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Journal of Advanced Review on Scientific Research

ISSN (online): 2289-7887 | Vol. 5, No.1. Pages 30-41, 2015

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An Overview on the Performance of Steel Slag in

Highway Industry

M. M. A. Aziz*,1,a , M. Shokri1,b , A. Ahsan2,c, H. Y. Liu3,d and L. Tay3,e

1Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), 81310 Skudai, Johor,

Malaysia 2Dept. of Civil Engineering, University Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor,

Malaysia 3School of Engineering and ICT, University of Tasmania, Tasmania 7001, Australia

a,*[email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract – Transportation and highway industry are going to use sustainable and recycling materials

to address the two global issues: environment and energy. One of the materials is steel-furnace slag,

a sustainable waste material, which includes two types, i.e. compound aggregate brought out as a

consequence of Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) and Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF). Steel slag can replace

the traditional aggregates because it has a feature that is almost the same to those traditional

aggregates and it is easily secured as a by-product from the steel industry. The recent experimental

researches in preliminary studies have demonstrated chemical, mechanical and physical and

properties of the steel slag. California bearing ratio (CBR) value of steel slag is between 200 and

300%, whereas CBR of crushed aggregate is only from 80 to 100%. Furthermore, asphalt mixture

using steel slag presents better mechanical characteristics than those of the corresponding asphalt

with 100% natural aggregate. The combination of 30% steel slag and 70% natural aggregates in

bitumen mixture shows excellent performance as surface course of roads. Hence, the operation of

steel slag in road construction reduces land fill, saves natural resources and improves the strength of

the pavement to sustain a heavier and higher volume of vehicles. The overall purposes of this review

paper are collecting the chemical, physical and mechanical characteristics of steel slag for

illustrating its performance, highlighting the previous studies on the use of steel slag in road

construction and the effect of different percentage of steel slag upon pavement as a replacement for

natural aggregates. Copyright © 2015 Penerbit Akademia Baru - All rights reserved.

Keywords: sustainable pavement, steel slag, environment, fatigue, rutting, creep, skid resistance.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Nowadays the topic of steel slag is one of the most important issues especially in

transportation and highway. Electric arc furnace (EAF) steel slag is an industry-produced

artificial aggregate which, after suitable processing, constitutes an excellent material for the

manufacture of wearing course in road construction industry [1]. The Nottingham County

Surveyor, E. Purnell Hooley was the first person in England who introduced the use of blast

furnace slag in asphalt in 1903 [2].

The molten steel slag solidifies at a pit area when it flows from the furnace. The slag consists

mainly of a melted mixture of oxides of iron, silica, calcium, magnesia and alumina.



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Additionally, steel slag used in asphalt concrete comprises the recycling of a waste material;

hence minimize the amount of material placed in Oregon landfills. Steel slag, a waste product

of steel yield has been used widely in road construction, because it has similar hardness to

those typical coarse aggregates.

Sustainability is an important aspect of developed countries, and the transportation industry is

constantly trying new and innovative ways to recycle materials. Steel slag is the outcome of

the steel making process and has a complex chemical structure, comprising mostly of oxides

and silicates that are formed through the oxidation of various additives within the steel. There

are two major methods of producing steel: the Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) process and the

Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) process [3-5].

The properties of steel slag like chemical, physical, radiochemical, mineralogical,

morphological, and textural characteristics are needed to recognize hence appraise the

suitability and reusing potential of steel slag in asphalt mixture production. Besides that, it is

necessary to know how it can influence or interact with road construction as the wearing

course of the environmental system [6].

After suitable treatment, steel slag, which is industrially-produced artificial aggregate,

constitutes an exceptional material for the manufacturing of wearing course in the road

construction industry [7]. It should be noted that rutting, skid resistance and fatigue are the

most destructive effects on the structure of the road especially on wearing course, and steel

slag represents the excellent conceivable replacement for typical aggregates in road

construction for preventing pavement deteriorations. Furthermore, normally steel slag is used

in intersections, industrial roads and parking areas where high frictional and high wear

resistance is obligatory [8]. Figure 1 illustrates a flow diagram for the discussion in this

review paper.

Figure 1: Flowchart of discussion for this review paper

2.0 PRODUCTION OF STEEL SLAG

Usually steel slag consists of scarp (blast) furnace (BF) slag and steelmaking (iron making)

slag. The steel furnace slag can be further divided into three groups; Basic-oxygen-furnace

(BOF) slag, Electric-arc-furnace (EAF) slag and Ladle slag [5]. The product of the BOF is



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molten steel with a specified chemical analysis at 2900°F-3000°F [9]. In the majority of the

iron factory around the entire world, Oxygen converters are used to refine liquid pig iron and

Electric Arc Furnaces are used to re-melt scrap. Normally, steel slag is produced at the rate of

9 - 15% of the liquid steel made [2]. Figure 2 shows the steel slag aggregates from Mega

Steel, Banting, Selangor, Malaysia.

