analysis of housing demand in enugu metropolis, …
TRANSCRIPT
CHUKWU FRANCIS OGBUNA
PG/MURP/10/54613
ANALYSIS OF HOUSING DEMAND IN ENUGU
METROPOLIS, ENUGU STATE, NIGERIA
Faculty of Environmental Studies
Urban & Regional Planning
Chukwueloka.O. Uzowulu
Digitally Signed by: Content manager’s Name
DN : CN = Webmaster’s name
O= University of Nigeria, Nsukka
OU = Innovation Centre
TITLE PAGE
ANALYSIS OF HOUSING DEMAND IN ENUGU
METROPOLIS, ENUGU STATE, NIGERIA.
BY
CHUKWU FRANCIS OGBUNA
PG/MURP/10/54613
A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF MASTERS
DEGREE IN URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING (MURP)
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, ENUGU CAMPUS.
SUPERVISOR
DR. NWACHUKWU, M. U
DECEMBER, 2015
CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that Chukwu Francis Ogbuna with Registration Number
PG/MURP/10/54613 was a postgraduate student in the Department of Urban
and Regional Planning, University Of Nigeria, Enugu Campus. He has
satisfactorily completed the requirements for the award of the degree of Masters
in Urban and Regional Planning (MURP). This dissertation embodies an
original work and has not to the best of our knowledge been submitted in part or
whole for an award of any other degree of this or any other university.
……………………...... …………………
Dr.Nwachukwu, M. U. Date
(Dissertation Supervisor)
…………………… …………………
Prof.Uchegbu, S. N. Date
(Head of Department)
…………………… …………………
Prof. S. O. Fadare Date
(External Examiner)
APPROVAL PAGE
This dissertation was written by Chukwu Francis Ogbuna with
Registration Number PG/MURP/10/54613 and has been read and approved by
the undersigned lecturers for submission to the department of Urban and
Regional Planning University of Nigeria, Enugu Campus.
-------------------------- ------------------------
Dr.Nwachukwu, M. U. Date
(Supervisor)
-------------------------- -------------------------
Prof. Smart Uchegbu Date
(Head of Department)
-------------------------- --------------------------
Dr. Onyebueke V. U. Date
(Chairman, Faculty of
Environmental Studies
Postgraduate Committee)
DEDICATION
To my Late father Mr Godwin Chukwu (of the blessed memory) and to late little
Miss Jane Chukwu (The memory of your short stay on earth will linger in my
mind forever. Stay well and goodbye)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
My sincere appreciation first goes to God Almighty I thank Him for speedily and miraculously
intervening in both my undergraduate and postgraduate studies.
I will forever remain grateful to my mother Mrs Jenneth Chukwu and my wife Mrs Ndidi
Chukwu for all their effort towards ensuring that I get the best in the citadel of learning. Mum and
wife, I cannot finish paying you back.
My profound gratitude goes to my dissertation supervisor, Dr.Nwachukwu M. U. for
mentoring this work from the very start to its accomplishment. My heartfelt gratitude also goes to the
head of the Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Prof.Uchegbu S. N. for his fatherly support.
My sincere thanks to Prof. Ogbazi J. U., Assoc.Prof.Efobi K.O., Dr. Okeke D.C., Dr.
Onyebueke V.U., Dr. Jiburum U., Dr. Ubani O. J., Dr. Ogboi K. C., Dr.Ubani, Dr. Eze H., Dr Okosun
Andy and host of other academic and non-academic staff of the department of Urban and Regional
Planning, UNEC for their intellectual assistance and encouragement throughout the course of this
study.
My sincere appreciation goes to my brothers Mr Benneth Chukwu, Mr Godwin Chukwu
(Junior), my sisters and my little children Mr Godwin Kelechi Chukwu and Mr Thomas Chukwu
I cannot fail to acknowledge my classmates and all my special friends in the School of Post
Graduate Studies, University of Nigeria, especially Okonkwo Celestine, Ugwuoke Hillary, Alom
Anselem, Uwem Silas, Jelly Ugwu, Ogechi Onuigbo, Mrs Abu, J.O.J .Ulasi, Mr Ifedinkor, Uwakwe
Roland, Ngene Ebenezar and others.
CHUKWU F.O. 2015.
ABSTRACT
This study was aimed at empirically identifing the determinants of housing demand in Enugu
metropolis. To this end, the objectives of the study were to: (i) examine the trend of housing
demand in Enugu Metropolis, (ii) identify factors that influence housing demand
(determinants) in Enugu metropolis, (iii) determine whether there is variation in housing
demand among various income groups (high, medium and low) in Enugu metropolis and (iv)
identify residents’ perception of the housing demand. Survey design method was adopted for
this study. Data used in this study was collected from both secondary and primary sources.
Secondary data were obtained from published materials on housing demand and its
determinants. The primary data on the residents’ perception of the nature of housing demand
was collected with the aid of structured questionnaire, which contained 2 major sections and
53 questions. The questionnaire was validated by two environmental professionals. The
questions were structured using 5-point Likert scale. Reliability of the test instrument was
determined using Cronbach’s Alpha, which yielded a correlation coefficient of 0.83. The
pilot survey was carried out to test the clarity of the questions on the questionnaire. The study
covered a time period of 34 years (1980 - 2013). The sample size of 460 respondents was
determined from the sample frame of 928,127 (the projected city’s population) using
William’s formula representing 0.05% of the population. The stratified sampling technique
was employed in selecting 460 respondents. However, 429 questionnaires were duly
completed and retrieved reflecting 93.3% return rate. Three statistical techniques used in this
study were analysis of variance (ANOVA), Multi-linear Regression and Chi square at 0.05
significant level. The trend of housing demand differed significantly over the years (p < 0.05)
in Enugu metropolis. The housing demand was highest (172,844 housing units per annum)
during the third (2000-2013) decade and it was followed in descending order by second
(1990-1999) and first (1980-1989) decades with housing demand of 123,713 and 93,841
housing units per annum respectively. There was a significant relationship (p < 0.05) between
housing demand and the determinant factors (Population growth, Income, Institutions, Public
utilities, Security and Household size). This implies that the six identified afore-mentioned
factors are the determinants of housing demand in Enugu metropolis. Housing demand
differed significantly (p < 0.05) among various income groups (high, medium and low) in
Enugu metropolis. The low-income group has the highest housing demand (88,406 housing
units per annum) and it was followed in descending order by medium – income (31,835
housing units per annum) and high-income (14,917 housing units per annum) groups. There
was a significant difference (p < 0.05) in residents’ perception of the housing demand in
Enugu metropolis. The study recommends among other things the inculcation of the
identified factors in determining housing demand in Nigeria.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Title page……………………………………………………………………………………….i
Certification…………………………………….……..……………………………………….ii
Approval Page………………………………………………………………………………...iii
Dedication…………………………………………………………………………………….iv
Acknowledgement……………………………………………………………………………..v
Abstract…………………………………………………………...…......................................vi
Table of Contents…………………………………………….………………………………vii
List of Tables……………………………………………….…………………………………xi
List of Figures……………………………………………………………………………….xiii
1.00: CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.10: Background of the Study.....................................................................................................1
1.20: Statement of the Problem....................................................................................................3
1.30: Goal and Objectives............................................................................................................5
1.31: Goal.....................................................................................................................................5
1.32: Objectives............................................................................................................................5
1.40: Research Questions.............................................................................................................6
1.50: Hypotheses..........................................................................................................................6
1.60: The scope of the Study........................................................................................................6
1.70: The Limitation of Study......................................................................................................8
1.80: The Significance of the Study.............................................................................................9
1.90: Definition of Terms...........................................................................................................10
2.00: CHAPTER TWO: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
2.10: Theory of Demand.............................................................................................................12
2.11: Law of Demand.................................................................................................................12
2.12: The Relationship between Demand and Price...................................................................14
2.20: Housing Demand...............................................................................................................16
2.30: Housing Supply.................................................................................................................17
2.40 :The Demand and Supply of Housing in Nigeria...............................................................18
2.50: Population and Housing Demand....................................................................................22
2.60: Migration and Housing Demand.......................................................................................24
2.6:1 Laws of Migration.............................................................................................................24
2.62: Theory of Intervening Opportunity...................................................................................26
2.63: Migration Trends...............................................................................................................26
2.70: Urbanization and Housing Demand..................................................................................27
2.71: Urbanization Trends in Nigeria.........................................................................................27
2.72: Urbanization Trends in Africa...........................................................................................28
2.73: World Urbanization Trends...............................................................................................29
3.00 CHAPTER THREE: LITERATURE REVIEW
3.10: Trends of Housing Demand..............................................................................................32
3.20: Determinants of Housing Demand...................................................................................39
3.30 Variation of Housing Demand among income groups.......................................................47
3.40: Perceptions about Housing Demand.................................................................................49
3.50: Government Interventions in Solving Problem of Housing Demand...............................53
3.60: The Research Gap.............................................................................................................61
4.00 CHAPTER FOUR: STUDY AREA
4.10: Location............................................................................................................................62
4.20: Physical Setting................................................................................................................64
4.21: Topography.......................................................................................................................64
4.22: Vegetation.........................................................................................................................64
4.23: Climate..............................................................................................................................65
4.30: Brief History.....................................................................................................................66
4.40: Population Distribution.....................................................................................................68
4.50: Administration..................................................................................................................69
4.60: Economy...........................................................................................................................69
4.70: Urbanization and Housing................................................................................................71
4.71: Urbanization Challenges and Responses..........................................................................71
4.72: The Urban Residential Space in Enugu.Metropolis..........................................................72
4.80: Infrastructure and Basic Services.....................................................................................73
4.81: Education..........................................................................................................................74
4.82: Transportation...................................................................................................................74
4.83: Healthcare Services...........................................................................................................75
4.84: Culture and Tourism..........................................................................................................75
4.85: Cityscape and Architecture...............................................................................................76
4.90: Housing Demand in Enugu...............................................................................................77
5.00 CHAPTER FIVE: METHODS AND PROCEDURES
5.10: Sources and Types of Data...............................................................................................78
5.11: Secondary Sources............................................................................................................78
5.12: Published Sources.............................................................................................................78
5.13: Unpublished Source..........................................................................................................79
5.20: Primary Sources................................................................................................................80
5.30: Sample Frame and Sample Size........................................................................................81
5.31: Sample Frame....................................................................................................................81
5.32: Sampling Size....................................................................................................................83
5.33: Sampling Procedure..........................................................................................................83
5.34: Number of Questionnaires Administered and Number Returned....................................85
5.40: Description of the Instrument used in Data Collection (Questionnaire)...........................85
5.41: Definition of Variables......................................................................................................86
5.50: Description of the Statistics used in the Analysis.............................................................86
6.00: CHAPTER SIX: DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS
AND FINDINGS
6.10: Secondary Data Presentation and Analysis.......................................................................90
6.30: Primary Data Presentation and Analysis.........................................................................104
6.40: Socio-economic Status of Respondents..........................................................................104
6.50: The Factors Influencing Housing Demand.....................................................................113
6.70: Testing of Hypotheses.....................................................................................................127
6.80: Discussion of Findings....................................................................................................131
6.90: Summary of the findings.................................................................................................138
7.00: CHAPTER SEVEN: RECOMMENDATION AND
CONCLUSION
7.10: Recommendation.............................................................................................................139
7.20: Conclusion.......................................................................................................................140
Reference..................................................................................................................................141
Appendices...............................................................................................................................149
Appendix 1: Questionnaire…………………………………………………………………...149
Appendix 2: Result for Reliability Analysis (Cronbach’s Alpha)……………………………152
Appendix 3: ANOVA Result for trend of housing demand in Enugu metropolis..................153
Appendix 4: Multi – linear regression for factors that influence housing demand
(determinants) in Enugu metropolis....................................................................154
Appendix 5: ANOVA for variations in housing demand among various income groups
(high,medium and low) in Enugu metropolis...................................................155
Appendix 6: Chi – square for the residents’ perceptions of the housing demand
in Enugu metropolis...........................................................................................156
Appendix 7: Synopsis...............................................................................................................15
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1: The 24 Current Neighbourhoods in Enugu metropolis.............................................7
Table 1.2: The 18 Neighbourhoods in Enugu metropolis (based on 1991 census).....................8
Table 2.1 Performance of Public Housing in Nigeria (1960-2010)..........................................21
Table 4.1 Climate Data on Temperature and Precipitation for Enugu metropolis.................66
Table 4.2 Population Growth of Enugu Metropolis..................................................................68
Table 5.1: The 18 Neighbourhoods in Enugu metropolis (based on 1991 population census
neighbourhood distributions).................................................................................82
Table 5.2: The 9 Selected Sample Neighbourhoods and their Sample Sizes...........................84
Table 5.3: Response Rate of Questionnaire Administration.....................................................85
Table 6.11: Range of the Time Period of the Study in Decades...............................................90
Table 6.12: Total population in Enugu metropolis ..................................................................91
Table 6.13: Total Regular Households in Enugu metropolis....................................................92
Table 6.14: The housing demand among various income groups.............................................94
Table 6.15: Housing Conversions from residential to other uses in Enugu metropolis............95
Table 6.16: Number of Commercial Activities in Enugu metropolis.......................................96
Table 6.17: Annual income of Civil Servants in Enugu metropolis.........................................97
Table 6.18: Housing Supply in Enugu metropolis....................................................................98
Table 6.19: Number of Schools in Enugu metropolis...............................................................99
Table 6.20: Public Utilities in Enugu metropolis....................................................................100
Table 6.21 : Security in Enugu metropolis..............................................................................101
Table 6.22: Rate of Urbanization in Enugu metropolis...........................................................102
Table 6.23: Household Size in Enugu metropolis..................................................................103
Table 6.24: The migration rate in Enugu metropolis..............................................................104
Table 6.41: Gender of Respondents........................................................................................105
Table 6.42: Age Range of Respondents..................................................................................106
Table 6.43: Marital Status of Respondents...................... ......................................................106
Table 6.44: Occupation of Respondents..................................................................................107
Table 6.45: Educational Level of Respondents.......................................................................108
Table 6.46: Household Size of Respondents...........................................................................109
Table 6.47: Type of House of Respondents............................................................................110
Table 6.48: Number of Rooms of Respondents......................................................................111
Table 6.49: Monthly Income of Respondents.........................................................................112
Table 6.51: Indigene of Enugu metropolis.............................................................................113
Table 6.52: Length of Stay in Enugu metropolis by non indigene........................................114
Table 6.53: Rate of Migration................................................................................................115
Table 6.54: Migration effect on Population Growth...............................................................115
Table 6.55: Rate of Urbanization...........................................................................................116
Table 6.56: Major Cause of Urbanization..............................................................................117
Table 6.57: Major Cause of Housing Shortage......................................................................118
Table 6.58: The Consideration of Determinant Factors .........................................................119
Table 6.59: Variation in Housing Demand among Various Income Groups.........................120
Table 6.60: Standard of Buildings.............................................. ...........................................121
Table 6.61: Nature of Existing Housing Demand..................................................................122
Table 6.62: Existence of Housing Shortage................................... .......................................123
Table 6.63: Recommendation to High Housing Demand.......................................................125
Table 6.64: Existence of slum as one of the problems of high housing demand....................126
Table 6.71: Analysis of Variance Output Table......................................................................127
Table 6.72: Analysis of Variance Multiple Comparison Output Table..................................127
Table 6.73: Subset of Anova Analysis....................................................................................128
Table 6.74: The Result of the Six Determinant Factors..........................................................128
Table 6.75: The Relationship between Housing Demand and Six Significant
Determinant Factors..........................................................................................129
Table 6.76: Analysis of Variance Output Table......................................................................129
Table 6.77: Analysis of Variance Multiple Comparison Output Table..................................130
Table 6.78: Subset of ANOVA Analysis................................................................................130
Table 6.79: Chi-Square Tests..................................................................................................131
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: Diagramme Normal Demand Curve.......................................................................12
Figure 2.2: Diagramme for Abnormal Demand Curve.............................................................13
Figure 2.3: Dagramme for Abnormal Demand Curve for Goods of Necessity........................14
Figure 2.4: Diagramme for Demand and Supply......................................................................15
Figure 4.1: Map of Nigeria showing Enugu state.....................................................................62
Figure 4.2 Map of Enugu State showing Enugu Metropolis.....................................................63
Figure 4.3 Map of Enugu Metropolis........................................................................................63
Figure 6.43: Distribution Marital Status of Respondents........................... ............................107
Figure 6.45: Educational Levels of Respondents....................................................................108
Figure 6.46: Distributions of Household Sizes of Respondents..............................................109
Figure 6.47: Incidence of Type of House of Respondents......................................................111
Figure 6.52: Length of stay in Enugu metropolis by Non-Indigene.......................................114
Figure 6.54: Incidence of Migration effect on Population Growth........................................116
Figure 6.58: The Incidence of Determinant Factors............................... ................................120
Figure 6.59: Prevalence of Housing Demand among various income groups.......................121
Figure 6.60: Incidence of Building Standard..........................................................................122
Figure 6.61: Incidence of Existing Housing Demand............................................................123
Figure 6.64: Incidence of existence of slum as one of the problems of high
housing demand..................................................................................................126
Figure 6.71: Mean Housing Demand among the Three Decades...........................................132
Figure 6.72: Relationship between housing demand and determinant factors.......................135
Figure 6.73: Mean Housing Demand among the three income groups...................................136
1.00: CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.10: Background of the Study
Housing is one of the three basic needs of man. It is the most important
factor for physical survival of man after provision of food. A deficiency in
housing can profoundly affect the health, welfare and productivity of man. It is
an indispensable necessity without which man’s survival is impossible. Beyond
the fabric, services and the contents of the dwelling, housing encompasses all
that surround the dwelling to stimulate healthy living. Housing has to be
quantitatively and qualitatively adequate in order to fulfill its basic purposes.
