an overview of the association between lamprophyric ... · alumosilicate rocks by contact...
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121
MINERALOGIA, 42, No 2-3: 121-162 (2011)
DOI: 10.2478/v10002-011-0011-x
www.Mineralogia.pl
MINERALOGICAL SOCIETY OF POLAND
POLSKIE TOWARZYSTWO MINERALOGICZNE __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Original paper An overview of the association between lamprophyric intrusions and rare-metal mineralization Miroslav ŠTEMPROK1, Thomas SEIFERT2 1 Faculty of Science, Charles University, Albertov 6, 12843 Praha 2, Czech Republic; e-mail: [email protected] 2 TU Bergakademie Freiberg, Department of Mineralogy, Division of Economic Geology and Petrology, Brennhausgasse 14, D-09596 Freiberg, Federal Republic of Germany; e-mail:[email protected] *Corresponding authors: M. Štemprok, Th. Seifert
Received: October 28, 2011 Received in revised form: December 31, 2011 Accepted: March 10, 2012 Available online: March 30, 2012 Abstract. Granite-related rare metal districts in orogenic settings are occasionally associated with lamprophyre dikes. We recorded 63 occurrences of lamprophyres in bimodal dike suites of about 200 granite bodies related to rare metal deposits. Most lamprophyres occur in Paleozoic and Mesozoic metallogenic provinces in the northern hemisphere. Lamprophyres which are associated with rare metal deposits are calc-alkaline (kersantites, minettes, spessartites) or more rarely alkaline lamprophyres (camptonites, monchiquites) which occur in the roof zone of complex granitic bodies as pre-granitic, intragranitic, intra-ore or post-ore dikes. Most lamprophyres are spatially associated with dominant felsic dikes and/or with mafic dikes represented by diorites or diabases. Diorites and lamprophyres occasionally exhibit transitional compositions from one to another. Lamprophyres share common geochemical characteristics of highly evolved granitoids such as enrichment in K and F, increased abundances of Li, Rb, and Cs and enrichment in some HFSE (e.g. Zr, U, Th, Mo, Sn, W). Lamprophyres in rare metal districts testify to accessibility of the upper crust to mantle products at the time of rare metal mineralization and possible influence of mantle melts or mantle-derived fluids in the differentiation of granitic melts in the lower crust. Key-words: lamprophyres, rare metals, Sn, W, Mo, bimodal dikes, mantle metasomatism
122
1. Introduction Many rare-metal (RM) deposits are closely spatially and temporarily associated with
granitoids or equivalent effusive rocks (e.g. Lindgren 1933; Abdullaev 1957; Rundkvist et al. 1971; Tauson 1977; Tischendorf 1977; Taylor 1979; Beskin et al. 1979; Popov et al. 1981; Štemprok 1990; Seifert, Kempe 1994; Robb 2005; Pirajno 2009). Most researchers interpret this association as genetic (granitoids produce mineralizing solutions, e.g. Abdullev 1954, Tischendorf 1977; Lehmann 1990) while some Russian geologists (e.g. Yu. A. Bilibin and P. I. Lebedev in Abdullaev 1954) distinguish also paragenetic relationships (intrusions and mineralizing solutions use identical host structures). Most RM deposits were formed during Paleozoic and Mesozoic orogenies in an approximate 120 - 80 Ma interval (Rundkvist et al. 1971). However, the occurrences of lamprophyres in bimodal dike suites of RM districts are relatively rare (Štemprok 19951) in contrast to the districts hosting mesothermal gold deposits (Rock 1991). Mesothermal gold deposits spatially related to granitoids, which range in age from Archean to Tertiary, include often abundant lamprophyres in their bimodal dike suites (Rock et al. 1989; Ashley et al. 1994). Their role was interpreted as evidence for mantle melts or volatiles involved in the origin of ore-bearing fluids (Rock et al. 1989). Mafic intrusions supply some of the components, including metals and heat to drive hydrothermal systems.
The districts with granites and RM deposits host lamprophyres in various sequential positions in relation to associated granites (e.g. Seifert 2008). RM deposits in the Erzgebirge metallogenic province are interpreted as mantle-derived mineralization (Seifert 1994, 2008; Seifert, Sandmann 2006). Uncertainties surrounding the genesis of lamprophyres make their occurrence in the ore districts with highly evolved RM granites even more difficult to explain. Rock (1991) noted that in the European Variscides the space-time relationship between lamprophyres and ores seems to be stronger than that between granitoids and ores.
Lamprophyres which are of mantle (<100 km) origin in subduction zones and continental rift settings are reported also as components of bimodal dike suites in a number of hydrothermal Pb-Zn, Sb-Hg, Ag-Sb and fluorite deposits (Abdulaev 1957; Mikhaleva, Tychinskii 1972; Indolev 1979; Mikhaleva 1989; Rock 1991). Significant is the association of Sn-W, Sn-sulfide, and Ag-Sb deposits with Paleozoic and Mesozoic magmatism in the Erzgebirge, Central Asia, and Yakutia which includes granitoids and abundant mafic dikes (Obolenskaya 1971; Seifert 2008; Pavlova, Borisenko 2009; Vasyukova 2010; Seifert et al. 2011).
This paper examines the regional distribution of lamprophyres in bimodal dike suites of RM granites coeval with the origin of granites as based on literature data and the authors’ own work. Many of the present models on the genesis of copper porphyry and tin porphyry deposits (e.g. Dietrich et al. 1999; Hattori, Keith 2001; Maughan et al. 2002; Sinclair 2007) reflect the growing recognition of the effect of mafic magmas on crustal felsic melts. The presence of lamprophyres also indicates a possible reaction of crustal material with lamproite melts suggested by Prelevic et al. (2004) as primary magmas in the genesis of K-lamprophyres. 1 Lamproite dikes in the paper title refer to lamprophyre dikes (M.S.)
123
We attempt to answer the question whether the association between RM- bearing granites and lamprophyres is coincidental; for example, if the lamprophyres intruded fractures that had been used by earlier granitoids or genetic with the origin of lamprophyres induced by a single long lasting magmatic event and lamprophyric magmatism contributed to concentration of rare metals in the crust. Our information is based on current descriptions of RM districts focused on the studies of ores and lamprophyres and enclosing or near-by granitoids.
2. Nomenclature of lamprophyres
The exact definition of lamprophyres still generates confusion (Wooley et al. 1996; Le
Bas 2007) which is understandable in view of the identical mineralogy of calc-alkaline lamprophyres with abarokites and shoshonites and partly with diorites and andesites. Many authors note common transitions of lamprophyres to intermediate and mafic dikes, which accords with a common heteromorphism of lamprophyres and between various types of lamprophyres (e.g. minettes and kersantites; Metais, Chayes 1963, 1964; Rock 1991). The main petrographic types of calc-alkaline lamprophyres are kersantites as biotite-plagioclase lamprophyres with some late crystallizing alkali feldspar or quartz, and minettes characterized by phlogopite and alkali feldspar. No petrological model can account for the derivation of minette from kersantite and vice versa (Turpin et al. 1988).
We use the definition of lamprophyres as mesocratic to melanocratic igneous rocks with phenocrysts of dark mica and amphibole or both, set in a matrix of the same minerals and with feldspars restricted to the groundmass (Wooley et al. 1996). Hence, the calc-alkaline lamprophyres (CAL family after Rock 1991) include petrological types of genetically identical rocks like minettes, vogesites, kersantites and spessartites. Camptonites and monquichites, which are reported rarely from RM districts, belong to the class of alkaline lamprophyres (AL after Rock 1991) characterized by foids and glass in addition to feldspars in the matrix and by the presence of sodic amphiboles. The small thickness of some lamprophyre dikes precludes their correct identification in strongly weathered regions and also in intensively hydrothermally altered domains of some ore-bearing districts.
The importance of examination of lamprophyres in RM districts stems in our opinion from an unusually high volatile content (H2O, F, CO2, Cl) which differs them from most other mafic dikes. They have many other peculiar structural features (Shchukin 1974; Rock 1991) such as a complex morphology with varying changes of dike courses and thicknesses, a considerable small-scale variability in their petrological composition, gradual transitions to other mafic dikes like diabases and diorites, presence of abundant xenoliths of deep crustal and country rocks, chemical composition close to alkaline gabbroid rocks (Obolenskaya 1971; Rock 1991), and spatial association with granites, diabases and dolerites, alkaline complexes, ultramafic rocks and potassic rocks (Wimmenauer 1973). Many features of their emplacement can be explained by high volatile content which facilitates rapid forceful way along narrow fractures. This allows lamprophyre to “drill their passage” even into resistant rocks (Rock 1991). In case of RM districts these properties can explain penetration of lamprophyric dikes to apical parts of complex upper crustal granite bodies and into their country rocks.
124
Calc-alkaline and alkaline lamprophyres are geochemically characterized by (1) low SiO2 typical of mafic to intermediate compositions (48 to 55 wt.%); (2) high contents of alkalies comparable to granitoids and rare alkalies in the range of fractionated acid igneous rocks; (3) increased contents of some trace elements close to their concentrations in mafic rocks (Ti, Co, Ni, V) or even higher (Cr) or in acid igneous rocks (Zr, Sr, Mo, Pb); (4) increased contents of volatile elements (P, F) and water. Lamprophyres contain abundant secondary minerals from the alteration of primary minerals. Products of some deuteric processes coincide with the products of thermal and hydrothermal alterations in alumosilicate rocks by contact metamorphism of granitoids, or greisenization of mafic rocks (Štemprok 1987) or with hydrothermal alterations in tin and copper porphyry-systems (Sinclair 2007).
3. Classification of primary Sn, W, and Mo deposits
The most modern classifications of Sn and W deposits consider geological position,
shape of ore bodies, mineralogical characteristics and hydrothermal alterations (cf. Štemprok 1978). Sinclair et al. (2011) distinguished within the group of Sn and W deposits felsic and intermediate intrusion-domains. Sn and W deposits usually occur as veins and/or stockworks in the apical zones of felsic-intermediate intrusions and are associated with greisen-type alteration, breccia pipes, pegmatites and skarns. The classification of the ore deposits of Northeast Asia metallogenic belts related to magmatic processes by Rodionov et al. (2004) distinguished between deposits related to intermediate and felsic intrusions: (A) pegmatite, (B) greisen and quartz vein, (C) alkaline metasomatite, (D) skarn, and (E) porphyry and granitoid-pluton hosted deposits. The latter group includes cassiterite-sulfide-silicate vein and stockwork, porphyry Cu-Mo(±Au, Ag), porphyry Mo(±W, Bi) and porphyry Sn deposits. Most Russian classifications used the mineral characteristics to denote the type of deposits (Khruschov 1961; Magakyan 1974; Denisenko 1978; Povilaitis 1981). A simplified classification of the Sn, W, and Mo ores used in this study as adapted from Štemprok (1978) is shown in Table 1.
4. The source of literature data
We base our data on the collection by Štemprok (1998) on magmatic zonation of RM
granitoids in orogenic belts, which considered differentiation ranges of magmatic bodies. This database included the protocol of 20 principal characteristics registered for each of the granitoid body and contained about 300 entries for around 200 mostly complex granitoid bodies. A second database is the collection of Seifert (1994, 2008), which describes the association of lamprophyres and rare metal, Ag-base metal, U, and Au mineralization in the Erzgebirge and surrounding metallogentic provinces and areas for comparison worldwide.
