile 1Quintile 2Quintile 3Quintile 4Quintile 5Q1-4 TrajectoryQ5 Trajectory
Actual grade (and data source)
Effec
tive
grad
e
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Decreasing proportion of matrics taking mathematics
Matric 2008 (Gr 10 2006)
Matric 2009 (Gr 10 2007)
Matric 2010 (Gr 10 2008)
Matric 2011 (Gr 10 2009)
0
200000
400000
600000
800000
1000000
1200000
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%Grade 10 (2 years earlier) Grade 12 Those who pass matric
Pass matric with maths Proportion of matrics taking mathematics
Num
ber o
f stu
dent
s
Prop
ortio
n of
mat
rics (
%)
Numbers wrote maths
Numbers passed maths Maths pass rate Proportion taking
mathsProportion passing maths
2008 298 821 136 503 45,7% 56,1% 25,6%2009 290 407 133 505 46,0% 52,6% 24,2%2010 263 034 124 749 47,4% 48,8% 23,2%2011 224 635 104 033 46,3% 45,3% 21,0%
Table 4: Mathematics outputs since 2008 (Source: Taylor, 2012, p. 4)
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South African teacher content knowledge
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Teacher Content Knowledge• Conference Board of the Mathematical Sciences (2001, ch.2) recommends that
mathematics teachers need: – “A thorough mastery of the mathematics in several grades beyond that
which they expect to teach, as well as of the mathematics in earlier grades” (2001 report ‘The Mathematical Education of Teachers’)
• Ball et al (2008, p. 409) – “Teachers who do not themselves know the subject well are not likely to
have the knowledge they need to help students learn this content. At the same time just knowing a subject may well not be sufficient for teaching.”
• Shulman (1986, p. 9)– “We expect that the subject matter content understanding of the teacher
be at least equal to that of his or her lay colleague, the mere subject matter major”
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South Africa specifically…
• Taylor & Vinjevold’s (1999, p. 230) conclusion in their book “Getting Learning Right” is particularly explicit:
• “The most definite point of convergence across the [President’s Education Initiative] studies is the conclusion that teachers’ poor conceptual knowledge of the subjects they are teaching is a fundamental constraint on the quality of teaching and learning activities, and consequently on the quality of learning outcomes.”
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Carnoy & Chisholm (2008: p. 22) conceptual framework
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Teacher knowledge
Student understands & can calculate
fractions
PCK – how to teach
fractions
CK – How to do
fractions
“For every increment of performance I demand from you, I have an equal responsibility to provide you with the capacity to meet that expectation. Likewise, for every investment you make in my skill and knowledge, I have a reciprocal responsibility to demonstrate some new increment in performance”
(Elmore, 2004b, p. 93).
Teachers cannot teach what they do not know.
Demonizing teachers is popular, but unhelpful
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Distribution of mathematics teacher CK by geographical location
South Africa is the only country (amongst SACMEQ countries) where rural mathematics teachers know statistically significantly less than urban teachers.
600
650
700
750
800
850
900
950
1000
Series1
Rural lower bound confidence interval (95%) Rural upper bound confidence interval (95%)Urban lower bound confidence interval (95%) Urban upper bound confidence interval (95%)
Mat
hs-t
each
er m
athe
mati
cs sc
ore
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Distribution of mathematics teacher CK by school SES quintile
600
650
700
750
800
850
900
950
Series1
Mean Lower bound confidence interval (95%)Upper bound confidence interval (95%)
Mat
hs-t
each
er m
athe
mati
cs sc
ore
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NSES question 37NSES followed about 15000 students (266 schools) and tested them in Grade 3 (2007), Grade 4 (2008)
and Grade 5 (2009).
Grade 3 maths curriculum: “Can perform calculations using approp symbols to solve problems involving: MULTIPLICATION of at least 2-digit by 1-digit numbers”
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5Question 37
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
23% 29% 25% 29%
54%22%
18% 20%19%
17%
17% 17% 18%18%
11%38% 37% 37% 33%
18%
Still wrong in Gr5Correct in Gr5Correct in Gr4Correct in Gr3
At the end of Grade 5 more than a third of quintile 1-4 students cannot answer this simple Grade-3-level problem.
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Solutions?
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Possible solution…
• The DBE cannot afford to be idealistic in its implementation of teacher training and testing– Aspirational planning approach: All primary school mathematics teachers
should be able to pass the matric mathematics exam (benchmark = desirable teacher CK)
– Realistic approach: (e.g.) minimum proficiency benchmark where teachers have to achieve at least 90% in the ANA of the grades in which they teach, and 70% in Grade 9 ANA
(benchmark = basic teacher CK)
• First we need to figure out what works!• Pilot the system with one district. Imperative to evaluate which teacher
training option (of hundreds) works best in urban/rural for example. Rigorous impact evaluations are needed before selecting a program and then rolling it out
• Tests are primarily for diagnostic purposes not punitive purposes
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Accountability stages...