(Aderamo and Ayobolu, 2010).
Housing demand has witnessed unprecedented increase in the past
decades. The low level of economic development, physical, social and cultural
factors have created, among others, immense obstacles to the provision of
adequate housing to the majority of population. The population growth rates are
growing faster than the provision of new housing and housing infrastructure.
This has resulted in intensive usage of the existing stock of housing and
deterioration of housing environments. Some of the manifestations of housing
and residential land use intensification are increasing room occupancy levels,
housing adjustments involving physical changes in housing space and housing
space conversion. (Awanyo, 1992)
The World population has risen to over 6.3 billion people and by 2030
over 60 percent of the world’s population is expected to be living in cities.
There are now over 400 cities with a population of over a million people.
Population growth is one of the underlying factors for the housing demand,
without new supply of dwellings; it pushes up the prices for both renting and
purchasing dwellings. (Angelo, 2007). The problem is further compounded in
many of the large cities with a change in living preferences that has resulted in a
rise in household rates. Hence, more housing supply is needed to meet the
unprecedented growth in demand.
Housing as a key determinant of quality of life, can be measured at
individual, household and community levels as well as human rights in the
cycle of human life. (Magigi and Majani 2006). It is unique among consumer
goods in its pervasive economic, social, and psychological significance. The
physical and social environments, within the house and the neighbourhood,
support family functioning and children's personal growth. Adequate and decent
housing provision has been the central focus of developing countries’
government.
The right to decent housing is a Human Right that was recognized in
1948 in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and affirmed at the
Vancouver Declaration on Human Settlement in 1976. However, all over the
world, experience has shown time and again that the realization of this right is
difficult. (Cheserek and Opata 2011). As so far experienced both in and outside
Africa, applicable solutions to the problems associated with housing demand are
not available. It is estimated that one-fifth of the world’s population does not
have adequate shelter whatsoever, while more than a million people, mainly
children, die daily because of lack of adequate housing, and majority of these
are found in the developing world (Syagga 1987).
Housing in all ramifications is more than a shelter since it embraces all
the social services and utilities that make a community or neighbourhood a
livable environment. The result is manifested in growing overcrowding in
homes, neighbourhoods and communities as well as increasing pressure on
infrastructural facilities and rapidly deteriorating environment. (National
Housing Policy, 2006).
The housing demand in Nigeria can be examined from urban and rural
perspectives. In the urban centres the situation is characterized by acute
shortage exacerbated by the rapid rate of urbanization with its associated high
population growth rate. This problem of housing shortage is also highly
associated with overcrowding and insanitary conditions. The situation in rural
areas is characterized by poor quality housing with inadequate utilities like
potable water, electric power supply, all season roads etc. In addition to the
urban and rural perspectives of the Nigerian housing situation is that of poverty.
About 70% of the Nigerian population are poor or are of low – income groups
(Federal Office of Statistics, 1996). This reflects the inability of most of the
population to afford good and decent housing especially in the inflation prone
economy. (Igwe- Kalu and Chima, 2006)
In 2006 National Population Census, Nigerian population was estimated
at over140million and 30 to 40 percent of the total population lives in the urban
areas, with an average household of five persons. The occupancy ratio of houses
in Nigeria is six persons per room. About 60% of Nigerians are without
adequate shelter, currently, there is an estimated housing deficit of 12– 14
million housing units. The estimated amount required to provide for the deficit
is estimated at US$150-200 billion. There is need for the provision of 500,000
units per annum for the next 40 years. An average developer cannot deliver
more than 2,000 housing units in 12 months. Based on that, housing issues will
remain one of the primary social focuses in Nigeria for the next 20 years or
more. (Adeleye, 2008)
Against this background, this study intended to empirically analyze and identify
the factors that are responsible for phenomenonal growth in the housing
demand, which have made all efforts in tackling housing demand ineffective,
using Enugu Metropolis as case study.
1.20 Statement of the Problem
Nigerian cities are experiencing an unprecedented growth in over the past three
decades. Statistics show that about 60% of the Nigerian population are without
adequate shelter. It was estimated that the nation’s housing demand for 1990
was 8,413,980, 7,770,005 and 7,624,230 units for the high, medium and low
income groups respectively.(Onibokon, 1990). For the 2020 housing demand
would stand at 39,989,286; 35,570,900 and 28,548,633 housing units for the
respective income groups.(Agbola, 1998). Again, the National Rolling Plan
(1990 – 1992) estimated the housing deficit to increase between 4.8 million to
5.9 million by the year 2000.
The 1991 National Housing Policy estimated that 700,000 housing units
needed to be built each year if the housing deficit was to be cancelled. (Ogu and
Ogbuozobe 2001; Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1991). In 2006, the Minister of
Housing and Urban Development declared that the country needed about 10
million housing units before all Nigerians could be sheltered. (Ademiluyi,
2010). Yar’adua, (2007) put the national housing deficit at between 8 and 10
million. However, it is quite obvious that a critical gap exists between the
housing supply and demand in Nigeria.
The deficits in housing demand have resulted in numerous problems. The
problems include overcrowding, reduction in the vacancy rate, high room
occupancy rates, proliferation of informal settlements, pressure on the existing
housing stock, pressure on existing infrastructure, deterioration of the
infrastructural facilities, inadequate basic amenities, poor spatial arrangement,
and deteriorated environment. Others are high rents, increase in housing prices,
lack of adequate and affordable housing and decrease in Marginal propensity to
save (MPS) of the household as greater part of the income is spent on rent.
In order to address the problems of housing demand both Federal and
State Governments embarked on several programmes aimed at improving
housing supply to meet the demand. These programmes include site and
services scheme, direct housing construction, National Housing Policy, National
Housing Fund scheme and the setting up of Nigerian Building Society. Others
are the establishment of the National Prototype Housing Programme, setting up
of the Federal and State Housing Corporations, creation of the Federal
Mortgage Bank of Nigeria, and the Federal Ministry of Housing and Urban
Development, among others.
The efforts have not yielded the desired result because housing shortages
still persist. About 10 million units of housing are needed yearly to meet the
housing needs of Nigeria. This has been attributed to the inability of the policy
makers to identify all the factors that are responsible for phenomenonal growth
in the housing demand, which have made all efforts in tackling housing demand
ineffective. Existing housing demand estimate were based on population alone
thereby neglecting other factors that are crucial for the estimates. The situation
was due to the absence of the national data on housing (Ademiluyi, 2010). It is
therefore imperative to identify all factors that are necessary for accurate
forecasting of housing demand in the country.
In view of this, the focus of this study was to analyze housing demand with a
view to identify all the factors that influenced housing demand using Enugu
metropolis as case study. The outcome of this study is capable of enhancing
efforts towards meeting housing needs of Nigerian people.
1.30 Goal and Objectives
1.31 Goal
The goal of this research was to empirically analyze housing demand in
Enugu metropolis with a view to identifing the factors that influence the
demand.
1.32 Objectives
The following objectives were raised:
(1) to examine the trend of housing demand in Enugu Metropolis.
(2) to identify factors that influence housing demand (determinants) in Enugu
metropolis.
(3) to determine whether there is variation in housing demand among various
income groups (high, medium and low) in Enugu metropolis.
(4) to identify residents’ perception of the housing demand in Enugu metropolis.
(5) to make recommendation on appropriate measures towards tackling the
problem of housing demand
1.40 Research Questions
The following questions were raised to address the objectives of this
study:-
(1) What is the trend of housing demand in Enugu Metropolis?
(2) What are the factors that influence housing demand (determinants) in Enugu
metropolis?
(3) Are there variations in housing demand among various income groups (high,
medium and low) in Enugu metropolis?
(4) What are the residents’ perceptions of the housing demand in Enugu
metropolis?
(5) What should be the more appropriate measure to tackle the problem of
housing demand?
1.50 Hypotheses
1. H0 : There is no significant variation in trend of housing demand in over the
three decades in Enugu metropolis.
2. H0 : There is no significant relationship between housing demand and the
determinant factors of the housing demand in Enugu Metropolis.
3. H0 : Housing demand does not differ significantly among income groups in
Enugu Metropolis.
4. H0 : There is no significant difference in the residents’ perception of the
housing demand in Enugu metropolis.
1.60 The Scope of the Study
This study focused on analyzing housing demand in Enugu metropolis,
which comprises three Local Government Areas, namely Enugu North, Enugu
South and Enugu East. The study covered a time period of 34 years, ranging
from 1980 to 2013. The study ended in 2013 because of absence of data for the
year 2014. Enugu metropolis presently comprises 24 constituent
neighbourhoods .These are shown in table 1.1
Table 1.1: The Current 24 neighbourhoods in Enugu Metropolis.
S/N Neighbourhood Density
1 Abakpa
High
2 Asata 3 Iva valley 4 Akwuke 5 Ogbete 6 Udi Siding 7 Ogui New/L/out 8 Emene 9 Ogui Urban
10 Coal Camp 11 Garriki Awk. 12 Obiagu 13 AmechiAwk. 14 Nike 15 Achara Layout
Medium
16 Maryland 17 Idaw River 18 Uwani 19 New haven 20 GRA
Low
21 Independence L\out 22 Trans Ekulu 23 Thinkers Corners 24 Republic Layout
Source: Researcher’s Survey, 2012.
However, 18 constituent neighbourhoods based on 1991 National Population
Census was used for the study. This is because the 2006 National Population
Census of Enugu metropolis was not aggregated into neighbourhoods. This is
appropriate because the current 24 constituent neighbourhoods were imbeded in
18 neighbourhoods used in 1991 National Population Census. These 18
constituent neighbourhoods are shown in table 1.2
Table 1.2: The 18 neighbourhoods in Enugu Metropolis based on
1991Census.
S/N Neighbourhood Density
1 Abakpa
High
2 Asata
3 Iva valley
4 Akwuke
5 Ogbete
6 Ogui New/L/out
7 Emene
8 Garkki Awk.
9 Obiagu
10 Amechi Awk.
11 Nike
12 Achara Layout
Medium 13 Maryland
14 Uwani
15 New Haven
16 GRA
Low 17 Independence L/O
18 Trans Ekulu
Source: Researcher’s Survey, 2014.
1.70 The Limitation of Study
In the course of gathering relevant data, certain constraints were faced,
which included the problem of data acquisition from the three Local
Government Councils of Enugu metropolis. There was dearth of data on the
total number of regular households, migration rate, the rate of urbanization and
the proper map of Enugu metropolis, from the state and the local government
levels. The data was finally gotten from the National Population Commission
(NPC) and projected by the researcher.
Collection of recent data on population of each of the present 24
neighbourhoods in Enugu Metropolis was not possible due to the fact that the
2006 National Population Census did not disaggregate the population of Enugu
metropolis into neighbourhoods. Therefore this study has to rely on 1991
National Population Census which was disaggregated into neighbourhoods.
Other problems encountered during the study include, the low literacy level,
which posed serious challenges in the filling of some the questionnaires by the
respondents. The attitude some of the respondents that were approached, who
showed no interest in filling the questionnaires. In spite of these constraints in
the study, a good measure of success was achieved through various methods or
means adopted in the study.