TA
BLE
1
Sim
plifi
ed c
lass
ifica
tion
of R
M d
epos
its re
late
d to
fels
ic a
nd /o
r int
erm
edia
te in
trusi
ve m
agm
atis
m.
Ore
type
W
orld
map
(S
incl
air e
t al
. 201
1)
Met
al
Dep
ende
nce
on g
rani
te
cont
act
Form
of o
re b
ody
Alte
ratio
n M
ain
ore
min
eral
s
pegm
atite
gr
aniti
c pe
gmat
ite
Sn
inde
pend
ent
lens
es, d
ikes
cass
iterit
e
skar
n sk
arn
W, S
n, M
o co
ntac
t dep
ende
nt
lens
es, s
tratif
orm
bo
dies
sk
arni
zatio
n sc
heel
ite,
cass
iterit
e,
mol
ybde
nite
gr
eise
n, v
ein
grei
sen,
ve
in, s
tock
wor
k Sn
, W, M
o co
ntac
t dep
ende
nt
vein
s, zo
nes o
f al
tera
tion,
st
ockw
orks
grei
seni
zatio
n,
seric
itiza
tion
cass
iterit
e,
wol
fram
ite,
mol
ybde
nite
to
urm
alin
e an
d ch
lorit
e m
etas
omat
ite
vein
, sto
ckw
ork,
br
ecci
a pi
pe
Sn, W
co
ntac
t dep
ende
nt
vein
s, zo
nes o
f al
tera
tion
tour
mal
iniz
atio
n,
chlo
ritiz
atio
n ca
ssite
rite,
w
olfr
amite
, sc
heel
ite
quar
tz fe
ldsp
ar
met
asom
atite
ve
in, s
tock
wor
k M
o co
ntac
t dep
ende
nt
stoc
kwor
ks, z
ones
of
alte
ratio
n fe
ldsp
athi
zatio
n,
seric
itiza
tion
mol
ybde
nite
porp
hyry
or
e st
ockw
ork
Mo,
Cu
gran
ite a
nd/o
r po
rphy
ry c
onta
ct
depe
nden
t
stoc
kwor
ks,
zone
s of a
ltera
tion
silic
ifica
tion,
se
riciti
zatio
n m
olyb
deni
te,
chal
copy
rite
sulfi
dic
ore
vein
, sto
ckw
ork,
ca
rbon
ate
repl
acem
ent
Sn
inde
pend
ent
vein
s, st
ratif
orm
bo
dies
se
riciti
zatio
n,
chlo
ritiz
atio
n ca
ssite
rite,
stan
nite
126
The above mentioned databases were used to identify the presence of lamprophyres in the dike suites of RM districts. Many of these data made the petrographic description before the introduction of the IUGS classification of lamprophyric rocks (Le Maitre 1989). Thus, the assignment of a dike rock to lamprophyres was in many cases based on field petrological criteria. We considered it important in our study to identify the dike association accompanying lamprophyres. There is no unique terminology for the classification of felsic dikes among various schools of geologists. The term “quartz porphyry” is currently used for some dikes of rhyolitic composition and textures and classified as “subvolcanic rhyolitic” dikes.
For location of many RM districts we used the world map of distribution of tin and tungsten deposits (Sinclair et al. 2011) which records 1063 primary tin and tungsten deposits and important ore occurrences. This map proved to be indispensable in locating some of RM deposits which lack any detailed description of geographical position in the original literature.
A relative age of lamprophyres described by the association of intrusive rocks and hydrothermal deposits is derived from cross-cutting relationships such as Etyka in Transbaikalia (Levitskii et al. 1963), U deposits in the western Erzgebirge (Ačejev, Harlass 1968) and for late-Variscan ore deposits in the Erzgebirge-Vogtland region and surrounding areas (Seifert 2008). The bracketing role of lamprophyre dikes with the products of granitoid magmatism and mineralization is very important as some rocks have been dated by geochronological methods (e.g. Abushkevich 2005; Seifert 2008; Pavlova et al. 2008; Seifert et al. 2011). The lamprophyric dikes can be pre-granitic, intra-granitic or post-granitic as shown in Figure 3 but also pre-ore, intra-ore, and post-ore (example Erzgebirge, cf. Seifert 2008). Recent data include also the dating by isotopic geochronology of lamprophyres which may confirm their contemporaneity with the associated RM granites in many ore provinces (e.g. Abushkevich 2005; Seifert 2008; Cheng et al. 2008; Pavlova, Borisenko 2009; Cheng, Mao 2010) (Tab. 2).
TAB
LE 2
Se
lect
ed g
rani
te-r
elat
edR
M d
istri
cts h
ostin
g la
mpr
ophy
res.
A
rea
Dep
osits
M
etal
s A
ge o
f fel
sic
mag
mat
ism
(Ma)
A
ge o
f lam
prop
hyre
s (M
a)
Ref
eren
ce
Sew
ard
Penn
insu
la, U
SA
Lost
Riv
er
Sn, W
, Be
*115
- 75
*9
0 - 8
4 (?
) Sa
insb
ury
(196
9), D
obso
n (1
982)
, *A
mat
o et
al.
(200
3)
Red
Mt.,
USA
U
rad-
Hen
ders
on
Mo
23 -
30
29.8
±1
Wal
lace
et a
l. (1
978)
Iber
ian
Penn
insu
la,
Portu
gal
Cov
as
W
Pale
ozoi
c *c
. 283
C
onde
et a
l. (1
971)
, *B
ea e
t al.
(199
9)
Cor
nwal
l, U
K
Sn
, Cu,
W
*290
- 28
0 *C
hyw
eeda
: 292
.9±3
.4
Leat
et a
l. (1
987)
, *D
arby
shire
, Sh
ephe
rd (1
985)
, Sha
il, W
ilkin
son
(199
4)
Mas
sif C
entra
l, Fr
ance
Ec
hass
iere
, Puy
-les-
Vig
nes
W, S
n, B
e Pa
leoz
oic
W
eppe
(195
1), B
urno
l et a
l. (1
974)
Er
zgeb
irge/
Kru
šné
hory
, G
erm
any/
Cze
ch R
epub
lic
*Ehr
enfri
eder
sdor
f, **
Got
tesb
erg-
Müh
lleith
en,
***M
arie
nber
g-Po
bers
hau,
Pö
hla,
Kru
pka,
Sac
hsen
höhe
Sn, W
, Mo
*322
±5,
**32
5.7±
3.7
- 32
0±3,
**3
12.5
±4.6
, **
*321
±3
*330
-340
(?),
**32
0±3
- 31
6±2.
7, *
**32
7.8±
0.5
- 309
.5±6
.9
Seife
rt, K
empe
199
4, Š
tem
prok
, Se
ltman
n (1
994)
, Bau
man
n et
al.
(200
0), *
/**/
***c
f. Se
ifert
(200
8)
Nor
ther
n C
auca
sus,
Rus
sia
Kti-
Tebe
rda
W
280
- 250
Mak
eev
et a
l. (1
983)
U
zbek
ista
n K
arm
an, K
arna
b, L
apaz
*I
ngic
hke
Sn, W
Sn
, W
Pale
ozoi
c,
Car
boni
fero
us,
200
- 180
Car
boni
fero
us,
200
- 180
Sm
irnov
et a
l. (1
978)
, Lu
gov
et a
l. (1
986)
, *D
enis
enko
(198
6)
Tadj
ikis
tan
Kum
arkh
(Gis
sar R
ange
) *C
horu
kh-D
airo
n (M
ogol
tau)
**
Trez
ubet
z (S
E Pa
mir)
Sn, W
W
, Mo
Sn, W
Perm
ian
Perm
ian
Cre
tace
ous
Perm
ian,
C
reta
ceou
s Sm
irnov
et a
l. (1
978)
, *M
amad
zhan
ov (2
001)
, **
Pavl
ova
et a
l. (2
010)
C
entra
l Kaz
akhs
tan
(Kal
ba N
arym
) A
tasu
Wes
t, B
aina
zar,
Kai
ba,
Mai
kul
W, M
o, S
n Pa
leoz
oic
Zh
ilins
kii (
1959
), Sh
cher
ba (1
960)
Kyr
gyzs
tan
*Tru
dovo
e (S
E Ti
en S
han)
**
Kur
gan
(Tal
as R
ange
) **
Kum
ysht
ag (T
alas
Ran
ge)
Sn, W
Sn
, Ag,
Pb,
Zn
Ag,
Sb,
Pb,
Zn
312
- 270
Pa
leoz
oic
Pale
ozoi
c
295
- 250
28
0 28
0
*Dzh
ench
urae
va e
t al.
(200
7),
**Pa
vlov
a, B
oris
enko
(200
9)
SE A
ltai,
Rus
sia
NW
Mon
golia
Y
ustid
A
chitn
ur (*
Chu
ya c
ompl
ex)
W, M
o Sn
, W
355
Mes
ozoi
c *2
46 -
235
*Pav
lova
, Bor
isen
ko (2
009)
, V
asyu
kova
(201
0)
Kuz
nets
k A
lata
u, R
ussi
a So
rsko
e C
u, M
o Pa
leoz
oic
M
akee
v et
al.
(198
3)
W. T
rans
baik
alia
, Rus
sia
Dzh
ida
W, M
o M
esoz
oic
Po
vila
itis (
1960
), M
akee
v et
al.
(198
3)
Sout
hern
Chi
na
*Dac
hang
, *G
eiju
, **
Yao
ganx
ian
Sn, C
u, P
b, Z
n,
Sb, A
g, W
95
- 90
77
.4±2
.5 -
85.0
±0.8
5 16
9 - 1
78
82
*Che
ng Y
anbo
et a
l. (2
008)
, C
heng
Yan
bo, M
ao Ji
ngw
en (2
010)
, **
Kan
eda,
Tak
euch
i (19
88)
Nor
thea
ster
n M
ongo
lia
Bag
a K
hairk
han,
Bur
en
Tsog
tin, I
khe
Kha
irkha
n,
Kha
ra Y
amat
in
Sn, W
, Mo
Mes
ozoi
c
Kov
alen
ko e
t al.
(197
1), M
arin
ov e
t al
. (19
77)
Eeat
ern
Tran
sbai
kalia
, R
ussi
a B
eluk
ha, B
ogda
tsko
e,
Bug
datin
, Buk
uka,
Ety
ka,
Kha
pche
rang
a, O
reki
tan,
*O
rlovk
a
Sn, W
, Ta,
Mo
Mes
ozoi
c *1
53.3
±3.8
B
arab
anov
(196
1), L
evits
kii e
t al.
(196
3), O
ntoe
v (1
974)
, Sm
irnov
et a
l. (1
978)
, Mak
eev
et a
l. (1
983)
, Lug
ov
et a
l. (1
986)
, *A
bush
kevi
ch (2
005)
M
ariti
me
(Prim
ore)
, R
ussi
a B
ache
lai,
Vos
tok
2,
Kan
dom
a, Y
amut
in, Z
abyt
oe
Sn, W
, Mo
Mes
ozoi
c
Izok
h et
al.
(195
7), I
vano
v et
al.