• SA is a few decades behind many OECD countries. Predictable outcomes as we move from stage to stage. Loveless (2005: 7) explains the historical sequence of accountability movements for students – similar movements for teachers?
– Stage 1 – Setting standards (defining what students should learn),
– CAPS– Stage 2 - Measuring achievement
(testing to see what students have learned),– ANA
– Stage 3 - Holding educators & students accountable (making results count).
– Western Cape performance agreements?
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3) Holding accountable
2) Measuring achievement
1) Setting standards
Stages in accountability movements:
TRAINING
“For every increment of performance I demand from you, I have an equal responsibility to provide you with the capacity to meet that expectation. Likewise, for every investment you make in my skill and knowledge, I have a reciprocal responsibility to demonstrate some new increment in performance” (Elmore, 2004b, p. 93).
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When faced with an exceedingly low and unequal quality of education do we….
A) Increase accountability {US model}• Create a fool-proof highly specified, sequenced curriculum (CAPS/workbooks)• Measure learning better and more frequently (ANA)• Increase choice/information in a variety of ways
B) Improve the quality of teachers {Finnish model}• Attract better candidates into teaching degrees draw candidates from the top
(rather than the bottom) of the matric distribution• Increase the competence of existing teachers (Capacitation)• Long term endeavor which requires sustained, committed, strategic, thoughtful
leadership (something we don’t have)
C) All of the above {Utopian model}
• Perhaps A while we set out on the costly and difficult journey of B??
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Way forward?
1. Acknowledge the extent of the problem• Low quality education is one of the three largest crises facing our country (along with
HIV/AIDS and unemployment). Need the political will and public support for widespread reform.
2. Focus on the basics• Every child MUST master the basics of foundational numeracy and literacy these are the
building blocks of further education – weak foundations = recipe for disaster• Teachers need to be in school teaching (re-introduce inspectorate?)• Every teacher needs a minimum competency (basic) in the subjects they teach• Every child (teacher) needs access to adequate learning (teaching) materials• Use every school day and every school period – maximise instructional time
3. Increase information, accountability & transparency• At ALL levels – DBE, district, school, classroom, learner• Strengthen ANA• Set realistic goals for improvement and hold people accountable
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3 biggest challenges - SA
1.Failure to get the basics right• Children who cannot read, write and compute properly (Functionally
illiterate/innumerate) after 6 years of formal full-time schooling• Often teachers lack even the most basic knowledge
2.Equity in education• 2 education systems – dysfunctional system operates at bottom of African
countries, functional system operates at bottom of developed countries.• More resources is NOT the silver bullet – we are not using existing resources
3.Lack of accountability • Little accountability to parents in majority of school system• Little accountability between teachers and Department • Teacher unions abusing power and acting unprofessionally
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Conclusion1. Ensuring that public funding is actually
pro-poor and also that it actually reaches the poor.
2. Understanding whether the motivation is for human dignity reasons or improving learning outcomes.
3. Ensuring that additional resources are allocated based on evidence rather than anecdote.
4. The need for BOTH accountability AND capacity.
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Binding constraints approach
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“The left hand barrel has horizontal wooden slabs, while the right hand side barrel has vertical slabs. The volume in the first barrel depends on the sum of the width of all slabs. Increasing the width of any slab will increase the volume of the barrel. So a strategy on improving anything you can, when you can, while you can, would be effective. The volume in the second barrel is determined by the length of the shortest slab. Two implications of the second barrel are that the impact of a change in a slab on the volume of the barrel depends on whether it is the binding constraint or not. If not, the impact is zero. If it is the binding constraint, the impact will depend on the distance between the shortest slab and the next shortest slab” (Hausmann, Klinger, & Wagner, 2008, p. 17).
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NSES question 37NSES followed about 15000 students (266 schools) and tested them in Grade 3 (2007), Grade 4 (2008)
and Grade 5 (2009).
Grade 3 maths curriculum: “Can perform calculations using approp symbols to solve problems involving: MULTIPLICATION of at least 2-digit by 1-digit numbers”
Even at the end of Grade 5 more than a third of quintile 1-4 students cannot answer this simple Grade-3-level problem.
“The powerful notions of ratio, rate and proportion are built upon the simpler concepts of whole number, multiplication and division, fraction and rational number, and are themselves the precursors to the development of yet more complex concepts such as triangle similarity, trigonometry, gradient and calculus” (Taylor & Reddi, 2013: 194)Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5
Question 37
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
23% 29% 25% 29%
54%22%
18% 20%19%
17%
17% 17% 18%18%
11%38% 37% 37% 33%
18%
Still wrong in Gr5Correct in Gr5Correct in Gr4Correct in Gr3
(Spaull & Viljoen, forthcoming)