1.80 The Significance of the Study
The significance of this study in addressing the problem of housing
demand cannot be over – emphasized. It identified factors that influence
housing demand, which is crucial to the formulation of appropriate housing
policies and programmes. The study provides empirical evidence on the nature
and extent of factors that determine housing demand. The information is crucial
to the policy makers because they form basis for formulation of policies and
programmes towards addressing the problem of housing shortages.
Also, the outcome of the study is of immense important to the relevant
authorities in charge of provision of housing like the Enugu State Housing
Corporation, Federal Housing Authority, Federal and State Ministries in charge
of housing provision in the country. This will help them to identify and tackle
the challenges facing the provision of adequate housing for all Nigerians. It
gives insight to private developers on the nature of housing demand as well as
the housing stock to be provided in order to meet the demand. Finally, this study
will be a reference point to future researchers in the field of housing and
community development.
1.90 Definition of Terms
Affordable housing: Affordable is a relative term, the common definition is
when the cost of shelter does not exceed 30 percent of gross household income.
Carrying capacity: The maximum population of a territory, sometimes called
its carrying capacity, is generally understood in an absolute sense to mean the
largest number of persons that could be sustained under specified conditions of
living.
Ceteris paribus: Other things being equal, that is when something will happen
when other conditions or variables remain the same or constant.
First generation residents: These are relatively newcomers to urban areas.
Floating population: Migrants who had left their place of household
registration for at least six months were regarded as floating population.
Greenfield development: It is the sub-division of outlying broad hectares.
Housing Demand: It is defined, as the amount and quantity of housing people
are willing and able to pay for at a particular time.
Housing needs: It is the number of housing units required to accommodate a
population at a given standard of housing occupancy.
Housing Stock: It is regarded as the total number of existing habitable housing
units in a given place.
Housing Unit: It is defined as a unit of accommodation occupied by a
household, be it one person or more.
Informal settlements: The settlement which the inhabitants do not enjoy rights
to adequate standard of living and lacks approval and land rights to ownership
and use (title deeds) from the recognized authorities as potential requirement to
access loan from conventional housing financing institution.
Minimum population: Conversely, the minimum population is generally taken
to be the smallest number of persons in an area, which is consistent with group
survival.
Overcrowding: It is defined as more than 1.01 persons per a livable room.
Population growth rate: The average annual percent change in the population,
resulting from a surplus (or deficit) of birth over death and the balance of
migrants entering and leaving a country. The rate may be positive or negative.
Residential green building practice: It include designing and constructing
homes that use energy, water, and materials efficiently; have a reduced impact
on their physical environment; and promote a healthy indoor environment. By
using an integrated design approach, the whole residential building can be
designed and operated as a system.
Residential intensification: It is a situation of developing houses at higher
densities and accommodating more people per hectare.
Self help: It is a term that has been used to describe the participation of low
income households in the production of their own housing.
Social Housing: It is referred as rental housing, which may be owned and
managed by the state, non – profit organizations, a combination of the two,
usually with the aim of providing affordable housing.
Substandard Housing: It is a structure that has severe physical problems with
a multitude of housing code violations.
Urbanization: It is a generic term, which is used to refer to the process of
growth in population of an area, a cluster of homes or people living together
that have social, economic and physical functions in common.
Vacancy rates: It is most useful for measuring the existing match between
households and housing units. That is the percentage of total available housing
unit not occupied.
2.00: CHAPTER TWO: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
2.10 Theory of Demand
Demand has been described as the amount or quantity of goods and
services that a consumer is willing to buy coupled with the ability to pay at a
given price and a particular time. In Economics, demand is quite different from
want or desire, that is why there is effective and ineffective demand. Effective
demand is when one’s demand is backed up by the necessary ability, which is
money and willingness to pay, while ineffective demand is mere want, or desire
that is not backed up with money. The market prices of commodities determine
whether demand will be effective or ineffective. If the market prices of
commodities are high, the effective demand of many people may change to
ineffective demand and vice versa.(Anyaele, 2003). (See Figure 2.1)
Figure 2.1 Diagramme Normal demand curve
2.11 Law of Demand
Anyaele (2003) categorized demand laws into two, which includes
(a) Normal demand law:- which is described as the first law, which states that
the higher the price of a commodity the lower the quantity demanded “ceteris
paribus”. The assumption is that quantity demanded is inversely related to the
price of commodity.
(b) Abnormal demand law: - this is the second law of demand and is called
exceptional demand law. In exceptional or abnormal situations, consumers tend
to buy more of a commodity at higher prices than at lower prices. In this case,
the demand curve will slope upwards from left to right (see figure 2.2).
There is abnormal demand for goods of necessity in which the demand is steady
whether the price increased or not (see figure 2.3). Tawiah (1989) identified
factors that affects demand as follows:- price, price of other commodities,
income, changes in production, changes in taste, population, invention of new
commodity, age distribution, extent of credit facilities, whether, advertisement
taxation and expectation of changes in price.
Figure 2.2 Diagramme for Abnormal demand curve
Figure 2.3 Diagramme for Abnormal demand curve for goods of necessity
The quantity demanded varies inversely with price other things remaining
constant. Thus, the higher the price, the lower the quantity demanded; the lower
the price, the higher the quantity demanded. The law of demand is an empirical
law that means data is collected and analyzed as to reach conclusion. This law
maintains that an inverse or negative relationship exists between quantity
demanded and price. The law holds under the condition that all other factors
like taste, fashion, preference of consumers etc, are held constant. But the
question remains, how long will these other factors held constant?. Therefore,
the law of demand holds only in the short run (Nosike and Ohia 2008).
2.12 The Relationship between Demand and Price
(Equilibrium of Demand and Supply)
Equilibrium arises whenever demand equals supply at a particular price and at
any point in time. Equilibrium price is that price at which the quantity of
commodity demanded is equal to the quantity supplied. (Anyaele, 2003) The
four basic laws of equilibrium are as follows:-
(1) If demand increases and supply remains unchanged, a shortage occurs,
leading to a higher equilibrium price.
(2) If demand decreases and supply remains unchanged, a surplus occurs,
leading to a lower equilibrium price.
(3) If demand remains unchanged and supply increases, a surplus occurs,
leading to a lower equilibrium price.
(4) If demand remains unchanged and supply decreases, a shortage occurs,
leading to a higher equilibrium price. (Hanson 1977) (See figure 2.4)
Figure 2.4 Diagramme for Demand and Supply
2.20 Housing Demand
(Quigley, 1976) extended the theoretical analysis of the demand for
housing to incorporate the spatial dimension (and thus the residential location
decision), as well as the choice of housing type. In particular, we address the
choice of housing type and residential location in a metropolitan area, which
may have several work places. In this short-run analysis, the spatial
distributions of the stocks of various types of housing are given. The theoretical
model indicates how choices among housing are related to systematic variations
in the relative prices faced by households for the same types of residential
housing. The model indicates that these prices, in turn are heavily dependent on
the interaction of work place location, the spatial distribution of the stock of
housing, and the characteristics of the urban transport network.
Arunsi (2006) indentified the four effective factors that determine
housing demand to include household formation, acquisition of second homes,
vacancies, and other factors associated with the supply of housing. He declared
that in estimating housing demand, certain basic information is required such as
population characteristics (total population distribution) of the settlement by
type and household size. The population will give the quantitative inventory of
the existing housing stock in terms of total number of dwellings, distribution of
dwellings by room size, number and provision of utilities like water, electricity,
toilet etc
However, the demand for housing may not necessarily be the same as the
need for it. Every family needs a dwelling whether it can afford it or not. The
effective demand on the other hand, depends among other factors upon the
ability to pay economic price or rent. In Nigeria, the provision and construction
of houses is very much an individual’s concern, thus most of the houses are
privately built and owned. An examination of the country’s response to housing
needs and demand are pertinent at this time when every person’s demands in
housing provision are too many and varied.(Abiodun,1974),
Femi and Khan (2014) explained housing demand as the willingness and
ability of housing consumer to pay for a particular dwelling depending upon
such consumer’s incomes, house type, location preferences and local prices. He
indicated that demand is the quantity of good or service that consumers are
willing and able to buy at a given price at a particular given time period.
Demand for housing at certain price refers to the value that is placed on a house
linked with the satisfaction derived in such house. In economics, this is termed
as utility. Housing need relates to social housing while housing demand is
related to private housing
Effective housing demand is different from Desire housing demand.
Effective housing demand can be explained as a desire to buy a house that is
backed up with an ability to pay for it. On the other hand, Desire housing
demand can be termed to be willingness to buy the house with the consumer’s
lack of the purchasing power to be able to buy the house. Until there is
purchasing power in terms of money to buy the housing unit, such housing
demand has not become effective housing demand (Alison, 2004).
2.30 Housing Supply
Supply is defined as “the quantity of a good that a seller (an individual or
a group of individuals) is ready and willing to sell for a given period of time”
(Eboh and Nwoaha, 2009). Relating this to housing, Omole (2001) defined
housing supply as “the total number of housing units that suppliers – public or
private – are ready to offer for sale at a particular time for a particular price. In
other words, housing supply refers to the total amount of housing units that are
produced annually by both private and public sectors that are ready for
consumption. The supply schedule or curve means the relation between market
price and the amounts of goods that producers are willing to supply (Anamgba,
2004).
The law of supply states that “when the price of a good goes up, the
quantity supplied goes up. The law of supply is illustrated by the upward slope
of the supply curve (Dickson, 2006). Similarly, Amaechi and Azubuike (2006),
asserted that supply, unlike demand is said to have positive relationship with
price. This explains why Jhingan (2005) has concluded that, “sellers like buyers,
respond to incentives and that how much they are willing to produce in a given
year depend on their assessment of the profitability of their selling products. He
opined, “the amount sellers are willing and able to supply to product markets is
influenced by the price of their products and by such other considerations as
wages, input prices, and technology. According to Aderibigbe (2005), the
factors that affect the supply of a good may include the price of the good,
changes in input prices, changes in the price of other goods, changes in
expectations, government policies especially on excise tax and technology. All
things being equal, changes in the factors listed above result in changes in the
quantity supplied, that is, changes in the movement along a supply curve.
2.40 The Demand and Supply of Housing in Nigeria
Arunsi (2006) enumerated different efforts that have been made to close
the gap between the demand and supply of housing in Nigeria. These included
the Housing Corporation Association of Nigeria based on 1963 population
census estimated at least 20,000 dwelling units for the country and government
should produce at least 10,000 housing units annually. However, the target was
not met. In Lagos metropolis alone, it was estimated that 15,000 housing units
were needed annually to cope with the demands for housing because of the net
increase in population.
The earliest effort with regard to housing provision by a public followed
the outbreak of bubonic plague in Lagos between 1925 and 1928 and term of
reference was clear on the areas and to establish housing units in Lagos
metropolis. In 1956, the Nigerian building Society was established with the
objective of providing mortgage loans to then less privilege workers.
In 1967, the then military government initiated another attempts at housing the
low – income people group in Lagos. 17 housing blocks each consisting 2
bedroom flats were built, it was earlier planned to contain 25 housing blocks
and to accommodate 11,000 people, but were finally taken over by the Federal
government for its workers. The plan for people with higher income was made
in 1965 at Ilupeju Estate in Lagos so as to meet the demand of industries and for
private developers to buy or lease plots to build their own houses, 250 and 220
acres were devoted to industries and residential respectively.The Lagos
Executive development Board (LEBD) in 1967 also established a home
ownership scheme for high and medium income group in Lagos, which 3,000
houses were built and sold to the public.
The Northern Nigerian Housing Corporation in 1964 established the
Ahmadu Marafa Estate in Kaduna with 147 housing units initiated for the
medium and low-income housing and 16 was also established in Samaru Zaria,
Sokoto, Maiduguri and that of Kano, which were taken over by Greater Kano
Planning Board, which constructed 216 dwelling units.
The Western Nigeria Housing Corporation (WNHC) in 1968 constructed
the Bodija Estate in Ibadan and Ikeja Housing/industrial Estate, 500 model
houses were built, including private individuals that acquired building plots on
the estate, making it 1,200 houses at Bodija Estate housing approximately
10,000 people.
In 1961, the Eastern Nigerian Housing Corporation was established to
undertake similar activities in the Eastern States. The corporation developed a
housing estate near the Trans – Amadi Industrial area Port – Harcourt and was
dissolved in 1967 after the creation of states. The East Central government after
the civil war formed the East Central State Housing Authority and succeeded in
building 193 housing units.
The Mid West State (Bendel), established the Benin – Delta Development
Planning Authority in 1971. It had housing estate in Benin City and Effurum
near Warri. The Ugborikolo Estate Effurum had 45 bungalows of three
bedrooms each, and were sold to individuals. The corporation established
housing estates in Afuze, Agbor, Auchi, Asaba and Benin City.
In 1971, the National Council on Housing comprised all the State
Commissioners responsible for housing was formed. This was the first
significant effort positively made by the Federal Government tackling the
worsening housing situation. In 1972 the Federal Government under the
National Housing Programme embarked on construction of 59, 000 housing
units.
In 1975, the Federal Government for the first time decided to participate
directly and actively in the provision of houses, budgeting a total of N2.6 billion
between 1975 and 1980. However, 202,000 housing were proposed for
construction comprising 50,000 in Lagos and 8,000 for each of the 19 states of
the federation. From 1980 – 1985, N 1.9 billion was budgeted for construction
of 400,000 housing units nationwide, by middle of 1983, only 32,000 housing
units were completed at the cost of N600 million which was 20% over all
achievement. Between 1985 and 1989 housing provision under the Military
Regimes were very low, during this period housing sector suffered serious
neglect and deprivation, which it received additional 15,215 housing units.
According to Ibem (2011) the problem of demand is a result of the
escalating housing supply deficit in Nigerian which as at 2008 was put at over
15 million housing units. He attributed this to low productivity in public-sector
housing. Table 1 shows the planned and constructed number of housing units in
the different public housing programs initiated between 1962 and 1999.
Examination of Table 2.1 reveals that a total of 618,498 housing units were
planned for production in the various public housing schemes across the
country. However, around 85,812 housing units representing around 14% of the
planned housing units were actually completed.
Table 2.1 Performance of Public housing in Nigeria (1960-2010) PERIOD PROGRAMME TARGET ACHIEVEMENT LEVEL
First National
Development
Plan(1962-1968)
- Planned construction of 61,000
housing units.