(198
0), M
akee
v et
al.(
1983
) Y
ano-
Kol
yma,
Rus
sia
*Dep
utat
skoe
**
/***
Men
kech
ensk
oe
Ilint
as
Bur
goch
an,
Dya
khta
rdak
hsko
e
Sn, W
, Ag,
Pb,
Zn
Sn
, W, A
g, P
b,
Zn
Sn, W
, Ag
Sn, W
112-
108
123-
119
Mes
ozoi
c M
esoz
oic
>113
, 106
±1.2
>1
20 a
nd <
119
Mes
ozoi
c-C
enoz
oic
*Pav
lova
et a
l. (2
009)
, Pav
lova
, B
oris
enko
(200
9), *
*Lay
er e
t al.
(200
1), *
**In
dole
v, N
evoi
sa (1
974)
, Fl
erov
(197
6), S
mirn
ov e
t al.
(197
8)
Tasm
ania
, Aus
tralia
B
lue
Tier
bat
holit
h ar
ea
Sn, W
Pa
leoz
oic,
Mes
ozoi
c M
esoz
oic
Mc
Cle
nagh
an &
Bai
llie
(197
5),
Hig
gins
et a
l. (1
985)
C
huko
tka,
Rus
sia
Agy
lkin
, Egu
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129
Some data, however, show that intrusion of lamprophyres may not be coeval with RM granites and RM mineralization. For example, at the Kitsault porphyry molybdenum deposit in British Columbia lamprophyre dikes are almost 20 Ma younger than the intrusive complex that is related to the deposit (Steininger 1985). In the Blue Tier batholith in Tasmania the Paleozoic Sn(-W) mineralization described by Groves and Taylor (1973) is apparently independent of the intrusion of lamprophyres described by Mc Clenaghan and Baillie (1975) in the vicinity.
5. Geographical distribution of rare metal districts
RM granites occur in extensive, relatively narrow linear metallogenic zones within
major orogenic belts (Fig. 1). The distribution of RM deposits and occurrences are irregular in linear belts and form metallogenic provinces (Rundkvist et al. 1971; Magakyan 1974; Kerrich et al. 2005). They are predominantly related to the Mesozoic and Cenozoic orogenic belts in western North and South America around the western margin of the Pacific Ocean and to the Tethyan orogenic belts in southern Asia. They are less
Fig. 1. Tin-, tungsten- and molybdenum-bearing areas and important deposits of the world. Compiledfrom Krushchov (1961), Taylor (1979) and Povilaitis (1981). Areas (provinces): 1 – North American Cordillera, 2 – Colorado Plateau, 3 – Appalachians, 4 – Rhondonia, 5 – Bolivian, 6 – East Brazilian, 7 – Iberian, 8 – Cornwall (Sn–W), 9 – Massif Central, 10 – Nigeria, 11 – Central Europe, 12 – Central Africa, 13 – Bushveld, 14 – East African, 15 – North Caucasian, 16 – East Uralian, 17 – South Tien Shan, 18 – Central Kazakhstan, 19 – Kalba–Narym, 20 – Gornyi Altai, 21 – Burma–Malaysia, 22 – Transbaikalian–Mongolian, 23 – South–eastern China, 24 – Verkhoyansk–Kolyma, 25 – Korean peninsula, 26 – Sikhote–Alin, 27 – Japanese Islands, 28 – Eastern Australia, 29 – Chukotka.
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significantly distributed in Paleozoic provinces (Caledonides and Variscides) of Europe, Central Asia, Eastern Australia and eastern North America and very subordinately in Precambrian terranes. The RM provinces are characterized either by the predominance of a single metal in the ores such as Sn or W or more commonly by the combination of two metals, such as Sn-W or Mo-W, while the combination of Sn-Mo is very rare.
6. Lamprophyres in rare metal districts
The Sn, W, and Mo districts with felsic and/or intermediate intrusions hosting
lamprophyres are shown in Figure 2.
Fig. 2. Lamprophyres in Sn-,W-, and Mo districts within felsic and/or intermediate intrusive domains. Simplified from Geological map of the World, Geological Survey of Canada, by Kirkham and Chorlton (2005).
6.1. North American Cordillera
At Lost River Sn deposits in Alaska (USA) are associated with small stocks of Late
Cretaceous biotite granites at six widely spaced localities in the Seward penninsula in Alaska. At the Lost River tin-tungsten-fluorite deposit (Sainsbury et al. 1968; Sainsbury 1969; Hudson, Arth 1983) the granites are accompanied by the dikes of diabases and lamprophyres and rhyolitic (quartz-porphyry) dikes. The lamprophyres contain granite xenoliths but no granitic dikes are known to contain lamprophyre xenoliths, indicating that the lamprophyres are younger. Amato et al. (2003) report Late Cretaceous dike swarms in Seward Penninsula where the dike swarm in the Kigluaik Mountains has the age between 90 and 84 Ma (40Ar/39Ar method). The intrusion of the mafic dike suite marks Cretaceous extension of the region.
In the Red Mountain area, Colorado, USA the Urad-Henderson molybdenum deposits are associated with the mid-Tertiary Red Mountain intrusive centre, which formed in the interval of 27 to 30 Ma in at least 23 intrusive events (Shannon et al. 2004). The porphyry Mo systems at Climax and Henderson include a lamprophyre-leucogranite dike suite
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(Bookstrom et al. 1988). Wallace et al. (1978) and Geraghty et al. (1988) described early separate or composite lamprophyre dikes associated with later rhyolite stocks and dikes. The age of kersantite in the Red Mountain intrusive suite belonging to the swarm of radial dikes was dated at 29.8 ± 1Ma (Ar/Ar) (Table 2).
6.2. Western European Variscides
In South-West England (mainly in Cornwall) minette dikes are spatially associated with
the Cornubian batholith (Leat et al. 1987). The granite related mineralization of the vein type (Sn tourmaline-chlorite assemblages) is related to this batholith which hosts also "elvans" (K-rich rhyolitic rocks). Lamprophyres are petrographically identified as phlogopite or olivine-phlogopite minettes (Manning 1998). Fortey (1992) identified lamprophyres as calc-alkaline minettes, olivine minettes and analcime-bearing lamproites. Hughes (1997) distinguished two groups of minettes: the first group of Exeter Volcanic Rocks (EVR) following the Variscan trend (shoshonites and minettes), the second group called the Cornish Minette Rocks (CMR) following the Caledonian trend (minette with no shoshonite associates). Both of the groups show a spatial association with the granites of the Cornubian batholith (Darbyshire, Shepherd 1985) but none of the dikes cut the granite at the surface outcrops. Highly potassic mantle derived magmatism is approximately coeval with the earliest granites (Leat et al. 1987). The late Stephanian K-Ar age for the Chyweeda lamprophyre at 292.9 ± 3.4 Ma agrees with the age of highly potassic lavas in SW England as given by Hawkes (1981) at 295.2 ± 2.6 Ma.
In the French Massif Central the Late Paleozoic granite of Collete forms a major stock with a satellite minor granite cupola of Echassière, which is spatially associated with bimodal dike suite including a kersantite (Burnol et al. 1974). In the Iberian Penninsula of central Spain, upper Carboniferous peraluminus granitoids (330 to 290 Ma) are preceded by intrusion of mafic-ultramafic hybrid magmas and are postdated by dike swarms of camptonitic lamprophyres (~ 283 Ma; Bea et al. 1999). A W skarn deposit in a spatial association with granites at Cova (15 km south of Vila Nova de Cerveira) hosts lamprophyres in the latest stage of Variscan magmatism (Conde et al. 1971).
6.3. Central European Variscides
Lamprophyre dikes occur in the Krušné hory/Erzgebirge - Smrčiny-Fichtelgebirge
anticlinorium (Kramer 1976; Seifert 1994, 2008) of the Central European Variscides in a spatial relationship with the late-Variscan Krušné hory/Erzgebirge granite batholith (Seifert 1994; Seifert, Baumann 1994; Seifert, Kempe 1994; Novák et al. 2001; Štemprok et al. 2008) and Smrčiny/Fichtelgebirge pluton. The lamprophyres in the Erzgebirge are independent of the regional distribution of Variscan granites on the surface (cf. Watznauer 1964; Seifert 2008) but are closely related to deep-seated NW-SE and NE-SW fault zones and lineaments (e.g. Gera-Jáchymov and Warmbad-Chomutov fault zones; Kramer 1976, 1988; Seifert 1994; 2008; Štemprok et al. 2008).
The lamprophyric intrusions in the Erzgebirge are divided by Seifert (1994, 2008) using criteria of relative age relationships to late-Variscan granites, aplites, rhyolitic dikes, and
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late-Variscan mineralization stages as well as petrographic and geochemical criteria (L1 – L3, Fig. 3):
Fig. 3. Scheme for the sequence of pregranitic (L1), intragranitic (L2), and postgranitic lamprophyres (L3) in relationship to late-collisional granites of the Erzgebirge/Krušné hory (type “Eibenstock granite”) (cf. Seifert 1994, 2008).
(1) L1-type lamprophyres are mostly represented by kersantites, which are intruded by the
late-collisional Ehrenfriedersdorf granite and crosscut by aplites, which are possibly associated with deeper magma chambers of topaz-albite granites. L1 are crosscut and overprinted by Sn-W mineralization and show Sn contents of up to 230 ppm (Fig. 4).
Fig. 4. Schematic cross-section through the central part of the tin district Ehrenfriedersdorf/central Erzgebirge (Seifert and Kempe 1994, modified in Seifert 2008). 1 – quartz-micaschist; 2 – skarn lense; 3 – late-collisional granite; 4 – Sn-greisen; 5 – aplite and greisenized aplite (schematic, different generations), 6 – lamprophyric dike (type L1).
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(2) L2-type lamprophyres postdate the late-collisonal granite intrusions and occur widely in the Sn-Ag-U district Marienberg-Pobershau, and are dominated by mica-minette dike intrusions with strike lengths up to 7 km and a thickness up to 10 m. L2-type lamprophyres are crosscut by Sn(-W), Ag-polymetallic and U vein-type mineralization but they crosscut the main hidden Marienberg-Pobershau-Satzung granite complex (Fig. 5). L2-type lamprophyre intrusions are located in the most rare-metal, Ag-base metal, and U districts of the Erzgebirge (cf. Seifert 2008).
Fig. 5. Geology of the Sn deposit Sachsenhöhe/eastern Erzgebirge (in Seifert 2008, modified according to W. Schilka, pers. comm. 2000, and archive material). 1 – biotite gneiss; 2/3 – muscovite(–biotite) gneiss; 4 – explosive breccia; 5 – syenogranite; 6 – monzogranite; 7 – albite granite; 8 – lamprophyre (type L2); 9 – greisenization; 10 – Sn(–W–Bi–) vein–like greisen zone; 11 – “kb ore–type” vein; 12 – vein with post–Variscan mineralization; 13 – fault; 14 – old adit.
(3) L3-type lampropyhres are identified in the Pobershau Sn-Ag-Cu ore field and are
represented by feldspar- to low-phyric kersantitic lamprophyres. Based on the data from Müller (1848) and Seifert (1994, 2008) the L3-type lamprophyres in the Pobershau ore field show post-Sn mineralization age (Fig. 6).
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Fig. 6. Schematic picture showing an East-West striking cassiterite-quartz vein crosscut by a NNW-SSE lamprophyric dike, Pobershau Sn-Ag district/central Erzgebirge (in Seifert 2008, modified according to Müller 1848 and Seifert 1994). 1 – paragneisses of the Rusová unit; 2 – quartz-cassiterite vein (main type of the Sn veins in the Pobershau district; Sn-Li-F association); 3 – lamprophyric dike (type L3); 4 – brecciated quartz vein with Fe- and Mn-oxihydroxides; 5 – gneiss-, Sn-vein-, and lamprophyre-fragments cemented by quartz; 6 – old adit.