The main ingredients of the steel slag are Al2O3, Cr2O3, CaO, MgO, SiO2, and TiO2 [6, 10].

In addition, it obviously consists of silicates, alumina silicates, calcium, iron oxides and

crystalline compounds [11]. During the process of minimizing iron ore by coke in a blast

furnace, BF slag is produced.

Its sources are the gangue content of iron ore, i.e. constituents of iron ore other than iron, and

lime content added to modify the composition of the molten slag. Steelmaking slag is a

product of blast furnace into steel, by the process of refining hot metal, and has been mostly

used as road material [12].

Figure 2: EAF Steel slag aggregates from Mega Steel, Banting, Selangor, Malaysia.

EAF mills produce steel mostly by remelting pieces of steel. In this process, input materials

like scrap metal, iron ore and fluxing agents such as lime are appointed to a furnace, refined,

and heated further than their melting points [13]. Two or more liquids have been formed

when these materials arrive at a state of complete fusion. Slag is a layer that forms on the

surface of melt at the lowest specific gravity [14].

2.1 Properties of Steel Slag

Information of the mineralogical, and morphological properties of steel slag is necessary

because of their chemical, physical and mechanical properties may play a key role in their

utilization [5]. Optical Microscopy (OM), X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), Scanning Electron

Microscopy (SEM) and Energy Dispersive Spectrometry (EDS) are engaged to study the

consistency, morphology and composition of steel slag [6].

2.2 Physical and Chemical Properties

Different properties of various aggregates influenced their level of performance and

suitability for an application. The physical and mechanical characteristics of an aggregate

played an important role in providing the ideal durability, permeability, stability, resistance

against abrasion, cracking and permanent deformation. Besides, the chemical composition of



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an aggregate was continuously studied and found to be a factor affecting its adhesion with

other construction material to form an ideal combination [15]. EAF has the satisfied

durability, physical and mechanical properties which reveal that it is suitable to be used in

roads, airport and other pavement area as it fulfils the term requisite for aggregates applied

for bituminous mixtures and surface treatments [6]. Steel slag aggregates are extremely rough

in surface texture and angular in shape. Moreover, they possess high bulk specific gravity and

reasonable water absorption (less than three per cent).

Slag has chemical composition which is frequently present in terms of simple oxides

calculated from elemental analysis on the basis of x-ray fluorescence. Moreover, the rate of

slag cooling in the steel-making process will affect the mineralogical form of the slag [6, 16-

17]. In addition, the neutralization capacity of the steel slag was the highest above pH 8.5 and

lower in the weakly alkaline or neutral pH range, approximately less than 12 [18]. Generally

steel slag samples release neither temperature nor gases in reaction with water, and their

water solubility is rather poor. The reaction (pH) of the observed materials is alkali (pH

between 11.09 and 12.27) [19].

2.3 Bitumen Binder

Bitumen is a non-crystalline, viscoelastic and rheological material, black or dark brown,

which is substantially soluble in carbon di-sulphide (CS2), possessing adhesive and water-

proofing qualities. Besides, the physical and chemical properties of bitumen binder, it possess

a unique and fundamental microwave properties (permittivity). It is a low loss material as

loss tangent, tan δ (ε''/ε') <0.5 and its microwave permittivity (dielectric constant, ε') value

ranges from two to seven depending on the grade of bitumen, asphaltenes content,

temperature and microwave frequency [20]. It includes basically of hydrocarbons and

normally comprises of at least 80% carbon and 15% hydrogen, the remainders are being

nitrogen, sulphur, oxygen, and traces of various metals. The reason of its use as binder in

flexible pavement is its viscoelastic behaviour.

2.4 Mechanical Properties.

EAF was used to the mechanical tests for its durability, physical, geometric and mechanical

properties to determine the acceptable of steel slag in the production of asphalt mixture. The

results of those tests have been used to compare with typical aggregates normally applied in

the manufacture of asphalt mixtures [6].

It is found that the processed steel slag has suitable mechanical properties, good soundness

characteristics, better abrasion resistance and high bearing strength compared with natural

aggregates. Table 1 summarizes the physical, chemical and mechanical properties of the steel

slag.



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Table 1: Chemical, physical and mechanical properties of steel slag

Constituent

Ameri

et

al.[3]

(EAF)

Chauran

d P. et

al.[21]

(BOF)

T.

sofilic

et al.[6]

(EAF)

Yildirim et

al.[5]

joulazadeh.

m et al. [11]

(BOF)

Mohd Abd

Wahab Yusof

(BOF) (EAF) (EAF) (BOF)

CaO 50~57 41.3 33.22 39.4 47.52 45.2 30~40 45~55

Fe2O3 10~13 31.2 29.64 ـــ ـــ 12 ـــ ـــ

FeO 15~19 ـــ ـــ 7.4 7.61 30.23 ـــ ـــ

SiO2 9~11 12.5 11.01 11.97 4.64 14.6 12~17 12~18

Al2O3 1.4~0.