- Only 500 units less than 1% of
the planned units were
constructed. The political chaos
and the resulting civil war
(1966-1970) contributed to the
marginal progress recorded
during this period.
Second National
Development
Plan(1971-74)
-Establishment of National Council
of Housing (1972) to advise the
government on housing matters
and Federal Housing Authority
(FHA) in 1973 to co-ordinate
public housing provisions
-Plan direct construction of 59,000
‘low-cost’ housing units across the
Federation.
-7,080 housing units representing
12% of planned houses were
actually built.
Third National
Development
Plan (1975-
1980)
-Creation of Federal Ministry of
Housing, Urban Development and
Environment and conversion of
Nigerian Building Society to
Federal Mortgage bank of Nigeria
(FMBN).
-Promulgation of the Land Use
Decree (1978)
-Planned construction of 202,000
low-cost housing units nationwide.
30,000 housing units representing
less than 15% of planned houses
were actually completed
4th National
Development
Plan (1981-
1985)
-National Housing Program
launched for the first time in 1980.
Earmarked N1.9 billion for the
construction of 160,000 housing
units, for low-income people
-The second phase of the housing
program set out to construct 20,000
housing units across the country
A total of 47,234 housing units
representing about 23.6% of
planned housing units were
constructed in the first phase. The
second phase was cut short by
the military coup of 1983
Military
Governments
-National Housing program
planned 121,000 houses on Siteand-
- 5,500 housing units (less than
5%) of planned houses were
(1986-1999)
Services housing program
between 1993 and1995
-1988 National Housing Policy
launched to provide Nigerians
access to quality housing and basic
infrastructure.
-1991 National Housing Policy was
launched with the goal of granting
all Nigerians access to decent
housing by 2000 in response to the
slogan “ Housing for All by the
year 2000” of the United Nations.
actually constructed.
-Provision of rural infrastructure
through the Directorate of Food,
Roads and Rural Infrastructure
(DFFRI)
Civilian
Governments
(1999-2010)
-The New National Housing and
Urban Development Policy
(NHUDP) launched in 2002 with
the goal of ensuring that “all
Nigerians own or have access to
decent housing through private
sector-led initiatives”.
-Planned construct about 10,271
housing units through the Public-
Private Partnership (PPP)
arrangements in different PPP
housing schemes across the
country.
-Planned construction of 500
housing units in the Presidential
Mandate Housing Scheme in all 36
State capitals and Abuja.
-Government planned a pilot
project involving the construction
of 40,000 housing units per annum
nationwide.
- 2000 serviced plot through PPP
site and service in Ikorodu,
Lagos.
-4,440 housing units completed in
Abuja, Port Harcourt, Akure and
Abeokuta, through PPP.
-The Presidential Mandate
Housing Scheme did not take off
in many States. In Ogun State
about 100 housing units
representing 20% of the planned
units were constructed.
- Records of the achievement
level of the
pilot projects are not available.
Source: Compiled by the authors from various sources. Ali (1996); Omole (2001),
Ajanlekoko (2002); Mustapha (2002); Bello and Bello (2006); UN-HABITAT, (2006);
Olotuah (2010)
2.50 Population and Housing Demand
Mulder (2006) observed population and housing as having two-sided
relationship. According to him, reiterated that population and housing go hand
in hand in affecting each other. On the one hand, population change leads to a
change in demand for housing. Population growth and particularly the growth in
the number of households, leads to a growth in housing demand. Population
decline might, in the long run, lead to a decrease in housing demand. But at the
same time, the supply of housing influences the opportunities for population
increase through immigration and the opportunities for people to form new
households. Adequate housing supply might attract immigrants or influence
their choice of residential location. Therefore, the population and housing go
hand in hand affecting each other as follows:-
Side one: From population to housing
Side one of the relationship, the link from population to housing, seems
obvious. People live in households and households need housing. In the long
run, the supply of housing will follow the demand and the number of dwellings
in an area will approximately reflect the number of households.
Side two: From housing to population
When considering side two, there are three relationships to discuss: the link
from housing to migration, the link from housing to household formation, and
the link from housing to the birth of children.
(a)From housing to migration: Housing may attract migrants or prevent out-
migration, and a lack of housing may prevent migrants from entering or leads to
out-migration. With regard to internal migration, it is possible to attract
migrants or to prevent out-migration to neighbouring areas by manipulating the
housing stock.
(b)From housing to household formation:
To form a household, people need a place to live. It is possible, therefore, that
people postpone household formation or even refrain from it when they cannot
find suitable housing. As with migration, the degree to which the availability of
housing is a factor in household formation probably depends on the urgency
with which people want to form new households.
(c)From housing to having children:
Housing factors might influence having children in two ways: indirectly, and
directly. The indirect influence runs via leaving the parental home and via
cohabitation and marriage. If people stay in the parental home for a long time,
they are also late in forming families. This is true in countries where it is the
norm to form families in housing separate from the parental family, as is the
case in practically all European countries. Late parenthood leads to a smaller
number of children being born.
2.60 Migration and Housing Demand
People move for different reasons. These differences affect the overall
migration process. The conditions under which a migrant enters a receiver
population can have broad implications for all parties involved. The expression
migration experience refers to the fact that different causes for migration will
produce different outcomes observable from a sociological perspective. For
example, a person who moves within a nation will not have the same migration
experience as a political refugee. In most cases, refugees need special services
from the receiver population such as emergency shelter, food, and legal aid. The
psychological trauma of fleeing their homeland and leaving family members
behind can also complicate refugees' adjustment to their new environment.
Considering that a migrant can be a slave, refugee, or job-seeker, or have some
other reason for moving, no single theory can provide a comprehensive
explanation for the migration process.
Theories of migration are important because, they can help us understand
population movements within their wider political and economic contexts. For
example, if outmigration from Third World nations is shown to be a result of
economic problems caused by the global economy, then such migration could
be managed with better international economic agreements instead of restrictive
immigration acts.(jrank.org) (Accessed 10:02:2013).
2.61 Laws of Migration
Ernest Ravenstein is widely regarded as the earliest migration theorist.
Ravenstein, an English geographer, used census data from England and Wales
to develop his "Laws of Migration" (1889). He concluded that migration was
governed by a "push-pull" process; that is, unfavorable conditions in one place
(oppressive laws, heavy taxation, etc.) "push" people out, and favourable
conditions in an external location "pull" them out. Ravenstein's laws stated that
the primary cause for migration was better external economic opportunities; the
volume of migration decreases as distance increases; migration occurs in stages
instead of one long move; population movements are bilateral; and migration
differentials (e.g., gender, social class, age) influence a person's mobility.
Many theorists have followed in Ravenstein's footsteps, and the dominant
theories in contemporary scholarship are more or less variations of his
conclusions. Everett Lee (1966) reformulated Ravenstein's theory to give more
emphasis to internal (or push) factors. Lee also outlined the impact that
intervening obstacles have on the migration process. He argued that variables
such as distance, physical and political barriers, and having dependents can
impede or even prevent migration. Lee pointed out that the migration process is
selective because differentials such as age, gender, and social class affect how
persons respond to push-pull factors, and these conditions also shape their
ability to overcome intervening obstacles. Furthermore, personal factors such as
a person's education, knowledge of a potential receiver population, family ties,
and the like can facilitate or retard migration.
Several theories have been developed to treat international patterns of migration
on their own terms, but these too are variants of push-pull theory. First,
neoclassical economic theory Sjaastad (1962) and Todaro (1969) suggests that
international migration is related to the global supply and demand for labour.
Nations with scarce labour supply and high demand will have high wages that
pull immigrants in from nations with a surplus of labor. Second, segmented
labor-market theory (Piore 1979) argues that First World economies are
structured so as to require a certain level of immigration. This theory suggests
that developed economies are dualistic: they have a primary market of secured,
well-remunerated work and a secondary market of low-wage work. Segmented
labor-market theory argues that immigrants are recruited to fill these jobs that
are necessary for the overall economy to function, but are avoided by the native-
born population because of the poor working conditions associated with the
secondary labor market. Third, world-systems theory (Sassen 1988) argues that
international migration is a by-product of global capitalism. Contemporary
patterns of international migration tend to be from the periphery (poor nations)
to the core (rich nations) because factors associated with industrial development
in the First World generated structural economic problems, and thus push
factors, in the Third World. .(jrank.org) (Accessed 10:02:2013).
2.62 Theory of Intervening Opportunity
Theory of intervening opportunity, which was first developed by Stouffer
(1940) looks not at the size of settlement or the distance between them but at the
perceived opportunities, which the settlement presents.
According to his theory, the amount of migration into a certain locality is
directly proportional to the number of opportunities between the points of
destination but inversely proportional to the number of opportunities between
the point of departure and the destination. Opportunities according to the theory
include the residential accommodation facilities, employment prospects, social
facilities and any other pull factor which the migrants perceives as being
available in the town of destination. (Wikipedia.org) (Accessed 10:02:2013)
2.63 Migration Trends
The total number of international migrants has increased over the last 10
years from an estimated 150 million in 2000 to 214 million persons today. In
order words; one out of every 33 persons in the world today is a migrant (where
as in 2000 one out of every 35 was a migrant).
The percentage of migrants has remained relatively stable as a share of the total
population, increasing by only 0.2 per cent (from 2.9 to 3.1 per cent), over the
last decade. However, the percentage of migrants varies greatly from country to
country. Countries with a high percentage of migrants include Qatar (87 per
cent), United Arab Emirates (70 per cent), Jordan (46 per cent), Singapore (41
per cent), and Saudi Arabia (28 per cent).
Countries with a low percentage of migrants include South Africa (3.7 per cent),
Slovakia (2.4 per cent), Turkey (1.9 per cent), Japan (1.7 per cent), Nigeria (0.7
per cent), Romania (0.6 per cent), India (0.4 per cent) and Indonesia (0.1per
cent). Migration is now more widely distributed across more countries. Today
the top 10 countries of destination receive a smaller share of all migrants than in
2000. (National Urban strategies, 2003).
2.70 Urbanization and Housing Demand
2.71 Urbanization Trends in Nigeria
Urbanization has been a common feature of cities of developing world
since the last century (Aderamo and Ayobolu, 2010), This has been in form of
rapid population growth and physical expansion of cities. The sheer migration
of able-bodied young men and women from rural areas to cities has had
profound impact on the cities. Thus, cities are no more able to provide the basic
services to sustain their teeming population.
Nigerian urban centres are perhaps some of the fastest growing centres in
Africa. The country has many large urban centres with too few well-planned
cities and towns. According to the (1991) census, there were at least 183 urban
centres with population of 20,000 and above in 1953. The number of such cities
rose to 210 by 1980; 235 by 1990 and 250 by the year 2000. The percentage of
people who lived in urban centres of 20,000 and more increased from 11 per
cent in 1953 to 35 percent in 1991, and about 45 per cent in year 2002. In terms
of share population of people, while the population of the country increased
from 30.4 million to 81 million between 1953 and 1991, the population of urban
centres of 20,000 people and above increased from 3.2 million to 32.2 million
that is more than 10 folds within the 40-year period. While the rural population
grew at a rate of 1.7 per cent, that of urban population was about 5 per cent
within the same period. By 2000, Lagos and Kano had population above
7,000,000 each, while other 10 cities had 1 million each and 26 more cities had
a population of 500,000. However, the increase in the rate of urbanization and
the growth in the number of cities are both alarming and scaring, while the
situation in the cities are unsatisfactory.
There has been a very dense network of urban centres in Nigeria. The
proportion of the Nigerian population living in urban centres has therefore
increased phenomenally over the years; while only 7% of Nigerians lived in
urban centres in the 1930s, and 10% in 1950, by 1970, 1980 and 1990, 20%,
27% and 35% lived in the cities respectively. Over 40% of Nigerians now live
in urban centres of varying sizes.
A recently published UN Report on Nigeria indicates that the annual
urban population growth rate is 5.8 percent, while the national population
growth rate is 2.8 percent. This urbanization rate has resulted in a total urban
population of 62.66 million or 43 percent of the total population. The incidence
of this population in urban centres has created severe housing problems,
resulting in overcrowding, inadequate dwellings, deplorable urban environment,
degrading public infrastructure, and to an extreme, “outright homelessness” in
most of the city centres (Jiboye,2011).
2.72 Urbanization Trends in Africa
Today, the fastest urbanization region in the world is Africa, with an
urban population that is expanding at double the rate of the world as a whole.
Lagos, Kampala, Ouagadougou, Yaoundé, Doula, Addis Ababa, Bamako,
Maputo, Dar es Salam, Nairobi, Luanda, Ndjamena, Lubumbashi, and
Mogadishu are growing at rates faster than 4 percent per year.
The combined populations of Africa cities will double in the next 14 to 18 years
as 200 million additional people, mostly from the countryside take up residence
in Africa’s cities.
Another 60 million persons will be added to African cities that now have
between 1 and 5 million persons. Lagos will by itself, account for another
10million people, growing to 23million by 2015 Lagos will then become the
third largest city in the world after Tokyo and Mumbai (Bombay).
Burdened with all the problems of growth, cities are increasingly subject to
dramatic crises, especially in developing countries.
The rise of the mega – city (Cities of at least 10million people) in developing
countries is of particular concern because of incapacity to increase the provision
of housing and basic services at the same pace. Unemployment, environmental
degradation, deterioration of existing infrastructure and lack of access to land
finance and adequate shelter are among the other main areas of concern.
(National Urban strategies, 2003).
2.73 World Urbanization Trends
The rapid growth rate of the global urban population is one of the most
striking features of the demographic shift taking place in the world. By 1950,
only 30 percent of the world was urbanized; in 1980, the figure was up by 39
percent and by 2001, 47.5 percent of the world’s population lived in urban
areas. This dramatic growth is unprecedented in human history. The level of
urbanization will rise to 56.7 percent within the next two decades, with almost
the entire urban growth taking place in developing countries. Numerically, this
represents an increase of 1.5 billion people between 2000 and 2025.
At the beginning of the new century the planet hosted 19 cities with 10 million
or more people, 22 cities with 5 to 10 million people, 370 cities with 1 to 5
million people; and 433 urban cities with 0.5 to 1 million. Another 1.5 billion
people live in urban areas of less than half a million people. The process of
urbanization will continue well into the twenty – first century and, by 2030,
over 60 percent of all people (4.9 billion out of 8.1 billion) will live in cities.
(National Urban strategies, 2003)
Global urbanization: facts and figures
In 2000, world population reached 6.1 billion, and is growing at an annual rate
of 1.2%, or 77million people per year.