In the Western Erzgebirge and Vogtland area, lamprophyres occur in the Nejdek-
Eibenstock granite massif and in the metamorphic host rocks as single dikes or minor dike swarms (Kaemmel 1961; Baumann, Gorny 1964; Seifert 2007). At the Mühleithen-Gottesberg Sn-W-U district Seifert (2007, 2008 and references therein) described low-phyric mica-minette dikes crosscutting Eibenstock-type granites of the Western Erzgebirge pluton and crosscut by (explosive) breccia pipes and subvolcanic felsic intrusions. The Sn veins and greisen and U veins are younger than the emplacement of the lamprophyric intrusions (cf. Seifert 2007).
In the Eastern Krušné hory/Erzgebirge, lamprophyric dikes (kersantites, minettes, spessartites) occur mainly in gneisses and crystalline schists, and are a component of the dike suite which also consists of aplites, microgranites and granite porphyries (Novák et al. 2001; Pivec et al. 2002; Seifert 2008). A kersantite dike in the exocontact of a granite cupola at the Sn-W deposit Preisselberg in the district Krupka is shown in Figure 7. Xenoliths of lamprophyre embedded by Li-mica alkali feldspar granite were observed at the Krupka Sn district (Štemprok et al. 1994). This indicates also the presence of intragranitic lamprophyres.
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Fig. 7. Cross section of the Preisselberg Sn-W-Mo deposit in the Krupka district (Eastern Krušné hory/Erzgebirge) with a lamprophyric dike near the contact of the late-Variscan granite intrusion (from Novák et al. 2001).
6.4. The Caucasus
In the Main Ridge of the Caucasus (Russia) at the Kti Teberda deposit, scheelite veins
and impregnations occur in orthoamphibolites (Kremenetsky et al. 2000) and are intersected by the Late Paleozoic Dupukh pluton of two-mica granites. The deposit was formed in two main mineralization stages separated by intrusion of diabase and lamprophyric dikes (Denisenko 1986).
6.5. Central Asian fold Belts
The Talas ore district in the Kyrgyz Tien Shan encompasses numerous Sn-sulfide, Ag-
Sb, Ag-Pb, and Sn-Ag ore deposits (Pavlova et al. 2008; Pavlova, Borisenko 2009, Pavlova, Borovikov 2010). Tin occurrences are located around multistage granite plutons of Neoproterozoic to Paleozoic ages intruding Proterozoic/Paleozoic terrigenous-carbonate sediments. All the Ag-Sb and Sn-Ag ore bodies are superimposed on earlier lamprophyres, syenites, and extrusive mafic rocks. The Sn-W deposit Trudovoe (SE Tien Shan) hosts Late Palaeozoic lamprophyres (Dzhenchuraeva et al. 2007).
In the SE Altai (Russia) and NW Mongolia in the Yustid granite massif, Sn-W deposits occur at the contact between the granite and the host Devonian terrigenous rocks.
The RM mineralization is connected with both the main stages of felsic magmatism: the Yustid complex (352 ± 6Ma) with Sn-W mineralization, and the amazonite dike with
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cassiterite mineralization (265.9 ± 3.5 Ma) (Pavlova, Borisenko 2009). The youngest ages for Mo-W greisen mineralization in Ulanul (Mongolia) and Kalguty (Russian Altai) was measured between 220 and 200 Ma (Pavlova, Borisenko 2009). The Early Mesozoic magmatism is represented by dike swarms of intermediate and mafic rocks (minette, kersantite, bostonite, dolerite), small intrusions of syenite and granosyenite and later leucogranitic intrusions and by ongonite dikes (Vasyukova 2010).
In Uzbekistan, scheelite skarn deposits like Ingichke occur at the contact zone of late-Variscan granites (Smirnov et al. 1978; Denisenko 1986) which hosts lamprophyres in the bimodal dike suite.
In Tajikistan in the Mogoltau Mts, the Middle Paleozoic Muzbek complex (quartz diorites, granodiorites) and Late Palaeozoic Chorukh-Dairon complex (Mamadzhanov 2001) are associated with W (scheelite) and Mo mineralization. In the SE Pamir the Sn-W deposit Trezubetz and the Ag-Sb deposit Akjilga host Cretaceous and Eocene lamprophyres, respectively (Pavlova et al. 2010).
In central Kazakhstan and Kalma Narym region lamprophyres are reported in the bimodal suite of granitoid plutons carrying RM mineralization by Zhilinskii (1959) and Shcherba (1957, 1960). In the Southern Altai in the Late Paleozoic, Shcherba (1957) documented granite porphyries and lamprophyres representing the products of the latest magmatic stages. Mafic dikes in Western Kalba include spessartites and kersantites, but also gabbrodiabases, diorites, diabases, and gabbronorites (Shcherba 1957). Lamprophyres occur in zones of Meso-Cenozoic tectonic activation. Thus, some of them may be related to tectonic events later than Palaeozoic magmatism which produced RM mineralization.
In the Altai-Sayan in Russia, the Cu-Mo stockwork of the Sorskoe deposit (Krementsky et al. 2000) occurs in the Kuznetsk Alatau region. The deposit is accompanied by bimodal suite of dikes consisting of pegmatites, diorites, diabases and spessartites (Makeev et al. 1983).
6.6. Asian Mesozoic provinces
In south-eastern China lamprophyres occur in association with Mesozoic granites in the
Sn-polymetallic district of Dachang in north-western Guangxi province (Mao et al. 1995; Cai et al. 2006). In the Geiju area in the Yunnan province of south-western China, the Sn-polymetallic deposits are also spatially associated with Mesozoic granites. Mafic dikes which include lamprophyres and alkaline rocks (Cheng et al. 2008; Cheng, Mao 2010) are coeval with Sn-polymetallic mineralization.
In Western Transbaikalia (Russia), within and in the vicinity of the Gudzhir granite stock of Jurassic age at Dzhida, three closely spaced deposits are described (Smirnov et al. 1978; Troshin 1978): (1) Pervomaiskoe stockwork molybdenite deposit, and (2) huebnerite-cassiterite mineralization of the Inkurskoe deposit, and (3) huebnerite-sphalerite-galena veins of the Kholton deposit. With the latter deposit, dikes of mafic and intermediate intrusive rocks are spatially associated, described as bostonites, lamprophyres and diorites (Troshin 1978). The earlier descriptions identified kersantites and spessartites as dikes (Povilaitis 1960), which chronologically separated the earlier molybdenite from the younger essentially huebnerite mineralization. The magmatic sequence in relation to the ore mineralizations was reintepreted by Efremova (1990). Reyf in Kremenetsky et al. (2000)
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classified the dikes separating the Mo and W mineralizations as quartz-microsyenites (Phase V).
The magmatism of Eastern Transbaikalia in Russia was studied in detail by Russian geologists (e.g. Troshin 1978; Kozlov 1985; Mikhaleva 1989). Granitoid intrusions comprise diorites, monzodiorites, granodiorites, and lamprophyres (Troshin 1978). Mikhaileva and Tychinskii (1972) noted a spatial and temporal association of lamprophyres (spessartites, vogesites, minettes, monchiquittes, kersantites) with many polymetallic veins in this region. In most cases, lamprophyres are pre-ore or intra ore in the age of emplacement. The Sn and W mineralization is associated with small granite cupolas at Bukuka-Belukha, Khapcheranga, Etyka, and Orlovka, which are also accompanied by lamprophyric dikes.
The amazonite granite stock of Etyka (Levitskii et al. 1963) is an apophyse of a hidden body of the Shakhtamin granite complex (Syritso 2002). The amazonite Ta-enriched granite postdates wolframite veins. Lamprophyres are widespread in the Etyka district, where they are the earliest rocks of the pre-granitic complex. Troshin (1978) gives the following sequence of magmatic rocks: lamprophyres, porphyritic diorites, plagiogranites, amazonite granites. Levitskii et al. (1963) described an intersection of a lamprophyric dike by a plagiogranite (porphyry) dike, all of them crosscut by a late topaz-cassiterite vein (Fig. 8).
A Ta deposit is related to the Orlovka granite stock. The albitized lepidolite-amazonite Li-F granite belongs to a hidden granite intrusion which outcrops as the Khangilai (biotite-bearing) and Spokoinoe (muscovite-bearing) granites (Syritso 2002). A flat-lying pre-granitic lamprophyre dike with a thickness of about 100 - 120 m (Reif et al. 2000) is intersected by a lepidolite-amazonite granite intrusion. Abushkevich (2005) distinguished between the dikes of K-rich trachydacites and trachyrhyolites, lamprophyres, diabases and dolerites. Sub-alkaline basaltic rocks crosscut amazonite granites and are the latest in magmatic sequence (Syritso 2002). Lamprophyres are pyroxene-kersantites and amphibole-spessartites. The Rb-Sr ages show identical ages for various lamprophyres at about 153 Ma while the granites were formed between 145 - 139 Ma as shown by zircon ages. Abushkevich (2005) postulates the effect of mantle fluids indicated by -1.7 εNd values.
The RM deposits in northeastern Mongolia are part of the Transbaikalian metallogenic province. Lamprophyres occur subordinately in the Gobian-Southern Kerulen in the Baga Khairkhan, Buren Tsogtin and Sharakadin ore districts, which are associated with Mesozoic granites. In the Baga Khairkhan granite massif of Middle to Upper Jurassic age (Kovalenko et al. 1971) and in the Ikhe Khairkhan ore district (Marinov et al. 1977) quartz-wolframite veins are associated with granodioritic, dioritic, granite porphyry, and lamprophyric dikes which crosscut Triassic effusive rocks. Granitic dikes are intersected by lamprophyre dikes (up to 3m thick) with a strike length up to 1 km (Kovalenko et al. 1971).
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Fig. 8. Intersection of a lamprophyre dike by a plagiogranite (porphyry) dike at the Etyka deposit in Transbaikalia (from Levitskii et al. 1963) (no scale given in the original).
In the Primorie region (Russian Far East) the Voznesenka granite complex host
a bimodal suite of dikes and is postdated by Sn mineralization. Govorov (1977) distinguished: (1) pre-granitic dikes of gabbrodiorite, diabase, monzonite; (2) pre-ore dikes of diabase, spessartite and kersantite emplaced after the origin of the earliest greisens and quartz veins; (3) post-ore dikes of diorites (“plagioclase porphyrites”) which intersect greisen/tourmaline and sulfide ores. The dikes of the second stage control the mineralizations in the Voznesenka, Pogranichnyi, and Yaroslavskii ore fields. Krymsky and Belyatsky (2001) dated the Li-F granites between 467 to 452 Ma, diorite-monzonite intrusions at 415 - 406 Ma and intra-mineralization subalkaline basalts at 405 Ma. The above mentioned authors postulated the influence of depleted mantle besides the Precambrian crust material on the granite composition.