7 2.4 1.66 2.16 22.59 3.9 4~7 <3

MgO 1~2 4.3 13.09 9.69 7.35 4.9 4~8 <3

MnO 4~5 6.1 6.18 2.74 1 4 <6 <5

P2O5 3.2~2.

3 ـــ ـــ ـــ ـــ 1 ـــ 1.1

Water

absorption %0.30 ـــ ـــ 1.6 ـــ 2.9

0.2~2

%

0.2~2

%

Density

3250

(kg/m

3)

ـــ

3.4

(mg/m3

)

ـــ ـــ3.21

(kg/cm3)

1600

~1920

1600

~1920

PSV ـــ ـــ 54.7 ـــ ـــ 970

(kg/cm2) 53~72 53~72

AAV 4~3 4~3 ـــ ـــ ـــ 8 ـــ ـــ

SG ـــ ـــ ـــ ـــ ـــ ـــ 3.1~3.

5

3.1~3.

5

LAV 18 25~20 25~20 ـــ ـــ ـــ 16 ـــ

EAF: Electric arc Furnace, BOF: Basic-oxygen-Furnace, PSV: Polished Stone Value, AAV:

Aggregate Abrasion Value, LAV: Los Angles Value, SG: Specific Gravity

3.0 EFFECTS OF STEEL SLAG ON PAVEMENT INDUSTRY

3.1 Fatigue Cracking

Road for high speed traffics suffers from recycling and alternative stress in its service life,

leading to fatigue destruction [22]. Steel slag is useful for advancing the properties of asphalt

mixtures for fatigue life and stability [23]. Louzi developed a model to determine the number

of repetitions at a primary strain at any stage for each design method of each percentage of

steel slag [23]. Louzi [23] added three percentages of steel slag into the lime stones (15%,

30% and 45%), tested these samples at different primary tensile strain levels, and recorded

the sample failure at which cycles. It was found that all percentages of steel slag with mixture

of lime stone have better performance compared with SUPERPAVE (SUperior PERformance

asphalt PAVEment) and Marshal during the stability and Indirect Tensile Strength test.



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3.2 Rutting Deformation

Mixtures containing steel slag as coarse aggregates are more resistant to permanent

deformation and have lower rutting depth [23]. According to Wang et al. (2011), the average

rutting depth of the granite specimens is 6 mm at the end of the test, while the average depth

of the steel slag specimens is 2 mm [24].

Both mixtures meet the typical rut depth criterion, but the mixture made of steel slag

demonstrates a much less rutting potential than that made of granite. In addition higher

rutting resistance occurred because of the higher creep stiffness of the mixtures with steel

slag as coarse aggregate [8].

Muniandy et al. (2012) [25] evaluated the effects of different portions of steel slag on rutting.

Figure 3 illustrates their results where, S0 is Steel slag filler fraction 100% passing 20 micron

sieve, S5 is Steel slag filler fraction 50/50 % passing 75/20 micron sieve and S10 is Steel slag

filler fraction 100% passing 75 micron sieve [24].

Fig.3: Axial strain versus number of load cycles for SMA Mix with steel slag filler

3.3 Resilient Modulus Due to Ageing

The resilient modulus of both asphalt mixture with 100% steel slag and that with equal

content of granite aggregates and steel slag increases due to oxidation of the binder after

short-term oven aging [25]. The resilient modulus of 100% steel slag mixes is higher than

that of 50-50% mixes both before and after ageing. However, the resilient modulus of both

mixes (100% and 50-50%) at the increment temperature of range from 10°C to 40°C

decreases nearly 90% [25].

Resilient modulus of steel slag is better than conventional wearing course since the steel-slag

mixture yields a higher resilient modulus compared to the conventional mixture at both room

and high temperatures. Resilient moduli of steel slag and conventional wearing course at

25°C are determined to be 4436.15 MPa and 1976.85 MPa respectively while they are

471.35 MPa, and 268.15 MPa, respectively, at 40°C. Figure 4 illustrates the comparison

between steel slag and conventional wearing course in resilient module test [26], which

indicates that when steel-slag is used as the wearing course, its resilient modulus is almost

twice that of conventional aggregate [27].