In 1950, 68% of the world’s population was in developing countries, with 8% in
least developed countries.
By 2030, it is expected that 85% of the world’s population will be in developing
countries, with 15% in less developed countries.
The other side of the coin is that the percentage of the world’s population that
lives in developed countries is declining from 32% in 1950 to an expected 15%
in 2030.
In 1800, only 2% of the world’s population was urbanized; In 1950, only
30% of the world population was urban; In 2004, 47% of the world population
was urban; By 2008 more than half of the world population will be living in
urban areas; By 2030, it is expected that 60% of the world population will live
in urban areas. Almost 180,000 people are added to the urban population each
day. It is estimated that there are a billion poor people in the world of this over
750 million live in urban areas without adequate shelter and basic services.
(National Urban strategies, 2003)
Regional comparisons
The population in urban areas in less developed countries will grow from 1.9
billion in 2000 to 3.9 billion in 2030.
But in developed countries, the urban population is expected to increase very
slowly, from 0.9 billion in 2000 to 1 billion in 2030.
The overall growth rate for the world for that period is 1%, while the growth
rate for urban areas is nearly double, or 1.8%. At the rate, the world’s urban
population will double in 38 years.
Growth will be even more rapid in the urban areas of less developed regions,
averaging 2.3% per year, with a doubling time of 30 years.
The urbanization process in developed countries has stabilized with about 75%
of the population living in urban areas. By 2030, 84% of the population in
developed countries will be living in urban areas.
Latin America and the Caribbean were 50% urbanized by 1960 but are now in
the region of 75%. Though Africa is predominantly rural, with only 37.3%
living in urban areas in 1999, with a growth rate of 4.8%, Africa is the continent
with the fastest rate of urbanization. (National Urban strategies, 2003)
3.00 CHAPTER THREE: LITERATURE REVIEW
3.10 Trends of Housing Demand
Duncan (2006) observed that one of the most important trends in Latin
America and the Caribbean over the past 40 years has been the movement of the
poor from the rural to urban areas, and the ensuing growth of informal housing
settlements in cities. According to him, 75% of the total population of Latin
America currently lives in urban areas, compared with less than 50%, 40 years
ago. Mexico City provides a stark example of this trend: in the 1950’s
approximately 330,000 people lived on the city’s outskirts, a number that by the
early 1990’s reached approximately 9.5 million. In Bogotá, the population rose
from 1.7 million in 1964 to 6 million in the late 1990’s. He opined that the
factors contributing to the massive movement toward the cities in Latin
America are development of transportation networks, a growing disparity in the
standard of living between rural and urban areas, and dramatic economic
swings. In the past decades, migration in many Latin American countries has
shifted from the largest cities to a fast – growing intermediate cities. He further
stated that 10 to 15 million households in Latin America live in substandard
housing and the deficit in adequate housing continuous to grow. While the
annual increase in demand is 2.5 million housing units, only 1.5 million housing
units are added to the housing stock each year.
Owusu (2008) revealed that the sharp increase in the level of urbanization
is characterized by limited infrastructure (including housing). However,
nowhere is the housing challenge so severe than in the largest metropolis and
national capital, Accra. According to him, the existing housing condition in
Accra is as a result of rapid urban growth fuelled by increased population
growth (both natural and rural-urban migration) and exacerbated by economic
liberalization and globalization. Increasingly, the effects of liberalization and
globalization are re-configuring the housing supply and demand dynamics
resulting in increasing land and property values and rent, which is pushing some
middle-income Ghanaians to slums and other poor neighbourhoods of Accra.
Struyk and Roy (2006) revealed that the population of Kyrgyzstan has
increased by 500,000 people since 1998 to 5.22 million inhabitants, despite a
strong outward migration in the same period. Due to migration from rural to
urban areas, the biggest part of this increase concerns the capital city, Bishkek
and to a much smaller extent, the city of Osh. In many parts of the country there
seems to be no housing demand. This situation contrasts to that of housing
production. The housing stock grew in the same period of time only half as fast
as the population, from 1.05 to 1.10 million units, i.e., below 5%. He estimates
that 166,000 families are in need of new housing in 2007; whereas the estimate
levels of new housing construction was 20,000 to 30,000 dwelling units a year.
He argued that under these conditions, it would take 15 years to recover to the
same level performance of housing provision as was being achieved before
independence.
Scott (2004) stated how the nature of demand for government-assisted
housing in South Africa has changed significantly over the last five years:
According to him, an average population growth of 2.1% per annum has
resulted in the population increasing by 10.4% or over 4.2 million people
between 1996 and 2001. If this growth has been sustained since 2001, the
extrapolated population for 2004 is 47.5 million people; In addition, the country
has experienced a 30% increase in the absolute number of households, where
only a 10% increase was expected. This has been caused by the drop in average
household size from 4.5 people per household in 1996 to 3.8 in 2001.
Urban populations have increased as a result of both urbanization and natural
population growth. One fifth of urban residents are relatively newcomers to
urban areas (i.e. first generation residents) and urban areas are expected to
continue to grow at a rate of 2.7% per annum. He stated that there is high
housing demand in the country as result of this increase in population.
Tufour (2008) revealed that the rapid population growth and an
uncontrollable rate of urbanization have made housing one of the critical issues
facing the Government of Ghana. Various data suggest that housing deficit is in
excess of 900,000 units whilst supply figures vary between 25,000 and 40,000
units per annum as against annual requirement of 100,000 units. Currently, the
annual housing supply to demand ratio (for new housing) is estimated at about
35%. Ghana is experiencing significant demographic change; which has
implications for its cities and towns. The rate of urbanization in Accra is 15%;
urban population was 31% in 1980 and rose to 44% in 2000. By the year 2010
more than half (51.5%) of the population is expected to be living in urban areas.
As Ghana’s economy continues to grow, transition from a predominantly rural
to a predominantly urban society is taking place. The rate at which urban
population is growing since 1970 ranks higher than that of national growth. In
1993 alone the urban population in Ghana had shoot up to 35 percent and is
expected to double by 2010 earlier than the globally predicted time of 2030
(World Bank, 2002 on quote). With the population estimated at 2.2 million,
Accra, Ghana’s capital shares 25 percent of urban population. He indicated that
the rapid population growth and uncontrollable rate of urbanization have made
housing one of the critical issues facing the government of Ghana. That various
data put it that housing deficit is in excess of 900,000 units, while supply figures
vary between 25,000 and 40,000 units per year as against annual requirement of
100,000 units.
Ball (2003) affirmed that all countries have problems of housing supply
but the scale of the problem in developing countries is immense. About 21
million new housing units are required annually in developing countries just to
accommodate housing growth between 2000 and 2010. He reiterated that
worldwide, up to 1.1 billion people live in inadequate conditions in urban areas.
He reveals that India that lacks 20 million dwellings, that is 12% of the existing
stock and Mexico lacks 6 million dwellings for its 100 million-population.
According to him, in recent decades this has given rise to informal housing.
Which in many third world cities, half or more of housing falls into informal
housing, he gave example of Latin America whereby 70% of new housing is
informal.
Ademiluyi (2010) opined that, the ever mounting of crises in the housing
sector of the developing world has various dimensions. These include absolute
housing shortages, emergence and proliferation of the slums/squatter
settlements, the rising cost of housing rent, and the growing inability of the
average citizen to own their houses or procure decent accommodation of their
taste in the housing market.
He revealed that in Nigeria, even though there are no accurate data on the
nation’s housing stock, earlier studies and observations strongly suggest
quantitative and qualitative housing problems across the country. He observed
that policymakers in Nigeria are not really aware of the magnitude of the
housing problems facing the low-income earners in the country.According to
him, the increasing high rent is a pointer to the fact that there is a decrease in
housing stock.
He estimated that the nation’s housing needs for 1990 to be 8,413,980;
7,770,005 and 7,624,230 units for the high, medium and low income groups
respectively. The same study estimates for the 2020 stands at 39,989,286;
35,570,900 and 28,548,633 housing units for high, medium and low income
groups respectively.
Again, the National Rolling Plan from 1990 – 1992 estimated the housing
deficit to increase between 4.8 million to 5.9 million by the year 2000. The
1991 National Housing Policy estimated that 700,000 housing units needed to
be built each year if the housing deficit was to be cancelled. The document, in
fact, indicated that no fewer than 60% of new housing units were to be built in
the urban centres. This figure had increased at the time the 1991 housing policy
was being reviewed in 2002. In 2006, the Minister of Housing and Urban
Development declared that the country needed about 10 million housing units
before all Nigerians could be sheltered.
Boamah (2010) observed that there is insufficient housing in Ghana and
even most of the available houses are poorly developed and lack the basic
amenities required to make them habitable. Ghana suffers from a severe housing
delivery relatively to households’ growth. It has estimated unsatisfied housing
need of 1,232,835 units, with an estimated new annual demand of 133,000
units. However, only 25,000 units are produced annually leaving an unsatisfied
annual demand of 108,000 units. More than 52% of houses in Ghana
accommodate between two and four households (Ghana Statistical Service
(GSS, 2002). He also revealed that the housing deficit in Ghana stood at
1,526,275 housing units. In 2000, the housing deficit in Kumasi was 164,219
and Tamale was 18,690 housing units. As a result of insufficiency of housing in
the country, a great number of Ghanaians now “sleep rough” particularly in the
major cities like Accra, Kumasi, Tema, Sekondi – Takoradi and Tamale. For
instance 1.9% of the Ghanaian population rely on shift dwelling units such as
kiosks, tents, cargo containers, attachment to shops and offices for shelter. This
is in addition to 3% who are homeless (GSS, 2002) and live on the streets, lorry
parks, and markets. He stated that about 6,000 households in Kumasi and about
1,700 households in Tamale sleep either on the streets, lorry parks or in front of
shops.
Wiener and Darryl (2009) opined that housing affordability in California
is closely related the state needs of 220,000 new units yearly to meet
population growth. It has been nearly 20 years since that number was reached.
During the 1980’s housing production averaged 203,369 units per year; in the
1990’s production dropped to only 110,648 per year; from 2000 to 2002,
production increased to 154,782 per year; and in 2004, production peaked at
212,960 units before dipping to just over 100,000 units in 2007. Department of
Housing and Community Development (HCD) predicted that only 94,300 new
permits would be issued in 2008. The reasons for fluctuation in production
range are due to restrictive zoning and growth controls that limit what can be
built, exorbitant infrastructure and impact fees, dwindling suppliers of
developable land, a flagging economy, tighter credit and rising interest rates.
Bajwa et al (2007) observed the 1998 Census in Pakistan put the housing
stock of Lahore Metropolitan Area as 967,202 of which 77.62% was in urban
areas of Lahore Metropolitan Area. More than 91% of the total stock was in
District Lahore, 7% in District Seikhupura and 2% in District Kasur areas.
Whereas the 1980 Housing Census gave the total figure of housing units as
536,724 in the whole District that included 83.4% of housing units in urban
areas. It is interested to note that between 1981 and 1998 population increased
at the rate of 3.46% per annum whereas the housing stock during this period
increased at the rate of 2.79% only. They opined that various estimates have
indicated housing backlog in Lahore, saying that in 1996 the housing shortage
put between 39,086 and 80,399 dwelling units. They argued the Lahore Urban
Development and Traffic Studies (1980) estimated this backlog as high as
300,000 dwelling units. This shows that the increase in housing stock has not
kept pace with the growth in the population.
Zappone (2010) revealed that Australia faces a housing affordability
''time bomb'' - primed by a dysfunctional planning system, a chronic
undersupply of homes, and unrealistic expectations from buyers.
Stockland Managing Director Matthew Quinn, in a speech in Sydney, said
Australia's current shortage of 200,000 homes and an annual shortfall of 60,000,
would balloon to 800,000 by 2020, if no reforms were undertaken.
This has made house prices in Australia to climb 13.6 per cent in 2009 alone
after a decade in which they posted increases of about 17.0 per cent, according
to the Australian Bureau of Statistics. Over the same period, Australia has lured
more immigrants, adding to housing demand. The federal government's 2010
intergenerational report estimates Australia's population will swell to 35.9
million people by 2050 from its current level of 22 million. The housing
demand is on increase.
(Kamruzzaman and Ogura (2006) revealed that the housing situation in
Dhaka, Bangladeshi is not at all satisfactory. The overall supply of housing
units in Dhaka city has been inadequate compared to the increasing demands,
which is due to rise in population. This has resulted in overcrowding with high
occupancy rates and high room density.
They opined that the current nationwide housing requirement stands at 2
million, increasing at a rate of 372,000 dwelling units per year. The urban
housing need was 658,000 units per year between 1993-2000. Dhaka, a city of
12.5 million people increasing at 5% rate, had an annual requirement of 218,000
dwelling units up to the end of the century.
Lyne (2004) asserted that Population growth and household formation
would continue to drive Auckland’s demand for housing. Evidence suggests
that over the last three years demand for housing in Auckland has not been met
and that currently have a shortfall of approximately 10,000 homes.
Auckland’s population is projected to grow to between 2.2 and 2.5 million over
the next 30 years. As a result, between 330,000 and 400,000 additional
dwellings will be required by 2040. This means that Auckland will need at least
11,000 additional houses each year to meet this demand.
3.20 Determinants of Housing Demand
Aderamo and Ayobolu (2010) stated that urbanization has been a
common feature of cities of developing world since the last century. This
according to them has been in form of rapid population growth and physical
expansion of cities. That the sheer migration of able – bodied young men and
women from rural areas to cities have had profound impact on the city.
However, the increase in the rate of urbanization and growth in the number of
cities are both alarming and scaring thereby resulting to inadequate provision of
basic facilities and services which housing is one of them.
Albeti et al (2001) asserted that urbanization being twentieth century
demographic phenomena, more and more people are changing residence from
rural to urban areas. They argued that increasing proportion of the population
prefer large cities, big towns and a nearby administrative capitals. They stated
that growth of an urban centre can take place in different forms: by growth of
the existing urban localities, by classification of cities (from rural to urban) and
annexations of new territory to existing cities. They opined that other main
factor which determines the growth of an urban centre is the demographic
change. He stressed that, this demographic change results to high housing
demand.
Aluko (2010) quoted that, the result of the uncontrolled population
growth in the urban areas are characterized by inadequate housing, the growth
of slums, traffic congestion, poor waste disposal, shortage of water and
inadequate power supply. In addition, the cities face problems of fragmented
administration, insufficient coordination in planning and in allocation.