The Yano-Kolyma district in the Verkhoyansk fold belt (Russia) is located between the Siberian craton and the Kolyma-Omolonsky superterrane and show mainly Sn(-W) and Ag-Sb mineralization (cf. Pavlova, Borisenko 2009). Alkaline mafic magmatism is represented by diabase, dolerite, kersantite, minette, and camptonite dikes. Lamprophyres are associated with Sn mineralization at the Deputatskoe Sn-sulfide deposit hosted by Jurassic and Upper Triassic sedimentary rocks of the Polousny syclinorium (Fig. 9; Pavlova, Borisenko 2009). The deposit is related to a hidden Cretaceous granite intrusion known from the boreholes in
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a depth of 250 to 375 m below the surface (Höll et al. 2000). Four mineralization stages are distinguished: (a) cassiterite greisen, (b) cassiterite-tourmaline-sulfide-quartz, c) cassiterite-chlorite-sulfide-Sn and (d) galena-sphalerite ores (Smirnov et al. 1978). The dike suite consists of (a) pre-granitic diorites, (b) quartz and dacite porphyries, and (c) diorites, dolerites, and lamprophyres (also as intra-ore dikes). Many dikes of diabases, diorites, and lamprophyres enclose xenoliths of granite porphyries. Lamprophyre dikes contain clasts of rocks with pyrite and arsenopyrite and are crosscut by quartz-siderite stringers with galena and sphalerite. The sequence of magmatic and mineralization events as indicated by geological evidence and age dating is as follows (cf. Pavlova, Borisenko 2009): granite → rhyolite → Sn-W association → diabase porphyry → Sn- sulfide association → lamprophyre → Sn-Ag veins. In the southern Verkhoyansk district Triassic terrigenous sediments are intruded by 123 - 119 Ma granites and 92 - 99 Ma granitoids (cf. Pavlova, Borisenko 2009). Biotite pyroxene lamprophyre dikes (>120 Ma) and postgranitic diabases and amphibole/pyroxene lamprophyres also occur at the Menkechenskoe deposit. The Ag-Sb mineralization of the second stage is superimposed on later lamprophyres which crosscut Sn-W and Sn-sulfide ore bodies and are intersected by quartz-porphyry dikes. The sequence of events is as follows (cf. Pavlova, Borisenko 2009): lamprophyre → Ag-Pb-siderite veins → granite → granite porphyry → Sn-W → diorite → Sn sulfide → diabase → lamprophyre → Sn-Ag → rhyolite.
Fig. 9. Geological map of the Deputatskoe deposit (from Pavlova & Borisenko 2009). The Contour of the deposit is marked by a bold line.
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In the northern part of the southern Verkhoyansk synclinorium the Upper Khandiga (Khandigskii) granitoid massif hosts lamprophyres (spessartites, kersantites, vogesites, minettes) enclosing abundant xenoliths (Korostelev 1977). Many lamprophyre dikes show transitions from biotite to amphibole-bearing varieties. Some lamprophyres are close in composition to camptonites or camptonite-vogesite due to an increased content of Ti-augite, barkevikite and olivine.
In Yakutia, Layer et al. (2001) studied the tectonic setting of plutonic belts related to Sn, W, Ag, Pb, and Zn mineralization. At Polousnyi a hidden granodiorite body at Churpunnya is associated with cassiterite-quartz veins containing abundant tourmaline accompanied by diorite, lamprophyre, and microgranite dikes. Cassiterite-sulfide mineralization with tourmaline and chlorite at the Dyakhtardakhskoe deposit is associated with granite porphyry dikes, monzonites, and lamprophyres and it is related to a hidden granite intrusion (Lugov et al. 1986). Indolev and Nevoisa (1974) studied Mesozoic and Cenozoic lamprophyres in Ag-Sb deposits of Yakutia. Indolev (1979) describes some lamprophyres in Yakutia as analcime pyroxene camptonites spatially associated with monzonites related to a volcano-plutonic complex. In the Ilintas deposit in the southern Yanskii district veins of cassiterite-silicate formation occur in the exocontact of a Mesozoic granite (Lugov et al. 1986). Indolev (1979) reported that a mica-lamprophyre dike at Ilintas crosscuts an aplite which is associated with adamellite of the Bezimyannyi massif. This aplite is intersected by a sulfide ore vein. The dike assemblage includes also granite porphyries and diorites.
Lamprophyres in association with the Mesozoic granites (Milov, Ivanov 1965) in Chukotka (Russia) are described by Zagruzina (1965), who distinguished (a) biotite, (b) pyroxene-biotite- and (c) hornblende-lamprophyres where biotite lampropyhres are predominant. At the Iul’tin deposit in Chukotka (Russia), a dike of monchiquite intersects a granite dike and a quartz vein (Lugov et al. 1986). The intrusion of the latest lamprophyres may not be coeval with the RM granitoid intrusions. At the Svetloe tin deposit the Early Cretaceous dikes of lamprophyres (mainly spessartites, less abundant kersantites, up to 300 m long and 0.5 - 5 m thick) are associated with dikes of granodiorites over a hidden granite massif (Lugov et al. 1986). Ore veins of the cassiterite-quartz formation are related to numerous dikes of lamprophyres, granite porphyries, and diorites at the Pyrkakai Sn deposit. In the Pervonachalnoe deposit transitions of pyroxene and biotite-pyroxene lamprophyres are reported by Lugov et al. (1986).
In Australia the ore district of the Blue Tier batholith (Tasmania) which is also characterized by the occurrence of tin-bearing alkali-feldspar granites (Sun, Higgins 1996) and the Late Paleozoic Sn(-W) greisen-type mineralization (Groves, Taylor 1973) is apparently independent of Cretaceous lamprophyre intrusions (Mc Clenaghan, Baillie 1975).
7. Results and interpretations
7.1. Temporal and geographical position, tectonic setting of lamprophyres in RM
districts Calc-alkaline and alkaline lamprophyres are a component in dike suites of some granite-
related RM deposits in major orogenic belts of the northern hemisphere. The occurrences of
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lamprophyres (Fig. 2) in association with RM granitoids follow a major E-W-trending zone over the continents in the northern hemisphere, extending from the European Variscides to Variscan central Asiatic fold belts and over the Mesozoides in Transbaikalia to Verkhoyansk-Kolyma, Chukotka and Alaska. Lamprophyres occur also in Cenozoic Mo provinces of the North American Cordillera.
In the database on about 200 granite intrusions (cf. Štemprok 1998; cf. Seifert 2008) dealing specifically with granitoids associated with RM deposits or with RM deposits which are only marginally associated with igneous rocks, only 63 have been recorded as having lamprophyres in the mafic dike suite (Tab. 3). Many lamprophyric associations with RM deposits occur around granite stocks or cupolas representing elevations of larger, partly concealed granite bodies of the size of plutons or batholiths. The predominance of small granitoid bodies commonly of less that 1 km2 of outcrop size accords with the observation that the contact zones of small granite cupolas are most productive in terms of the occurrence RM mineralization (Štemprok 1990; Seifert, Kempe 1994).
While the bimodal dike suite in association with granitoids is often considered to be related to the origin of magmatic bodies having the size of batholiths or plutons, some lamprophyre dikes are related according to Mikhaleva (1989) and Seifert (2008) to “small intrusions” of variable compositions which are independent of the origin of major granite bodies and are important for the origin of some types of Au, Cu, Mo, and Sn(-W) mineralization. This idea is close to the concept of Cu-Mo and Cu-Au porphyry deposits which are related to small, commonly felsic magmatic bodies of porphyritic textures (Müller, Groves 1993, 1997; Candella, Picolli 2005; Robb 2005; Sinclair 2007).
Lamprophyres which are associated with mesothermal Au deposits (Rock 1991) show ages from Archean to Cenozoic, and are confined for example to the Cordilleran orogen in North America, the Altaid orogene of Central Asia, and the Paleozoic Tasmanian orogen (Kerrich et al. 2005). The gold-lamprophyric association is uniformly distributed in various domains from Precambrian shields to Miocene provinces of subduction zones both in northern and southern hemispheres. It is significant that lamprophyric dikes with shoshonitic geochemical signature related to mesothermal Au-Sb veins in New South Wales in Australia (Ashley et al. 1994) occur in the same orogen as Paleozoic tin and tungsten deposits which lack any distinct spatial association with coeval lamprophyres (Taylor 1979; Pirajno 2009).
All the granitoid intrusions with associated lamprophyres in RM districts are of Phanerozoic age. Lamprophyres documented in the Bushveld complex in South Africa are distant from important Sn districts (Pirajno 2009). Highly altered lamprophyres intruding as dikes and isolated pockets into the Bushveld granite on Klipdrif 123 in the area of Franspoort line (RSA) were reported by Gorsky (1958), who classified the rock as alkaline lamprophyre. Cloete (1992) describes lamprophyres in the Western and Eastern lob of the Bushveld complex associated with alkaline and carbonatite complexes.
Lamprophyres in association with RM deposits occur in two geotectonic settings: (1) in subduction environment of active continental margins (continent/continent and continent/arc collision) in association with calc-alkaline granitoids and shoshonites; (2) in the regions of asthenospheric mantle upwelling in extensional tectonic regime, e.g. Transbaikalia (Syritso 2002) or Internal Variscides of Europe (Seifert 2008). Extensional tectonic setting is postulated as the most important factor for the emplacement of late stage
142
or postorogenic granites and mafic dikes including lamprophyres (e.g. Rock 1991; Amato et al. 2003; Seifert 2008; Cheng, Mao 2010).
7.2. Contemporaneity of intrusions of lamprophyres and associated granites
Recent isotopic measurement on zircons determined the age of lamprophyric intrusions
and of granites in a particular RM district such as SW England, the Erzgebirge/Krušné hory (Germany, Czech Republic), Eastern Transbaikaliain Russia and the Geiju district in China (see references in Table 2). The intervals of lamprophyre emplacement overlap with granite intrusions in RM districts of Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic provinces. These data show that the lamprophyre and granite intrusions are in some metallogenic provinces genetically related (e.g. in the Erzgebirge as bimodal sequences and associated late-Variscan mineralization, Seifert 2008). On the other side, some ore districts show that the intrusion of lamprophyres may not be coeval with RM granites or mineralization. For example, at the Kitsault porphyry molybdenum deposit in British Columbia lamprophyre dikes are almost 20 Ma younger than the intrusive complex that is related to the deposit (Steininger 1985).
7.3. Petrography of lamprophyres
Lamprophyres in RM districts share petrological and geochemical features of
lamprophyres which occur in the broader vicinity. Thus in Cornwall and in Normandy minettes are predominant (Turpin et al. 1988), whereas in the western part of the Armorican Massif and in the western part of the French Massif Central kersantites prevail. In the Krušné hory/Erzgebirge kersantites and minettes occur in approximately equivalent amounts (Kramer 1976, 1988; Holub, Štemprok 1999; Seifert 1994, 2008). In the Krupka region of the eastern Krušné hory kersantites, minettes, and spessartites occur jointly with granite porphyries and aplites hosted by gneisses (Pivec et al. 2002). In RM deposits of Chukotka and Alaska, spessartites and kersantites are predominant (Zagruzina 1965; Sainsbury 1969). In Transbaikalia spessartites and kersantites are dominant, while minettes are subordinate in association with Sn and W greisen-type deposits (Troshin 1978; Syritso 2002). Kersantites are reported in the Etyka district (Levitskii 1963) while in the Orlovka district Abushkevich (2005) described spessartites in predominance over kersantites. Also, the major element composition supports the classification of lamprophyres as spessartites in some Transbaikalian regions. The presence of spessartites and kersantites in Alaska may be testified on the basis of chemical analyses reported by Sainsbury et al. (1968) and Sainsbury (1969). Alkaline lamprophyres were observed in association with RM granitoids, e.g., monchiquites at the Iul’tin deposit in Chukotka (Lugov et al. 1986) and camptonites in eastern Transbaikalia (Mikhaleva 1989). Shchukin (1974) described in the southern Gissar (Tien Shan, Kyrgyzstan), which host several RM districts, a widespread variety of lamprophyres (monchiquites, camptonites, vogesites, kersantites, spessartites) and observed transitions between monchiquites and camptonites and between kersantites and spessartites. However, many lamprophyres recorded in Table 3 are described as “lamprophyres” without distinguishing their petrographic nature.