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Figure 4: Comparing between steel slag and conventional wearing course in resilient

modules test

3.4 California Bearing Ratio (CBR)

Very high values of CBR, e.g. up to 210 have been recorded for some steel slag blends in

literature [26]. Moreover, it is found that the SSA (steel slag aggregate) mixes have produced

a base course that is not only water-insensitive but also has very high CBR values. In

addition, it is noted that the CBR of the steel slag aggregates with different type of mixture

with natural aggregates is different and varies around 400[28].

3.5 Skid Resistance

The variables such as surface aggregate factors, load factors, environmental factors and

vehicle factors are affecting the measurement level of skid resistance and their inter-

relationships are complex. Surface aggregate factors are preferred to surface macrotexture

and microtexture and geological properties of the aggregate, and load factors are the traffic

intensity, surface age, composition and flow status, and road geometry. On the other hands,

environmental factors such as short term rainfall effects, water film thickness, temperature,

surface contamination, and seasonal weather also affect the measurement the level of skid

resistance. Meanwhile, vehicle factors are preferred to vehicle speed, wheel slip ratio, angle

of tyres, tread depth and patterns and tyre characteristics, [29].

In the ASTM test method E274, the skid number (SN) is defined to be equal to 100*f, where

f is friction factor [30]. The friction factor is equal to F/L, where F is motion frictional

resistance and L is load perpendicular to the interface [30]. Bitumen with 30% slag has the

highest SN followed by Superpave, SMA (stone matrix aggregate), and Marshall mixes[30].

Figure 5 shows the skid numbers among different asphalt concrete mixes.

Thus, asphalt concrete with steel slag can be contrived to ameliorate skid resistance of road

appearance, particularly at highway crossings [30].

3.6 Specific gravity

As a rule, the specific gravity decreases when the slag particle size increases [31]. Based on

Wang et al.'s study (2010), specific gravity of BOS slag is around 3 g/cm3 [32].



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Generally, mixtures with steel slag have shown encouraging results in comparison with those

containing limestone. Moreover, it is found that the replacement of the coarse portion of

limestone aggregate with steel slag leads to better results in comparison with the mixtures

that contain steel slag as the fine portion [8, 23]. Furthermore, steel slag mix requires more

energy to heat to reach the given temperature than the typical aggregate because the steel slag

mix clasps longer heat hence cools slower [31]. Besides, steel slag has excellent performance

compared to SMA (stone mastic asphalt) made of basalt [33]. Finally, It should be mentioned

that the steel slag mixture is more flexible in low temperature and more rigid in high

temperature [34].

Figure 5: Comparison of different asphalt concrete mixes in terms of skid numbers [30]

3.7 Creep

The creep test determines permanent deformation of asphalt mixtures. The static load is

measured as a function of time, while the mixture dimensions and test conditions are

standardized. Figure 6 illustrates the results for the deformation and strain of wearing course.

It is clear that the deformation and strain of the steel-slag mixture with lime stone is lower

than those of the conventional mixture wearing course. Permanent deformation of the steel-

slag mixture has been determined to be 0.044 mm, whereas it is 0.605 mm for the

conventional mixture. The strain for the steel-slag mixture has been measured as 0.377% and

it is 0.946% for the conventional mixture. The steel-slag mixture has perfect performance in

terms of interconnecting and adhesion. Thus, the steel-slag mixture demonstrates that it can

resist better deformation and can last longer when compared to the conventional wearing

course [27]. Figure 6 shows the performance of steel slag and conventional wearing course in

the creep test [26].



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Figure 6: Illustrates performance of steel slag and conventional wearing course in creep

test [27]

4.0 RECOMMENDATION

The use of artificial or recycled materials becomes more and more attractive in highway

construction nowadays. Steel slag may be one of the best substitutes of artificial aggregates

for road construction, which can not only help save the friendly environment and but also

provides an artificial material with higher resistance. In this review paper, firstly, some

important characteristics of steel slag mixture including chemical, physical and mechanical

properties were highlighted, and secondly, effects of steel slag upon pavement in comparison

with conventional asphalt mixture were evaluated. Generally, the use of steel slag aggregates

in asphalt mixture is able to bring benefits in many ways. It outperforms many natural

aggregates in terms of rutting, fatigue and stiffness resistance of the pavement. Furthermore,

the average TSR ratio of the steel slag mixture is less than that of granite mixture and its

stripping is very slight. Moreover, skid number of asphalt mixture including 30% steel slag is

around 100, which is bigger than that of Stone Mix Asphalt (SMA). That is why the addition

of steel slag in asphalt mixture improves skid resistance of road surfaces. Finally, it is

concluded that, in the rutting, fatigue, skid resistance, creep and resilient modules tests, the

performance of steel slag mixture wearing course is better than that of the conventional

wearing course.

Acknowledgement

Authors would like to thank Shell Singapore for bitumen supply and Universiti Teknologi

Malaysia (UTM) for the research grant (Vote No. 09H33) for this study, which is very much

appreciated.

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