Jiboye (2011) noted that the global urban population has quadrupled since
1950’s, and cities of the developing world now account for 90% of the world’s
urban growth. The population estimate indicates that at a certain point in 2007,
the world’s urban population would equal the world’s rural population for the
first time in history. The growth in urban population will continue to rise,
projected to reach almost 5 billion in 2030. Much of this urbanization is
predicted to take place in the developing world, with Asia and Africa having the
largest urban populations. Current reports also indicate that more than half of
the world’s population now lives in urban areas, and by the year 2050, 70% will
be city dwellers, with cities in Asia and Africa registering the biggest growth.
Consequently, urban population is anticipated to grow on an average of 2.3%
per year in the developing world between 2000 and 2030. He stated that the
rapid urbanization and poor economic growth have compounded the problem of
inadequate housing in Nigeria and that the reality of this situation is that
existing housing stocks are inadequate to cater for the increasing population.
(Moser and Satterthwaite, 1985) stated that the rapid growth in cities has
been accompanied by a rapid growth of urban inhabitants who live in sub –
standard and overcrowded conditions. According to them, the figures from
developing countries show that town dwellers represent an average of 30 – 60
% of the urban population. At present, it is estimated that over 50% of the urban
population live in extreme poverty, with this figure rising to high as 79% in
some cities. Half of the current urban population is of low – income and over a
billion urban dwellers have been counted among the urban poor. He explored
that majority of low income groups reside in slum areas due to poverty and
partly as a result of low education achievement that cannot enable them to
obtain high income jobs.
Abiodun (1992) affirmed that since the end of the World War II
urbanization in developing countries has accelerated greatly, with an increasing
proportion of the urban population in each country concentrating in the large
urban agglomerations. According to him, Nigeria has been no exception, since
the turn of the twentieth century example of Lagos as having grown
phenomenally, both demographically and in spatial terms. Pre – colonial Lagos
originated as the only natural break for about 2,500 km along the West African
coast, it became an important slave – exporting port in the eighteenth century.
With a population of about 25,000 in 1866, Lagos was one of the smaller
settlements in Nigeria, to compare with the largest being Sokoto with a
population of 120,000. According to him, the population of Lagos increased due
to earlier refuges from slavery and war in the interior, freed slaves from Brazil,
and later the arrival of colonial administrators and traders that settled in the port.
Therefore it increased by 40,000 in 1901 and 74,000 in 1911. In 1963 it had
reached 665,000, covering 69.9km2..The provisional results of the 1991 census,
gave Lagos metropolis a population of 5.3 million or 93% of the total
population of Lagos State. He said that one of the problems facing Lagos is
housing that the considerable gap between supply and demand has found
expression in the astronomical cost of rented dwellings. Overcrowding, slums,
and substandard housing are expression of this problem.
Owusu (2008) in his contribution stated that Ghana like many other
African countries is experiencing rapid urbanization. That the proportion of the
total population living in urban areas which was about 8% in 1921, rose to 23%
by 1960; 32% in 1984; about 44% in 2000 and; estimated to be about 51% in
2009 . According to him, it is projected that this rapid growth of the urban
population is unlikely to slow down until the year 2025 when the population
urbanized would have reached almost 63%. He stated that data on housing stock
and the deficit varied, that in the year 2000 Ghana had deficit housing unit of
2.8 million and needed 70,000 units annually of which only 35% is currently
supplied,. Another estimate put that housing deficit is in excess of 500,000 units
with annual requirement of 120,000 units, but only 33% is actually supplied.
(Bajwa et al, 2007) in their statement estimated the Pakistan’s population
in mid 2004 as 149 million, which is 1.9% higher than the previous year. It was
only 32.5 million at the time of independence in 1947 and 116 million more
people are added during the last 57 years. According to the 1998 Population
Census, the population of Lahore Metropolitan Areas was 6.94 million which is
estimated to have grown to 7.71 million in 2001, and more than 91% of this
population (7.04 million) lives in Lahore City District. Urbanization
phenomenon occurred because of migrants and natural increase results to
600,000 – 700,000 people arriving in the major cities from various parts of the
country thereby pushing up to the demand for housing.
Rashid (1991) described urban population growth rates in Bangladesh as
the highest among the South- and South-East Asian countries. For example,
average annual urban population growth rates in India and Thailand in the late
1960s were 4.0% and 4.8% respectively against 6% in Bangladesh at the same
period. At the regional level, Dhaka being the capital and largest metropolitan
city of Bangladesh with its employment opportunities and other commercial
activities has attracted the largest number of migrants from all parts of the
country. As a result the population has increased tremendously during this
period (1971-80) compared to the expansion in the city area. In 1991 it was
estimated that 40% percent of the total urban population live in Dhaka city.
Dhaka has grown from a town of just 0.5 million people in 1957 into a
metropolis of more than 7.0 million in 1991 over an areas of 1528sq.km (590
square miles). Housing situation Dhaka faces the formidable problem of
providing minimum shelter of acceptable standard to everybody. The volume of
slums and squatter, trend in household formation etc, depicts the scene.
Ademiluyi (2010) observed that despite many interventions and efforts by
the governments, actual achievement in terms of providing adequate housing in
the country remain essentially minimal for a number of reasons; which include:
(a) Problem of plan implementation. There is often a wide gap between what is
on paper and what is happening on the ground. For example, only 13.3%
achievement was recorded in the Federal Government housing programme in
the third National Development Plan.
(b) Lack of adequate data relating to the magnitude of the problem, due to partly
the absence of the national data bank on housing.
(c) Inconsistency in government policies and programmes, including frequent
changes of policies with changes of government and without proper assessment
of the existing ones.
(d) Lack of efficient and sustainable credit delivery to the housing sector.
(e) People’s incomes are relatively low in comparison with house market prices,
resulting in an affordability problem.
(f) High cost of building materials.
(g) The rapid annual growth rate of the Nigerian population, which was
estimated at 3.3% on the basis of annual birth rate of 49.3 per 1,000. Coupled
with the rapid population growth/urbanization is the problem of an increasing
poverty level among the citizenry, which has risen from 65% in 1996 to about
70% in 2007, according to UNDP and World Bank estimates.
(h) Lack of effective coordination among Housing Agencies. While all tiers of
the government are involved in one way or the other in housing matters, but
their activities are hardly coordinated.
(i) Politicization of housing issues.
Adeleye (2008) opined that some the impediments to housing growth in
Nigeria are as follows:-
a) Macro-economic environment and absence of financing systems
b) Moderate inflation and high interest rate.
c) High unemployment and moderate GDP growth at about 7%-9% pa
d) Standard of living: GDP per capita income in 2006 was $1200.
e) Land Use Act, the land use act restricts access to land that have no titles on
them and limits development of housing units.
f) High cost of building materials, building materials are very expensive and not
necessarily of the appropriate type.
g) High construction costs, the cost of constructing developments are high and
often unaffordable
h) Dearth of good quality construction companies.
i) Poor quality of construction.
j) High cost of land in urban areas.
k) Values placed on land especially in the urban areas are high and their
owners seek to make high gains on sale.
l) Lack of Physical infrastructure and social amenities, infrastructure and social
amenities are not readily in the rural areas and also some parts of the urban
areas. About 40-60% of housing construction cost is related to infrastructure
provision.
Haregewoin (2007) explained how Addis Ababa took 90 years to reach a
population of 1 million but only 30 years to triple and exceed 3 million.
Currently the population of the city is estimated to be 4 million increasing at a
rate of nearly 8% per annum. Migration accounts for a significant portion of the
city’s growth. In 1999, 46.9% of the populations were migrants. According to
him the main reason for high migration to the city is economic reasons. Out of
which the urban migrant comprise 50.80 % whereas from rural areas shares
49.19 %. Therefore, both urban-urban and rural–urban migrations are
significant in Addis Ababa.
This rapid growth in population and the corresponding demand for shelter has
resulted in fast physical expansion of the city. Between the year 1975 and 1985
the population of the city grew from less than 1 million to 1.4 million. Studies
also show that as a result of population growth the city will reach the 6million
population threshold in 20 years, and the mega city level of 10 million in 40 –
50 years. This unprecedented growth is beyond the city’s bearing capacity
within its current socioeconomic, physical and administrative situation. The
spatial distribution of population in the city shows that about 98.7% live in
urban areas while 1.3% lives in rural. The density of population in urban areas
is 7008 per km2 while it is 121 persons per km2 in rural areas. Currently, an
estimated 4 million inhabitants of the city live in 527,800 housing units with an
average density of 6 persons per household. However shortage of housing
demand is among the most visible problem of poverty in Adisa Ababa. It could
be understood in terms of its qualitative and quantitative dimension. The
accumulated housing backlogs needs the construction of 300,000 units while
60,000 units per annum are needed to accommodate the 8% increasing
population.
Mubarak (1999) confirmed that in Saudi Arabia, impressive
improvements in economic conditions has resulted to the Saudi population been
multiplied and its major urban centres have since witnessed unprecedented
growth. Between 1950 and 1992 the level of urbanization in Saudi Arabia
increased from 10% to 75%. According to him, based on the 1992 census the
total population of the Kingdom was 16.93 million, of which Saudi nationals
comprised 72.7%. An estimated 77.2% of the total population lives in
settlements of 2,400 or more. Inevitably, the housing sector was the first to
show the strain on urban services. However, construction of new housing units
has being lagging. In Riyadh, the current average household size of 7.7 persons.
Projection for the coming 20 years indicate that 850,000 new units are needed to
meet the projected growth in the city’s population.
Bonnefoy (2007) asserted that to live in an adequate shelter means more
than a roof over one’s head: It means to have a home, a place that protects
privacy, contributes to physical and psychological well-being, and supports the
development and social integration of its inhabitants – a central place for human
life. ‘Healthy housing’ must, therefore, be a comprehensive concept taking into
consideration a variety of factors contributing to the quality of housing and
housing environment. A healthy home is not a specially designed house; it is
also a residential setting that is capable of fulfilling the expectations of the
residents.
Coker (2007) revealed that the statutory standard of fitness was first
introduced as a concept in the UK around 1919 and remains in use as the key
legal standard for the assessment of housing conditions. Part 1 of the UK
Housing Act 2004 now provides for the Housing Health and Safety Rating
System (HHSRS), a health and safety based system for local authorities to adopt
as the basis for enforcement against poor housing conditions. According to him,
housing standards vary from one nation to another and within a particular
country; variations in climate, culture, degree of urbanization, and socio-
economic progress affect standards.
He showed that in the high-density zone of Ibadan city the occupancy rate is up
to 8 persons per room. Most rooms not more than 9.3m2 in the area.
Talwar (1989) opined that in India the rapid pace of urbanization and
alarming trend of migration to Delhi has distorted the housing scenario. Delhi’s
population growth is double the national average and has led to the housing
shortage. Increasing pressure on land and infrastructure and associated high
land cost have made proper housing inaccessible to the poorer segments of the
population, necessitating state intervention initially as a welfare activity and
now recognized as social and economic imperative.
He noted that 2001 Census shows that Delhi’s total population of 138.51million
comprises of 27.33 million households. Thus average family size was of 5.07
persons. The census of house listing results also indicates that only 78% of the
households were having toilet facilities in Delhi. About 75.33% of the
households were having piped water supply system and 18.67% households
were getting water through hand pumps or tube wells
Igwe-kalu and Chima (2006) they observed that housing demand have
advanced from mere place of rest and shelter to a place of comfort, leisure, a
commodity, an investment a symbol of wealth, they identified the factors that
influence housing demand as follows: - (a) the quantity of housing available
(b) the quality of the houses available. (c) the distribution of the available
housing stock. (d) Inadequate infrastructure (e) inadequate maintenance (f)
affordability (g) sanitary condition (h) inadequate maintenance (i) Hazards
3.30 Variation of Housing Demand among Income Groups
Bihon (2006) asserted that in Ethiopia, the quantitative data of shelter
situation analysis indicates that critical shelter problems of Addis Ababa are
housing shortage, poor housing quality and poor living and working
environment. The problem is especially acute for poor households that account
for 92% of the city’s population.
The average housing stock percentage which increase (2.3%) between 1994 and
2004 was not compatible with the average annual growth rate of the population
(3%) of the same period. This leaves 65.7 % of the households to be affected by
housing shortage. As a result, almost a quarter of the total households are living
in overcrowded dwellings.
According to him the existing housing shortage, which is the main problem of
the city, is created as a result of rapid population growth rate and insufficient
housing supply to satisfy the newly formed households. The continuously
growing backlog housing need leaves about 25% of the city’s population to live
in overcrowded dwellings. In 2004 about 65.7% of the residents were affected
by housing deficit as a result of insufficient housing in quantity and quality
terms. Housing crisis of the city highly affects the low-income group which
accounts more than 90 % of the city’s population.
Jiang (2006) defined housing condition according to the nature of housing
availability, affordability and qualitative aspects of the neighbourhood
environment. According to him, choice of the housing quality indicators is often
context-dependent and varies over time. Moreover, he also affirmed that the use
of the housing indicators is often affected by data availability. For example, to
measure the prevalence of slums in developing countries, according to him the
UN-HABITAT (2003) adopted five indicators in its statistical report, which
include access to improved water, improved sanitation, sufficient living space,
improved durable housing and secure tenure.
Duncan (2006) and Inter – America Development Bank (2002) stated
that 10 to 15 million households in Latin America live in substandard housing.
The deficit in adequate housing continues to grow. While the annual increase in
demand is 2.5 million dwellings, only 1.5 million dwellings are added to the
housing stock each year. This is the case despite the government housing
programme in each Latin American Countries that contribute between 2 to 8%
of their Gross Domestic Product (GDP) to housing programme for the poor.
One reflection of the severely inadequate housing supply for the poor in the
formal sector has been the growth of self – help housing informal settlements,
which house up to 60% of the urban population in some Latin American cities
and the majority of poor families.
Nyaakana, (2008) stated that, in Uganda the rapid population growth of
Kampala (5.6% p.a.) has increased the demand for housing for all income
groups especially the low income group. The Istanbul Declaration of which
Uganda subscribes and Millennium Development Goal 7 Target 11 emphasizes
the need to make human settlements healthier, safer and more livable,
sustainable, equitable and productive. It is therefore important for all residents
in Kampala to have a decent living environment, clean water, sanitation,
transport electricity and other services. Having because of this demand, housing
facilities in Kampala have been increasing in quantity. In 2006, Kampala
needed 302,136 housing units in addition to the existing 251,780 units; of which
25,178 needed replacement and 50,356 renovations. The most common housing
unit in the city is the tenement (“muzigo”) occupied by 53.5% of the population.