143
7.4. Lamprophyre associates in the dike suites The dikes associated with lamprophyres in RM districts show the predominance of
felsic compositions with more than 60 % of occurrences (Fig. 10). These include granite porphyries, aplites, pegmatites, microgranites and rhyolites (quartz porphyries). Dioritic composition constitutes 17 % and diabase and gabbro about 15 % of recorded observations. In many districts lamprophyres are closely spatially associated with diorite and diabase dikes and are possibly connected by mutual transitions (Mikhaleva 1989). Lamprophyres are also interpreted to be a component of a separate Mesozoic lamprophyre-diabase formation in southern Siberia by Mikhaleva (1989) which accompanies many polymetallic and fluorite deposits.
Fig. 10. Statistics of the occurrences of dike associates of lamprophyres in RM districts as based on the data in Table 3. The group “others” includes dolerites, bostonites, essexites, trachyte, and syenite.
The variable composition of felsic or intermediate members of bimodal dike suites
possibly mirrors the extent of differentiation of parental intrusive bodies and their interaction with host rocks.
7.5. Postmagmatic and ore-bearing alterations of lamprophyres
The petrographic description of lamprophyres in RM districts observes a constant
presence of deuteric alterations like pilitization of olivine (cf. Velde 1968) and urallitization of pyroxens (e.g. Zagruzina 1965; Rock 1991; Seifert 1994; Pivec et al. 2002; Seifert 2008). Lamprophyres also reflect postmagmatic processes in granites or alterations caused by RM mineralization. Abdullaev (1957) described skarnization of a lamprophyre dike at the Ingichke W skarn deposit in Uzbekistan. Quartz-sulfide mineralized lamprophyres were
144
observed in the Pervonachal'nyi stockwork deposit in Chukotka (Lugov et al. 1986). Alteration of lamprophyres with epidote, actinolite, chlorite, carbonate, albite, pyrite, and quartz was observed at the Savinskoe-5 deposit (eastern Transbaikalia) associated with granites of the Upper Jurassic Kukulbei complex (Lugov et al. 1986). Some lamprophyres in Sn-bearing districts are greisenized as indicated by their mineral composition and geochemical characteristics (e.g. high Sn, Li, and F contents in greisenized lamprophyres in the Krušné hory/Erzgebirge, Novák et al. 2001; Seifert 2008). An intensively greisenized kersantite was observed in Krupka in the Eastern Krušné hory where greisenization produced an alteration band zoned from a cassiterite-bearing quartz veinlet outwards (Novák et al. 2001). The outer glimmeritic zone consists of Mg-biotite, fluorite, quartz, and topaz and retained the original texture of kersantite. The inner zone is enriched in Li-bearing Mg-biotite and contains small amounts of quartz, topaz, and fluorite and some cassiterite, scheelite, and apatite. Greisenized lamprophyres in Sn-W deposits in the Saxonian Erzgebirge show Sn contents of up to 1200 ppm (Seifert 2008). Indolev (1979) describes at the Ilintas deposit (Yakutia) greisenization of a lamprophyre dike which is crosscut by a granitic dike. The altered lamprophyre shows a taxitic texture and consists of melanocratic actinolite-biotite portions with titanite and quartz-feldspar-tourmaline-mineralization.
7.6. Intrusions associated with rare metals and lamprophyres
The dominant magmatic intrusions in RM districts are leucogranites (Štemprok 1998).
Many granitoids associated with these leucogranites have composition of diorites and show association with granodiorites and monzogranites. Granodiorites are commonly relatively homogenous plutons or stocks hosting also some RM mineralization; quartz monzonites are often spatially associated with some ore-bearing leucogranites.
According to modal composition the ore-bearing leucogranites described in the database are commonly classified as syenogranites or alkalifeldspar granites (IUGS classification) or alaskites in the earlier literature. The dominant varieties of ore-bearing leucogranites granites distinguished according to micas are: (a) biotite, (b) two mica, (c) muscovite or (d) lithium mica (zinnwaldite, protolithionite, lepidolite). Alkali-pyroxenes and alkali-amphiboles are very rarely present in some granite varieties in small granite cupolas (Štemprok 1990).
Lamprophyres occur specifically in the districts with RM granites that host albite-rich highly evolved alkali-feldspar granite varieties with Li-micas, which are typical for the Mesozoic provinces of Transbaikalia (Etyka, Orlovka) and Variscan provinces of Central Europe (Erzgebirge/Krušné hory, Slavkovský les) and of Western Europe (Massif Central) and the Blue Tier batholith in Tasmania (Tab. 3). These granites correspond to apogranites in the sense of Beus et al. (1962) which are the highly evolved granites affected by postmagmatic albitization (Syritso 2002). Granodiorite intrusions are often associated with skarn deposits (e.g. W deposit Ingichke or Vostok 2 in Russia). Diorites forming minor intrusions are typical for the districts which host Sn-sulfide deposits in the Maritime region of Russia.
RM granites are commonly peraluminous, and most of them were originally assigned with S-type granites according to Chappel and White (1974). S-type granites were
145
supposed to be associated with Sn deposits while I-type granites are related with W deposits. This simple classification is hardly acceptable by the present data and it was supplemented several additional types of granites (see Frost et al. 2001). RM granites are characterized by high Li, Rb, and Cs, very high F and B and increased Sn, W, and Mo contents (Tischendorf 1977; Tauson 1977; Kozlov 1985; Seifert, Kempe 1994) which can also be explained partly by an overprint by RM mineralization. Most Sn-bearing granites show enrichment in K2O which is also significant for the dike suite of associated mafic rocks (e.g. Sn province of Transbaikalia, Beskin et al. 1979; Kozlov, Efremov 1999; Erzgebirge, Seifert 2008).The intrusion of lamprophyres often separates the intrusions of granite stocks and felsic dikes and RM mineralizations.
7.7. Metals and styles of RM deposits associated with lamprophyres
The statistics of the data in Table 3 shows the predominance of RM deposits with Sn or
the combination of Sn and W in deposits (Fig. 11). Tungsten and W-Mo deposits are less widespread. We noted subordinate occurrences of Sn-W-Mo mineralization in some RM deposits. In the statistics of the mineralization types we documented a characteristic predominance of greisen- and vein-type deposits (Fig. 12). Numerous Sn-sulfide deposits in northeastern Russia are associated with lamprophyric intrusions.
Fig. 11. Statistics of metals in RM deposits associated with lamprophyres based on data in Table 3.
146
Fig. 12. Statistics of the styles of deposits in RM district based on the data in Table 3
TAB
LE 3
Rar
e m
etal
(R
M)
dist
ricts
and
min
eral
dep
osits
with
the
occu
rren
ces
of la
mpr
ophy
res
coev
al w
ith g
rani
tic m
agm
atis
m. L
egen
d: q
tz. d
iorit
e =
quar
tz d
iorit
e, g
r.por
ph =
gr
anite
por
phyr
y, a
lk.sy
enite
= a
lkal
ine
syen
ite, r
hyol
ite =
subv
olca
nic
rhyo
litic
dik
es (“
quar
tz p
orph
yry”
); lo
catio
ns: E
rzg
= Er
zgeb
irge;
al.
= Pa
leoz
oic,
Mes
. = M
esoz
oic.
Nam
e C
ount
ry
Age
of g
rani
tic
mag
mat
ism
D
epos
it ty
pe
Petro
logy
of
fels
ic/in
term
edia
te
rock
s
Lam
prop
hyre
s D
yke
asse
mbl
age
Ref
eren
ce
Agy
lkin
R
ussi
a 13
0 - 1
90 M
a Sn
tour
mal
ine,
W
skar
ns
gran
ite,
gran
odio
rite?
ca
mpt
onite
, ke
rsan
tite
gran
odio
rite,
tona
lite,
qt
z.di
orite
, dio
rite,
ga
bbro
, dia
base
Indo
lev
(197
9), L
ugov
et
al.
(198
6)
Ata
su W
est
Kaz
akhs
tan
Pal.
Sn g
reis
en
gran
ite
lam
prop
hyre
gr
.por
ph, a
plite
, pe
gmat
ite
Zhili
nski
i (19
59)
Bag
a K
hairk
han
Mon
golia
13
0 M
a W
gre
isen
gr
anite
, gra
nodi
orite
lam
prop
hyre
gr
anod
iorit
e, g
rani
te,
dior
ite
Mar
inov
et a
l.(19
77)
Bai
naza
r K
azak
hsta
n Pa
l. W
-Mo
stoc
kwor
k gr
anite
ke
rsan
tite,
vo
gesi
te
gran
osye
nite
, sy
enog
rano
dior
ite,
gran
odio
rite,
mon
zoni
te,
syen
odio
rite,
dia
base
Shch
erba
(196
0)
Bel
ukha
R
ussi
a 15
5 M
a W
-Mo
grei
sen
gran
odio
rite,
gra
nite
spes
sarti
te
gr.p
orph
, rhy
olite
, apl
ite,
dior
ite
Ont
oev
(197
4)
Blu
e Ti
er
Aus
tralia
Pa
l., M
es.
Sn-W
gre
isen
gr
anite
la
mpr
ophy
re
aplit
e G
rove
s, Ta
ylor
(197
3),
Mc
Cle
nagh
an, B
ailli
e (1
975)
B
ogda
tsko
e R
ussi
a M
es.
Sn sk
arn,
gre
isen
gr
anod
iorit
e la
mpr
ophy
re
dior
ite, g
rani
te
Lugo
v et
al.
(198
6)
Bug
datin
R
ussi
a Ju
rass
ic
Mo
stock
wor
k gr
anite
la
mpr
ophy
re
gr.p
orph
, rhy
olite
, dio
rite
Smirn
ov e
t al.
(197
8)
Buk
uka
Rus
sia
app.
150
Ma
W g
reis
en
gran
odio
rite,
gra
nite
lam
prop
hyre
L2
or L
3 gr
anod
iorit
e, a
plite
, di
orite
, gr.p
orph
, rhy
olite
Smirn
ov e
t al.
(197
8)
Bur
en T
sogt
in
Mon
golia
14
0 - 1
68 M
a W
gre
isen
gr
.por
phyr
y, g
rani
te
lam
prop
hyre
gr
.por
ph, r
hyol
ite, a
plite
, di
orite
, peg
mat
ite
Mar
inov
et a
l. (1
977)
Bur
gach
an
Rus
sia
Mes
. Sn
tour
mal
ine
dior
ite, g
rano
dior
ite
lam
prop
hyre
di
orite
, gra
nodi
orite
Lu
gov
et a
l. (1
986)
Cho
rukh
-Dai
ron
Tadj
ikis
tan
Pal.