The tenements are always not more than 2 rooms with the majority as single
rooms. They are usually constructed without adequate sanitation and drainage
and usually in inappropriate areas such as wetlands that are prone to flooding.
This means homelessness still prevail in Kampala as the demand for housing
exceed the supply
Salama et al (2001) stated that the major housing problem facing
residents of New York, concerns affordability. According to the 1996 Housing
and Vacancy Survey, 525,736 households or more than one – quarter of all
renters in New York City have severe rent burden, paying over half of their
incomes for rent. Another 68,000 homeowners paid more than 60% of their
incomes for housing. He opined that one of the principal causes of affordability
problems is the high cost of housing in New York. Rents in New York are the
highest in the nation (U.S.A.).Again the supply of housing in New York City
has lagged behind demand because, the cost of residential construction is the
highest in the nation. It is found that the cost of housing construction in New
York City is higher than in comparable to other American cities, which is
between 21% and 55% higher than in Los Angeles, Chicago and Dallas, three
cities selected as control cities. The reason why cost of housing is so high is that
for much of the two decades, demand has outstripped supply. For example, the
number of households in New York City rose by roughly 120,000 from 1980 to
1996; its housing stock grew by only 53,516 units. Therefore, demand
outstripped supply by a ratio of approximately 2 1/4 to 1.
3.40 Perceptions about Housing Demand
Lyne (2004) described housing as a basic human need and an important
determinant of population health. It also has an impact on our quality of life and
is a crucial component of wellbeing. According to him, we spend an estimated
80% of our lives inside our homes and yet little is known about the health effect
of the domestic environment.
Agbola (1995) classified housing as one of the three basic needs of
mankind and it is the most important factor for the physical survival of man
after the provisions of food. Decent housing is one of the basic needs of every
individual, the family and the community in general. As a pre – requisite to the
survival of man, it ranks second only to food. It is also one of the best indicators
of person’s standard of living and his place in the society. The housing an
individual lives in, is a symbol of his status, a measure of this achievement and
social acceptance, an expression, of his personality and barometer that seems to
indicate in large measures, the way the individual perceives himself and how is
perceived by the larger society.
Otubu (2001) affirmed that shelter represents one of the most basic
human needs and has no doubt profound impact on the health, welfare and
productivity of the individual. Housing particularly urban housing remains an
intractable problem in the less developed countries of the world, Nigeria
inclusive. The acute shortage of housing in developing world was the subject of
the world Bank Reports that “the urban poor, typically housed in slums or
squatters settlement often have to contend with appalling overcrowding, bad
sanitation and contaminated water.
Talwar, (1989) classified the three basic necessities of life as food,
clothing and shelter. While all these three are essential, the third one gives a
feeling of "belongingness" to the household/family. According to him, owning a
house which one can call "his/her own" has sentimental value and thus is of
great psychological significance. He cited that three types of houses; ancestral,
one lived in during work life and the one lived in after retirement or during old
age, are of different sentimental significance. Thus, housing becomes not only a
basic necessity but also a psychological advantage.
Coker (2007) in his statement described housing as one of the most
important basic necessities of mankind is known to tremendously affect human
health and well-being. It is widely acknowledged that adequate housing is
essential for good life, is a key requirement for efficient and satisfied labour
force and the foundation of satisfactory community life. According to him
researchers have shown that housing can affect mental and physical health, both
positively and negatively.
Bonnefoy (2007), According to him quoting the 2nd HABITAT
Conference in Istanbul (1996), United Nations Member States defined housing
in the following characteristics adequate shelter, adequate privacy, adequate
space, physical accessibility, adequate security; security of tenure; structural
stability and durability. Others include adequate lighting, heating and
ventilation; adequate basic infrastructure, such as water supply, sanitation and
waste-management facilities; suitable environmental quality and health-related
factors; and adequate and accessible location with regard to work and basic
facilities: all of which should be available at an affordable cost.
Kabir and Bustani (2009) literally defined housing as building or shelter
in which people live, a place to live, a dwelling etc and to nations as a critical
component in social and economic fabric. Housing represents one of the most
basic human needs. As a unit of environment, it has a profound influence on the
health, efficiency, social behavior, satisfaction and general welfare of the
community. According to him, to most groups housing means shelter but to
others it means more as it serves as one of the best indicators of person’s
standard of living and his or her place in the society. It is a priority for the
attainment of living standard and it is important to both rural and urban areas.
These attribute make demand for housing to know no bound as population
growth and urbanization are on increase very rapidly and the gap for housing
needs and supply becomes widened.
Owusu (2008) in his view broadly describe housing to include the
physical shelter and related services and infrastructure as well as the inputs such
as land and finance required to produce and maintain it. He stated that housing
also covers the solutions geared towards improving the shelter and the
environment in which it exist This broad description of housing supports the
view that when housing is reduced to shelter or living space only, dwellings
tend to be built without regard to the environment and services needed to
support their inhabitants.
Wiener and Darryl (2009) revealed that adequacy is another measure of
housing demand. It is traditionally quantified in terms of the physical conditions
of the homes (i.e. the quality of plumbing, heating, electrical). The physical
characteristics of the home may also be measured to determine if there is
sufficient and appropriate living space to accommodate the residents, including,
such measures as overcrowding and handicapped accessibility for the elderly
and disabled. More recently, adequacy has come to express more qualitative
measures of resident satisfaction with the home, the neighbourhood, the
community, and even the region. The question is this, are residents satisfied
with the whole bundle of attributes associated with their home and the range of
housing options within the area? The existence of place – based or nearby social
services, reasonable access to good – quality jobs, shopping, schools, and public
transport, the frequency of interactions with neighbours, levels of civic
engagement, and other quality – of – life indicators are now evaluated under the
rubric of housing adequacy.
Based on his view, generally renters are more likely to experience substandard
conditions than owners, mostly due to the fact they have less disposable income
and control over the upkeep and maintenance of their units. According to him
household that live in substandard conditions or overcrowded situation can
experience a variety of health and social problems. Thus, housing adequacy can
be a key determinant of resident satisfaction and dissatisfaction across a range
of indicators.
Diogu (2005) sees, housing perception and housing intervention in two
broad and diagrammatically opposed philosophical perception of housing. The
first school of thought (the economist) conceptualizes housing as an “economic
or investment” good for which the individual is personally responsible, and its
provision should be subjected to the uninterrupted market forces, and the
economic law of demand and supply should determine and control its
consumption and cost. In order words, the production and consumption of
housing should be a function of the ability of the individual to pay, regardless of
his housing needs.
The other school of thought, the housing advocates, view housing as an object
of “Social Services and Development” and rejects totally the idea of perceiving
housing as a commodity, which the individual “consumes” in the same way he
does to clothes, motor cars etc. from this social service perspective quoting
Acquaye (1985) argues that government should be totally committed and have a
responsibility to provide accommodation for members of the community, and
this argument he rationalizes on the grounds that housing is a necessity of life
and not a commodity which one may or may not wish to acquire.
3.50 Government Interventions in Solving the Problem of Housing Demand
Kabir and Bustani (2009) opined that there are several affordable housing
schemes that are either fully funded by government or in partnership with the
government under the Public Private Partnership (PPP) scheme. In some cases
selected developers were given some kind of concession by government with
the aim of providing affordable housing for instance, in the Federal Capital
Territory. Such efforts were further complemented with the Private Finance
Initiative (PFI). They further argued that while the quality of the existing stock
is also under a heavy scrutiny in term of design and desired functions including
acceptable livable neighborhood, 87% of the existing stocks are backlogs,
which are stocks that do not meet the minimum quality requirement.
Ademiluyi (2010) revealed that shelter is necessary to everybody. The
problem of providing adequate housing has been a concern not only to
individuals, but to governments as well. He opined that in Nigeria, the major
steps taken, so far, towards solving the housing crises in the country include the
following:-
a) The establishment in 1928, of the Lagos Executive Development Board
(LEDB). Which the board was empowered to carry out slum clearance, land
reclamation and the development of residential and industrial estates.
b) The setting up of Nigerian Building Society (NBS) in 1956 to provide
housing loan to both civil servants and the Nigerian public.
c) The creation of the National Site and Services Scheme (NSSS) in 1986 to
provide land with essential infrastructural facilities, the schemes are planned to
provide well laid – out and serviced plots in each of the 36 states capitals of the
federation, including FCT Abuja.
d) The establishment of the National Prototype Housing Programme (NPHP) by
the Federal Ministry of Works and Housing to complement the objectives of the
National Site and Services Scheme(NSSS) . The project was embarked upon to
demonstrate the feasibility of constructing functional, effective and affordable
housing units through imaginative designs, judicious specification of materials,
and efficient management of construction.
e) The setting up of the State Housing Corporation (SHC) to provide housing to
the populace at affordable prices.
f) The creation of the Federal Mortgage Bank of Nigeria (FMBN) in 1977 to
finance housing loans to prospective housing developers at minimal interest
rates.
g) The setting up of the National Housing Policy in 1991 and the National
Housing Fund scheme by Decree No 3 of 1992 to provide self loans to
prospective housing developers and also monitor development in the housing
sector.
h) The deconsolidation of the Federal Mortgage Bank of Nigeria through the
establishment of the Federal Mortgage Finance Limited to take over retail
mortgage portfolios previously handled by the bank and also to facilitate
effective management of the National Housing Fund Scheme.
i) The setting up of a Housing Policy Council to monitor development in the
housing sector and also to set up the machinery for the review of the 1978 Land
Use Decree in order to make more land available for large scale land
developers.
j) The creation of the Federal Ministry of Housing and Urban Development in
June 2003.
k) the review of the mandate given to the Federal Housing Authority(FHA) to
include provisions of the National Social Housing as part of the strategy
towards meeting the millennium Development Goal. The authority also plans to
facilitate the provisions of 2 million housing units within the next four years.
Gbolagade (2005) in addition to the above, stated that virtually all the
introduced National Development Plans from 1962 – 1985 and the National
Rolling Plan from 1990 to date explicitly recognize the importance of providing
adequate housing in the country as a tool for stimulating the national economy.
The first National Development Plan (1962 – 1968) accorded low priority to
housing with focus on accommodating government staff in regional capitals and
Lagos. A low proportion/percentage achievement was recorded.
In the 2nd National Development Plan (1970 – 1974) the target was to construct
60,000 housing units (15,000 units in Lagos and 400 units in each of the
remaining capitals). There was marginal improvement at the end of that period.
The 3rd National Development Plan (1975 – 1984) was to improve the condition
of the housing. Highlight of the programme include direct construction of the
low – cost housing units by both the Federal and state governments increased
construction of housing quarters for government officials, expansion of credit
facilities to enhance private housing construction. A sum of N2.5 million was
allocated to housing sector with target production of 202,000 units (50,000 units
for Lagos and 8,000 units each for the then 19 states). At the end, only 13.3%
success was recorded.
The 4th National Development Plan (1984 – 1985) period, three scheme were
embarked upon; the direct housing construction , under which 2,000 housing
units were to be built in each state annually, while the FHA was to construct
about 143,000 low cost housing units across the country . Site and services were
also provided. At the end of the plan period, a success of 20% was recorded.
During the 1990 – 1992 rolling plan periods, efforts were intensified on the Site
and services scheme. About 2,892 serviced plots were provided in provided in
Anambra, Lagos, Imo Kano Kwara, Ondo, and Rivers states, while the second
phase commenced in other states. On prototype housing schemes, 72 housing
scheme.
Senate, (2008) opined that Australia currently suffers from a well-
documented housing shortage, particularly in the area of affordable housing.
The reasons for this shortage are equally well documented, with supply-side
constraints being generally regarded as the root of the problem. Therefore, it is
proposed that another, although partial, solution may lie in addressing the
demand side for housing, via the utilization of existing housing stock. Using
detached housing in the Sydney metropolitan area as a proxy, examination of
2006 Census data has shown that there is substantial underutilization of existing
housing stock. The need to explore policy initiatives that can encourage a higher
utilization of existing housing stock is highlighted, including removing the
existing barriers to housing substitution for retirees.
Jiang (2006) revealed china embarked on an ambitious urban housing
reform processes through privatization, to solve the problem of severe housing
shortage, enhance people’s standard of living and prompt economic growth.
However, it is noteworthy that the urban housing reform chronologically
involves several specific steps:
(a) Encourage the sitting tenants to purchase their occupied public housing at
subsidized prices.
(b) Allow the suburban agricultural population and urban residents to construct
housing in the urban periphery where land is available.
3. Promote commercial housing construction, targeting the high – income
households.
4. Support affordable and comfortable housing project for the needs of low and
medium – income households.
5. Provide subsidized municipal public housing for the lowest – income urban
households.
6. Lift the restrictions on the previous public housing purchased by the sitting
tenants, and foster a regulated secondary housing market.
Kamruzzaman and Ogura (2007) emphasized that Private sector housing
is one of the fastest growing sectors in the economy of Bangladesh and it
concentrates its activities mostly in Dhaka city. The conversion of Dhaka from
an ordinary town to a metropolis is manifested in the transformation of the
nuclear house into high-rise apartments. Inadequate supply of developed land
and high construction costs are the major constraints in most new formal sector
residential construction in Dhaka.
According to them, many developed countries, particularly in Europe and Great
Britain, adopted the use of tall buildings to meet their demands for housing after
the Second World War. This pattern was soon followed by other nations facing
similar pressures for affordable housing. This led to the adoption of options like
Low-Rise High-Density (LRHD) housing, which was advocated to be suitable
from economic and social points of view.
Adeleye (2008) stated that there are different ways individuals acquire
their residents in Nigeria. These include:
(a)Self build and self help: Where individuals build their residential
developments with the help of building professionals
(b)Private sector estate developments: This refers to acquisition of residential
developments through private sector developers either wholly or with mortgage
(c)Government estate programmes : This refers to residential acquisition of
government owned estates and structures .
(d) Organized Government Role: Government has to decide if it wants to
operate as a regulator or implementer or both as it concerns provision of
housing.
Turner (1976) and Mangin (1967) their idea have been very influential in
self-help housing. They brought about a shift in policy to one where the poor
should be left to solve their own housing problems through self-help initiatives.
It was also influenced by the World Bank and other lending institutions by
giving financial and technical assistance to low-income people.