W-M
o sk
arn,
gr
eise
n gr
anite
, mon
zoni
te,
gran
odio
rite,
dio
rite
lam
prop
hyre
gr
.por
ph, r
hyol
ite, a
plite
Sm
irnov
et a
l. (1
978)
, M
amad
zhan
ov (2
001)
C
ornw
all
Gre
at B
ritai
n Pa
l. Sn
gre
isen
, to
urm
alin
e gr
anite
m
inet
te
aplit
e, g
r.por
ph, "
elva
ns"
Leat
et a
l. (1
987)
Cov
as
Portu
gal
Pal.
W sk
arn
gran
ite
lam
prop
hyre
?
Con
de e
t al.
(197
1)
Dac
hang
C
hina
10
7 - 9
7 M
a Sn
sulfi
de
gran
ite
lam
prop
hyre
di
abas
e, g
r.por
ph, d
iorit
e M
ao Ji
ngw
en e
t al.
(199
5)
Dep
utat
skoe
R
ussi
a 11
2 - 1
08 M
a Sn
tour
mal
ine,
su
lfide
, chl
orite
gr
anite
ke
rsan
tite
L2
dior
ite, g
r.por
ph, d
iaba
se
Pavl
ova
et a
l. (2
009)
, Pa
vlov
a, B
oris
enko
(2
009)
D
yakh
tard
akhs
koe
Rus
sia
125
- 96
Ma
Sn to
urm
alin
e,
sulfi
de, c
hlor
ite
gran
ite p
orph
yry
cam
pton
ite
gr.p
orph
, mon
zoni
te
Lugo
v et
al.
(198
6)
Dzh
ida
Rus
sia
210
Ma
W-M
o st
ockw
ork
gran
ite
kers
antit
e,
spes
sarti
te
syen
ite, b
osto
nite
, di
orite
, gra
nite
Po
vila
itis (
1960
), M
akee
v et
al.
(198
3)
Echa
ssie
re
Fran
ce
Pal.
W-S
n gr
eise
n gr
anite
ke
rsan
tite
gr.p
orph
, apl
ite
Bur
nol e
t al.
(197
4)
Egug
skoe
R
ussi
a 10
1 M
a Sn
gre
isen
lam
prop
hyre
di
orite
, rhy
olite
Lu
gov
et a
l. (1
986)
Ehre
nfrie
ders
dorf/
Er
zg
Ger
man
y 32
0 - 2
90 M
a Sn
-W v
eins
, gr
eise
n gr
anite
ke
rsan
tite
L1
aplit
e, g
rani
te
Bol
duan
, Hof
fman
n (1
963)
, Kra
mer
(1
976)
, Sei
fert
(200
8)
Etyk
a R
ussi
a 12
6 M
a Sn
-W (T
a) g
reis
en
gran
ite
lam
prop
hyre
gr
.por
ph, d
iorit
e Le
vits
kii e
t al (
1963
), Tr
oshi
n (1
978)
, Li
tvin
ovsk
ii et
al.
(199
5)
Gej
iu
Chi
na
Mes
. Sn
sulfi
de, C
u, P
b,
Zn, S
b, M
o, A
u, B
igr
anite
la
mpr
ophy
re
alka
line
rock
s, ga
bbro
, di
orite
C
heng
Yan
bo e
t al.
(200
8)
Got
tesb
erg-
Müh
lleith
en/E
rzg
Ger
man
y 32
0 - 2
90
Sn-W
gre
isen
gr
anite
m
inet
te L
2 rh
yolit
e, a
plite
, gr.p
orph
, br
ecci
a pi
pes
Kae
mm
el (1
961)
, Se
ifert
(200
7, 2
008)
Ikhe
Kha
irkha
n M
ongo
lia
Mes
. W
gre
isen
gr
anite
la
mpr
ophy
re
gran
odio
rite,
dio
rite
Mar
inov
et a
l. (1
977)
Ilint
as
Rus
sia
Mes
. Sn
tour
mal
ine
gran
ite
kers
antit
e gr
.por
ph, a
plite
In
dole
v, N
evoi
sa
(197
4), L
ugov
et a
l. (1
986)
In
gich
ke
Uzb
ekis
tan
200
- 180
Ma
W sk
arn
gran
ite,
gran
odio
rite,
dio
rite
lam
prop
hyre
gr
anod
iorit
e, g
r.por
ph,
rhyo
lite
Den
isen
ko (1
986)
Iul't
in
Rus
sia
Mes
. Sn
-W-M
o gr
eise
n gr
anite
ke
rsan
tite,
m
onch
iqui
te
gr.p
orph
, gra
nite
, dio
rite,
ap
lite,
peg
mat
ite
Zilb
erm
ints
(196
6),
Lugo
v et
al.
(198
6)
Kai
ba
Kaz
akhs
tan
Pal.
Sn-W
-Mo
grei
sen
gran
ite
spes
sarit
e gr
.por
ph, a
plite
, dia
base
, ga
bbro
, dio
rite
Zhili
nski
i (19
59)
Kal
ba N
arym
K
azak
hsta
n Pa
l. Sn
-W g
reis
en
gran
ite
lam
prop
hyre
s ap
lite,
peg
mat
ite, d
iorit
e Sh
cher
ba (1
957)
K
ando
ma
Rus
sia
Mes
. Sn
-W g
reis
en
gran
odio
rite,
gra
nite
spes
sarti
te
gr.p
orph
, apl
ite, d
iaba
se
Izok
h et
al.
(195
7)
Kar
man
a K
yrgy
zsta
n Pa
l. Sn
-W to
urm
alin
e gr
anod
iorit
e, g
rani
tesp
essa
rtite
, ca
mpt
onite
do
lerit
e, le
ucog
rani
te,
aplit
e, p
egm
atite
Lu
gov
et a
l. (1
986)
Kar
nab
Kyr
gyzs
tan
Pal.
Sn-W
tour
mal
ine
gran
odio
rite,
gra
nite
lam
prop
hyre
le
ucog
rani
te, g
r.por
ph,
aplit
e Lu
gov
et a
l. (1
986)
Kha
pche
rang
a R
ussi
a M
es.
Sn-W
gre
isen
, ch
lorit
e gr
anite
la
mpr
ophy
re L
1 an
d L2
ap
lite,
gra
nite
, dio
rite,
di
abas
e O
ntoe
v (1
974)
Kru
pka/
Erzg
C
zech
Rep
ublic
32
0 - 2
90 M
a Sn
gre
isen
gr
anite
ke
rsan
tite
L1?,
m
inet
te L
2 gr
.por
ph, r
hyol
ite, a
plite
, pe
gmat
ite
Nov
ák e
t al.
(200
1),
Seife
rt (2
008)
K
ti-Te
berd
a R
ussi
a 28
0 - 2
50 M
a W
stoc
kwor
k,
sulfi
de
gran
odio
rite,
gra
nite
lam
prop
hyre
gr
.por
ph, d
iaba
se, a
plite
M
akee
v et
al.
(198
3)
Kum
arkh
Ta
djik
ista
n Pa
l. Sn
-W to
urm
alin
e gr
anod
iorit
e la
mpr
ophy
re
(Mes
ozoi
c?)
dior
ite, a
plite
Sm
irnov
et a
l. (1
978)
, Lu
gov
et a
l. (1
986)
K
umys
htag
K
yrgy
zsta
n Pa
l. Sn
-W g
reis
en,
skar
n, p
egm
atite
gr
anite
la
mpr
ophy
re
Pa
vlov
a, B
oris
enko
(2
009)
K
urga
n K
yrgy
zsta
n Pa
l. Sn
sulfi
de
gran
ites
lam
prop
hyre
al
k.sy
enite
, dol
erite
, bo
ston
ite
Pavl
ova,
Bor
isen
ko
(200
9)
Lapa
s U
zbek
ista
n Pa
l. Sn
gre
isen
gr
anite
la
mpr
ophy
re L
1 ?
Lugo
v et
al.
(198
6)
Lost
Riv
er
USA
80
- 70
Ma
Sn g
reis
en
gran
ite
kers
antit
e L2
or
L3?
diab
ase,
rhyo
lite
Sain
sbur
y et
al.
(196
8), D
obso
n (1
982)
Mar
ienb
erg/
Erzg
G
erm
any
320
- 290
Ma
Sn-W
vei
ns,
grei
sen
gran
ite, r
hyol
ite
kers
antit
e L3
rh
yolit
e, g
rani
te, a
plite
Se
ifert
(199
4, 2
008)
Mai
kul
Kaz
akhs
tan
Pal.
Sn g
reis
en
gran
ite
spes
sarti
te
qtz.
dior
ite, d
iaba
se,
aplit
e, p
egm
atite
Zh
ilins
kii (
1959
)
Men
kech
ensk
oe
Rus
sia
123
- 119
Ma
Sn-W
gre
isen
, Sn-
sulfi
de
gran
ite
lam
prop
hyre
L1
and
L2)
gr.p
orph
, dio
rite,
dia
base
La
yer e
t al.
(200
1),
Pavl
ova,
Bor
isen
ko
(200
9)
Ore
kita
n R
ussi
a 16
5 - 1
69 M
a M
o sto
ckw
ork
gran
ite
lam
prop
hyre
fe
lsite
, dia
base
, dio
rite,
gr
.por
ph
Mak
eev
et a
l. (1
983)
Orlo
vka
Rus
sia
142
Ma
Ta g
rani
te
gran
ite
kers
antit
e,
spes
sarti
te
diab
ase,
dio
rite
Litv
inov
skii
et
a.(1
995)
, Abu
shke
vich
(2
005)
Pe
rvon
acha
nl´n
oe
Rus
sia
60 -
105
Ma
Sn g
reis
en
gran
ite?
lam
prop
hyre
gr
.por
ph, d
iorit
e Lu
gov
et a
l. (1
986)
Pöhl
a/Er
zg
Ger
man
y 32
0 - 2
90 M
a Sn
gre
isen
, Sn-
W
skar
ns, U
vei
ns
gran
ite
kers
antit
e L1
gr
anite
Se
ifert
(200
8)
Puy-
les-
Vig
nes
Fran
ce
320
Ma
W v
eins
gr
anite
m
inet
te
gran
ite
Wep
pe (1
951)
Pyrk
akay
R
ussi
a M
es.
Sn W
gr
anite
la
mpr
ophy
re
gr.p
orph
, gra
nodi
orite
Lu
gov
et a
l. (1
986)
Red
Mtn
. (U
rad,
H
ende
rson
) U
SA
29.8
Ma
Mo
stoc
kwor
k gr
anite
, rhy
olite
ke
rsan
tite
rhyo
lite,
gr.p
orph
W
alla
ce e
t al.
(197
8),
Shan
non
et a
l. (2
004)
Sa
chse
nhöh
e/Er
zg
Ger
man
y 32
0 - 2
90 M
a Sn
-W g
reis
en
gran
ite
min
ette
L2
gr.p
orph
, mic
rogr
anite
Se
ifert
(200
8)
Shar
a-K
hadi
n M
ongo
lia
Mes
. M
o-W
gre
isen
gr
anite
la
mpr
ophy
re
gr.p
orph
M
arin
ov e
t al.
(197
7)
Sors
koe
Rus
sia
Pal.
Mo-
Cu
stoc
kwor
k gr
anite
sp
essa
rtite
ap
lite,
peg
mat
ite, d
iaba
seM
akee
v et
al.
(198
3)
Svet
loe
Rus
sia
Mes
. Sn
gre
isen
gr
anite
? sp
essa
rtite
, ke
rsan
tite
gran
odio
rite
Lugo
v et
al.
(198
6)
Trez
ubet
s Ta
djik
ista
n M
es.
Sn-W
gr
anite
la
mpr
ophy
re
topa
z-pr
otol
ithio
nite
gr
anite
Pa
vlov
a, B
oris
enko
(2
009)
, Pav
lova
et
al.(2
009)
Tr
udov
oe
Kyr
gyzs
tan
312
- 270
Ma
Sn-W
tour
mal
ine
gran
ite
lam
prop
hyre
Dzh
ench
urae
va e
t al.
(200
7)
Val
kum
ei
Rus
sia
Mes
. Sn
tour
mal
ine
gran
odio
rite,
gra
nite
lam
prop
hyre
gr
anite
, gr.p
orph
, gr
anod
iorit
e, d
iorit
e Lu
gov
et a
l. (1
986)
Vos
tok
2 R
ussi
a M
es.
W sk
arn
gran
odio
rite,
pl
agio
gran
ite
spes
sarti
te
gr.p
orph
, dio
rite,
dia
base
, gr
anod
iorit
e M
akee
v et
al.
(198
3)
Yam
utin
R
ussi
a Pa
l., M
es.
Sn-W
-Mo
grei
sen
gran
odio
rite,
gra
nite
spes
sarti
te
rhyo
lite,
gr.p
orph
, gr
anod
iorit
e, d
iaba
se
Izok
h et
al.(
1957
)
Yao
gang
xian
C
hina
16
9 - 1
78 M
a W
-Mo
skar
n, S
n-W
gre
isen
gr
anite
la
mpr
ophy
re
gran
ite, a
plite
, rhy
olite
, gr
.por
ph, d
iaba
se
Kan
eda,
Tak
euch
i (1
988)
Y
ustid
R
ussi
a Pa
l. Sn
-W g
reis
en, W
-M
o gr
eise
n gr
anite
la
mpr
ophy
re
diab
ase,
gab
bro-
diab
ase
Pavl
ova,
Bor
isen
ko
(200
9)
Zaby
toe
Rus
sia
88 M
a W
-Sn
grei
sen
gran
ite
lam
prop
hyre
gr
.por
ph
Ivan
ov e
t al.
(198
0)
152
8. Discussion
8.1. Relationships of lamprophyres, granites, and RM mineralization Rock (1991) pointed out that enrichment of lamprophyres in F, Cl, S, H2O, and CO2
relative to most igneous rocks, together with their high temperatures and explosive emplacement by violent drilling mechanisms probably confer on them an enhanced ability to dissolve and transport elements which form soluble complexes with one or more ligands. In his opinion, volatiles enhance the dissolution of certain elements from country rocks which include transition metals (e.g. Zr, Th, U) and the (primary?) enrichment in Mo, Sn, W, PGE, and Au. A number of recent papers proposed an importance of mixing mafic and felsic magmas in genesis of porphyry (Cu-Mo-Au) deposits (e.g. Maughan et al. 2002; Candella, Picolli 2005). Dietrich et al. (1999) suggested that magma mixing was responsible for the formation of the Bolivian Sn porphyry deposits associated with small subvolcanic rhyodacite bodies.
Various schemes were suggested in the literature to explain the association between lamprophyres and ore-bearing granites. Troshin (1978) postulated a mafic magma chamber in the Khapcheranga ore district in Eastern Transbaikalia which is responsible for the origin of lamprophyre and diorite dikes. The thermal effect of this chamber and of its fluids caused the melting of overlying crustal rocks and formation of granitic melts. Leat et al. (1987) suggested a similar model for granitic intrusions in SW England, assuming that these granites are the product of a mafic melt trapped in the mid-crust to form a minette/gabbro body. Kramer (1988) considered lamprophyric (shoshonitic) melts as a product of melting of metasomatic mantle in the Fichtelgebirge-Erzgebirge anticlinorium. He postulated the relationships between lamprophyres and mineralization without a detailed investigation. Seifert (1994, 1999, 2008) presented an abundant evidence that the late-Variscan Sn, W, Mo, Ag, Pb, Zn, Cu, In, and U mineralization in the Erzgebirge are connected with post-collisional lamprophyric and “granitic small intrusions”/rhyolitic (bimodal) magmatism rather than with the large granitic intrusions of the main late Variscan (late-collisional) Erzgebirge pluton (e.g. “Western and Central Erzgebirge Pluton”).
Turpin et al. (1988) concluded that geochemical features of mafic lamprophyres in Western Europe cannot be explained by simple melting of a depleted mantle but are due to some kind of contamination, either during ascent through the crust or as consequence of mantle enrichment prior to its melting. A relative petrographic similarity of trace elements in lamprophyres in relatively distant areas suggests processes independent of the composition of the crust. The subducted material can be the source of this enrichment, e.g. altered oceanic crust, its sedimentary cover and/or fluids and melts resulting from partial melting of subducted crustal segments (cf. Turpin et al. 1988).
Mantle fluids/melts responsible for the mantle metasomatism are capable to dissolve large amount of silicate material (Scambelluri, Phillippot 2001) and could exist as high alkali-rich silicic melts which may account for the enriched trace element patterns and presence of phlogopite in the mantle (Petersen et al. 1996).
Beskin et al. (1979) reported relatively high potassium contents in most RM granites in Transbaikalia. It is important to note that late-Mesozoic alkali basalts are described to occur
153
around the RM granites (e.g. Orlovka deposit, Syritso 2002) and latites which follow the intrusion of RM granitoids in Transbaikalia (Tauson et al. 1984). The above mentioned latites show realively high B, F, Rb, Cs, Sr, Ba, Pb, and Zr contents. A K-enrichment was also documented in the granites which are associated with RM deposits in Chukotka (Zagruzina 1965). Kozlov and Efremov (1999) concluded that there is a general correlation of increased potassium contents and rare-metals in basaltic rocks and metallogenetic specialization of related ore-bearing intrusions in Chukotka, Transbaikalia, and Bohemian Massif, explaining this association by coeval magmatic chambers of deep-seated subalkaline basalt and crustal granitoids. Both were influenced by a prolonged supply of potassium and granitophile elements with fluids from the mantle. The association of K-rich intrusions and Au±Cu deposits was observed worldwide in many epithermal to mesothermal and porphyry-style deposits (Müller, Groves 1993). The enrichment in K, rare alkalies (Rb, Cs, Li), and volatiles appears as a feature specific both for RM granites and calc-alkaline lamprophyres associated with RM mineralization.
8.2. Origin of RM deposits as evidenced by lamprophyres
Despite a predominant spatial association of Sn, W, and Mo deposits with felsic rocks,
some authors have doubted a narrow genetic relationship of outcropping granites and Sn deposits. Sainsbury and Hamilton (1967) noted a widespread occurrence of major faulting, post-dating the intrusion and consolidation of granites and supposed that the main phase of tin deposit formation is well after the formation of granites. Štemprok (1967) supposed that the solutions which gave rise to the deposits of tin and tungsten in the Western Pluton in the Krušné hory/Erzgebirge are not derived from the same granites, which enclose the deposits, but come from a deeper source in the crust. This concept is newly supported by the measured interval of about 20 Ma between the granite intrusion and greisenization in the Western pluton of the Krušné hory/Erzgebirge granite batholith by modern age dating of zircons by Kempe et al. (2004) and by numerous new geological, age, and geochemical data from Seifert (1994, 2008). Verschure and Bon (1972) supposed that high concentration of Sn and other trace elements (e.g. W, Mo, Ta, Li, Be, F) in plutono-volcanic complexes such as those in Rondonia and Nigeria is primarily due to an enrichment in volatiles from alkali basalt. Such volatiles could have been "inherited" by the granitic magmas. Sillitoe (1974) also postulated mantle origin of Sn deposits in anorogenic settings (e.g. Nigeria). Osipova (1974) suggested a possible mantle origin for some rare metals at the Kavalerovo deposit (Maritime Region, Russia) pointing out to the interval between the origin of alaskite granites, diabases, and Sn-polymetallic mineralization (Radkevich et al. 1974). Baskina (1980) considered a subcrustal source for both “diabase dikes” and ore deposits in many regions of the Far East of Russia where Sn deposits are spatially associated with mafic dikes or “small intrusions” of dioritic composition.
8.3. Models RM mineralization compared with those of mesothermal gold deposits
Rock et al. (1989) proposed a model explaining the relationship between gold deposits,
and lamprophyric and felsic (porphyry-granitoid) magmatism (Fig. 13a). In case of the RM-lamprophyre association the enrichment of the earth’s mantle in LILE and F was decisive
154
for the metallogenic specialization of RM-granites (cf. Rock 1991; Seifert 2008). The melting in the lower crust was affected by addition of volatiles to the source of granitoid magmas from an underplated lamprophyric magma similarly as it is proposed for the gold deposits by Rock et al. (1989; Fig. 13a) and for Sn-W-Mo, Ag-base metal and U deposits by Seifert (2008). These volatiles possibly extracted some rare metals from the mantle. The enrichment of rare metals in hydrothermal systems was caused by differentiation of granitic magmas in deep seated chamber(s) in the lower crust and/or by mantle-derived fluids (Seifert 2008; Fig. 13b).
a) b)
Fig. 13. Genetic models of the origin of Au (Rock et al. 1989) and Sn-W-Mo deposits associated with lamprophyres (based on Seifert 2008 on the example of the Erzgebirge, modified in Štemprok & Seifert 2010). Mantle component from underlying lamprophyric melts is transported by fluids near or at the crust/mantle boundary to a chamber of granitic melts. Lamprophyres may affect the granitic melts throughout all the time of their differentiation (see the concept of L1 to L3-type lamprophyres, Seifert 2008).
9. Conclusions
Kersantites, minettes, and spessartites as well as camptonites and monchiquites occur in
RM districts of Phanerozoic age almost exclusively in the northern hemisphere. They share some geochemical characteristics of granitoids spatially associated with RM mineralization. We propose a model of granite differentiation in a deep seated magmatic chamber close to the mantle/crust boundary influenced by an underplated lamprophyric magma or volatiles from the mantle. The granitic chamber(s) produced first barren granites and later on granites enriched in RMs as consequence of prolonged differentiation under the effect of mantle derived volatiles.
155
Acknowledgement. Our thanks are due to W. Kramer (Germany) and to R. H. Mitchell (Canada) who commented one of the earlier versions of the paper with number of valuable suggestions. We appreciate the help of D. Sinclair from Canada for information about the Geological map of the World (Geological Survey of Canada), for the printed World Geological Map of Tin and Tungsten Deposits and valuable comments on the literature data. We thank D. L. Ehlers from South Africa for his help in obtaining the data from the Bushveld granite area. The assistance of V. Shatov (VSEGEI, St. Petersburg) and G. G. Pavlova (RAS-IGM, Novosibirsk) in revision of the Tables 2 and 3 with the data from Russian deposits is acknowledged with our great thanks. We appreciate the help of Richard Scrivener (Exeter) for providing us with the unpublished analytical data on the SW England lamprophyres. The assistance of E. Abushkevich (St. Petersburg) in obtaining the literature on the Russian occurrences of lamprophyres is acknowledged with many thanks. The comments of G. G. Pavlova (Novosibirsk) and an anonymous reviewer on the final version of the manuscript are appreciated with our best thanks. We are especially greatful to Marek Michalik (chief editor of Mineralogia) and his co-workers and Marek Awdankiewicz (who organized the workshop and field excursion “Lamprophyres Sudetes 2010”) for their friendly and helpful support during the publication of this article.
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