This concept underwent a marked transition between the 1960’s and 1970’s, it
can be traced as far back as the humans’ earliest activities in production of their
own housing. It is a rural phenomenon where people build houses for
themselves in villages; the concept was dated as far back as the era of cave
dwellers. According them “Self help” is a term that has been used to describe
the participation of low-income households in the production of their own
housing. The main difference between self-help and conventional housing is
that houses can be occupied before they are fully developed. Self help housing
has the advantage that it is flexible; therefore the poor can develop their houses
over time.
Lyne (2004) asserted that, the residential intensification is developing
houses at higher densities and accommodating more people per hectare. The
Auckland Housing Choices Poster defines and illustrates the broader range of
housing types that are being developed, such as high and low-rise apartments,
terraced and town houses.
Urban design that promotes a higher density of buildings, coupled with mixed
use, good building design and open space provision can, provide cost savings in
land, infrastructure and energy; increase housing, transport and lifestyle
choices; help concentrate knowledge and innovative activity in the heart of the
city; be associated with lower crime and greater safety; help preserve green
spaces and promote social connectedness and vitality.
Okoye (2008) asserted that housing problems do not only relate to the
poor housing units but connotes poor facilities and amenities within the housing
environment.
Some of the issues he put forward in solving urban housing problems are as:-
(a) Urban renewal measures, programmes, and projects: since most urban
centres are already built up, urban renewal measures are therefore necessary to
eliminate the problem of poor environmental sanitation, urban blight, slum
formation and unsanitary conditions.
(b) Provision of model housing estates: more estates are to be provided to take
care of low-income people.
(c) Review of land use Decree of 1978; the review of this decree is long over, as
this is the only legal document, which stipulates title to land.
(d) Appropriate development control measures: there should be appropriate
development control measures in urban lands. The activities of developers in
our urban centres cannot be undermined.
e) Provisions of site and services; Apart from establishing public housing
estates, government can provide site and services for massive housing provision
for all their employees.
(f) Provision of loans and credit facilities. Government should pursue a dynamic
mortgage finance/credit facilities policy such that such finance would be within
reach of the low-income people, at very moderate lending forms including
below market interest rates.
g) Rents control measures: government can also pursue rent control measures
that will be practicable and result oriented so as to effectively combat the
problem of high rent.
h) High cost of building materials: the cost of building materials like cement,
rods, roofing sheets, block etc are above the reach of low income people.
i) Staff housing loan scheme: employees of labour can encourage their
employees to own house through this loans scheme, which should be below the
market interest rates. Monthly deduction can be made from staff monthly
salaries so as to recover both the principal and interest.
j) Housing Maintenance Culture: it has been observed that private housing
estates are better maintained than public housing estates. Government place
emphasize on housing provision and not maintenance.
(k) Environmental sanitation: since housing is not the housing unit alone, there
should be proper up keep of the housing environment, which should be
organized by the occupants.
(l) Housing fund: the Federal Government should as a matter of policy set aside
a reasonable percentage of the country’s Gross National Product or Gross
Domestic Product or its annual budget for housing. This will ensure a steady
supply of funds and will boast the housing sector.
Kabir and Bustani, (2009) opined that in 2003, the Federal Government
also established the Federal Ministry of Housing and Urban Development, and
made proposed for a Housing Reform. All these are made for the fact that there
were not many affordable houses in Nigeria. There was an illusion that houses
were available, but most of them were high-priced. According them a number of
other legislation needs to be amended substantially to bring their provisions in
line with the new housing regime. The touchstone in such reviews is to reduce
red tape and ensure that various legislations are compatible with demands of a
free and robust market economy. The period of 2003 – 2004 witnessed a
Housing policy that recognized the private sector on the driving seat of housing
delivery in the country. The key features of this policy include the placement of
the private sector in a pivotal position, for the delivery of affordable houses, on
a sustainable basis. Assignment to government is that of the responsibility for
the development of primary infrastructure for new estate development; and
review and amendment of the Land Use Act to ensure better access to land and
speedier registration and assignment of title to developers.
3.60 The Research Gap
The research gap is as follows: The inability of other researchers to
identify factors that are responsible for phenomenonal growth of the housing
demand, which have made all efforts in tackling housing demand ineffective.
Moreover, existing studies failed to empirically establish the factors that
determine housing demand. They had the notion that population is the major or
the only determinant of housing demand. However, this research deemed it
necessary to indentify many other factors and the extent they influence housing
demand in Nigeria using Enugu as a case study. This research was able to
identify the housing demand among the various income groups and the trends of
housing demand for a period of 34 years.
4.00 CHAPTER FOUR: STUDY AREA
4.10 Location
Enugu city is the capital of Enugu State of southeastern part of Nigeria.
It is geographically located at latitude 60 27′ 9.6 ″ N and longitude 70 3 0′ 37.2″
E. The city has an area of 113km2 and population density of 6,400/km2 . It is
202 metres above the sea level.
It is bounded in the east by Nkanu East Local Government Area, in the west by
Udi Local Government Area, in the north by Igbo-Etiti and Isiuzo Local
Government Areas and in the south by Nkanu West Local Government Area.
The following are the location maps: Map of Nigeria showing Enugu State (see
figure 4.1), the map of Enugu State showing the three Local Government Areas
that make up Enugu metropolis (see figure 4.2), the map of Enugu metropolis
(see figure 4.3)
Figure 4.1: Map of Nigeria Showing Enugu State.
Source: Google Map (2013).
Figure: 4.2 Map of Enugu State showing Enugu Metropolis.
Source: Google Map (2013).
Figure: 4.3 Map of Enugu Metropolis.
Source: Google Map (2013).
4.20 Physical Setting
4.21 Topography
Despite its name meaning of hill top in the Igbo language, Enugu lies at
the foot of an escarpment and not on a hill. Enugu is located in the Cross River
basin and the Benue trough and has the best developed coal in Nigeria.
Precambrian basement rock in this region is overlaid with sediments bearing
Coal from the Cretaceous and Tertiary age. The Coal seams in the Enugu coal
district measure between 1 and 2 metres (3.3 and 6.6 ft) in thickness and the
reserves have been estimated to be more than 300 million tonnes. Enugu's hills
at the extreme may reach an elevation of 1,000 metres (3,300 ft). Highlands
surrounding Enugu for the most part are underlain by sandstone, while lowlands
are underlain by shale. Much of the escarpment stretching from Enugu to Orlu
has been ravaged by soil and gully erosion. Other geological features in Enugu
include the Nike Lake near which the Nike Lake Hotel was built. The Ekulu,
Asata, Ogbete, Aria, Idaw and Nyaba rivers are the six largest rivers located in
the city. The Ekulu river is the largest body of water in Enugu urban and its
reservoir contributes to part of the city's domestic water supply.
4.22 Vegetation
Enugu generally is within the tropical rain forest zone with a derived
savannah, especially in the northern part, which is the broadest vegetation zone
in Nigeria. Derived savannah is the southern savannah that has fewer trees than
the northern. This is because man’s devastation of the trees has been great here.
The result is derived savannah, which marks the transition between the forest in
the south and the true savannah in the north
4.23 Climate
The city of Enugu falls under hot – humid climatic zone. This humidity is
at its highest between March and November. The annual mean temperature
ranges between 220C and 300C whereas the relative humidity fluctuates between
40% and 80%. The prevailing winds are the local monsoons, which are of two
types, namely the north-east trade wind and south-west trade wind. The north-
east trade wind blows from across the Sahara and dry over the area thereby
leading to the dusty harmattan weather or dry season. As in the rest of West
Africa, the rainy season and dry season are the only weather periods that recurs
in Enugu city. The dry season usually lasts from November to around March.
The south-west trade wind blows as water saturates wind from across the
Atlantic and brings about the rainy season. The rainy season usually lasts from
April to October with a short break in August. The average annual rainfall in
Enugu is around 2,000 millimetres (79 in), which arrives intermittently and
becomes very heavy during the rainy season. Other weather conditions affecting
the city include Harmattan, a dusty trade wind lasting a few weeks of December
and January. Like the rest of Nigeria, Enugu is hot all year round; the data on
the temperature and precipitation is shown on table 4.1.
Table 4.1 Climate Data on Temperature and precipitation for Enugu Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high 0C
(0F)
37
(99)
37
(99)
40
(104)
37
(99)
34
(93)
33
(91)
32
(90)
31
(88)
31
(88)
34
(93)
34
(93)
36
(97)
40
(104)
Average High 0C (0F)
34
(93)
35
(95)
35
(95)
34
(93)
32
(90)
31
(88)
30
(86)
30
(86)
30
(86)
31
(88)
33
(91)
33
(91)
32
(90)
Daily mean 0C
(0F)
27
(81)
29
(84)
29.5
(85.1)
29
(84)
27.5
(81.5)
27
(81)
26
(79)
26
(79)
26
(79)
26.5
(79.7)
27.5
(81.5)
26.5
(79.7)
27
(81)
Average low 0C
(0F)
20
(68)
23
(73)
24
(75)
24
(75)
23
(73)
23
(73)
22
(72)
22
(72)
22
(72)
22
(72)
22
(72)
20
(68)
22
(72)
Record low 0C
(0F)
13
(55)
18
(64)
20
(68)
21
(70)
21
(70)
20
(68)
20
(68)
19
(66)
21
(70)
19
(66)
13
(55)
12
(54)
12
(54)
Precipitation
mm (inches)
19
(0.75)
15
(0.59)
70
(2.76)
130
(5.12)
217
(8.54)
252
(9.92)
242
(9.53)
237
(9.33)
292
(11.5)
201
(7.91)
12
(0.47)
8
(0.13)
1,695
(66.73)
Avg.
precipitation
days
1 1 4 7 12 14 16 15 18 12 1 1 102
Mean monthly
sunshine hour 186 174 183 183 186 153 118 118 123 174 219 217 2,034
Source: www.enugustate.gov.ng/2011.
4.30 Brief History
The name Enugu is derived from the two Igbo words Énú Úgwú meaning
“hill top” denoting the city’s hilly geography. The city was named Enugwu
Ngwo.
The first settlement in the Enugu area was the small Nike village of Ogui, which
was present since the era of the Atlantic Slave Trade Nike in the Igbo language
means “with strength or power”. It was through slave raiding that the Nike
people acquired most of their lands, which were mostly unsettled.
The Nike used slaves for a defence strategy, placing slave camps at the
edge of their territories so that it was harder for an enemy to access the freeborn.
The Nike people were allied to the Aro people who formed the Aro
Confederacy (1690 – 1901). The confederacy Igbo organization that controlled
slave trading in Enugu area. Along with the Aro people who came to trade from
Arochukwu in the south were the Hausa people who came to trade from the
north. The Hausa traders provided horses to the Nike people, which were used
for rituals by the Igbo tribe. Both the Aro and Hausa migrated back and forth to
what is now the city of Enugu and were considered foreigners to the area. (Udo,
1970)
The British campaign to invade Arochukwu and open up the hinterland
for the British rule was carried out in 1901. The war between British and Aro
officially started on 1 December 1901 lasting till 24 March 1902, when the Aro
were defeated. The Aro Confederacy ended and the rest of Aro dominated areas
was added to the Colony and protectorate of Southern Nigeria,which was
declared in 1900(Elechi 1972).
Europeans first arrived in Enugu area in 1903 when the British/Australian
geologist Albert Ernest Kiston led an exploitation of the Southern Nigeria
protectorate to search for especially valued mineral resources under the
supervision of the Imperial Institute, London. By 1909 coal was found under the
village of Enugwu Ngwo in Udi and Okoga areas and by 1913 the coal was
confirmed to be in quantities that would be viable commercially . By 1914, the
colonial government had already merged the Northern and Southern Nigeria
Protectorate to form the colony and Protectorate of Nigeria (Coleman, 1971).
The first coal mine in Enugu area was the Udi mine, which was opened in
1915 and was shut down two years later and replaced with the Iva valley mine.
Enugu became a major coal mining area and the only significant one in West
Africa (Sklar, 2004). Eastern railway line connecting Enugu with Port Harcourt
was completed in 1916 in order to export the coal through its seaport of which
the city was created for the purpose. Consequently, Enugu became one of the
few cities in West Africa created out of contact with Europeans (Williams,
2008). The city owes its origin and early growth to the discovery of coal and it
is still fondly called the “Coal City”. It is regarded as the oldest urban area in
South Eastern Nigeria.
4.40 Population Distribution
In 1938, Enugu became the administrative capital of the Eastern Region.
The number of employed coal miners in Enugu grew from 6,000 (of mostly Udi
men) in 1948 to 8,000 in 1958. The city’s population rose sharply with its
industrialization and reached 62,000 in 1952.
In terms of population growth, the population of Enugu rose from a handful of
coal mine workers in 1915 to 3,170 in 1921, when the first census was held. The
opening of the different coal mines attracted many miners, traders and artisans
to the town. In 1931, the population had increased to 13,000 and in 1945, it had
doubled to 35,000. The result of 1991 census showed that Enugu had a
population of 505,280. According to the 2006 Nigerian census, the Enugu
metropolitan area had a population of 764,590. The present population of Enugu
metropolis is estimated to be 927,642, close to a million.(See Table 4.2)
The population of Enugu metropolis are predominately Christian English and
Igbo Languages are the dominant language in the city. The city absorbs large
population of immigrants from the surrounding rural areas.
Table 4.2 Population Growth of Enugu Metropolis
YEAR POPULATION
1921 3,170
1931 12,959
1953 62,764
1963 138,457
1982 394,089
1983 405,123
1984 416,467
1987 452,439
1991 505,280
2002 684,631
2006 717,291
2012 902,376
2013 927,642(projected)
Source: Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia, 2012.
4.50 Administration
Enugu became the administrative capital of the Eastern Region in 1938
and municipality in 1956 with Umaru Altine as its first mayor. On 27 May 1967
the Nigerian government divided the Western, Northern and Eastern Region of
Nigeria into 12 states and Enugu was made the capital of the new East Central
State. On 30 May 1967, Enugu was declared the capital of the short-lived
Republic of Biafra, which consists of states in the south – easthern Nigeria.
As war broke out between Biafra and Nigeria (1967—1970), thousands of Igbo
migrants in the northern and western parts of Nigeria fled to their native east
and Enugu became a destination for the returnees.
The city witnessed a decrease in the number of non-Igbo, specifically
non-eastern Nigerian residents because of the war. Years after Biafra was
dissolved and the war ended, Enugu is still regarded as the "Capital of
Igboland." It still retained its status as the capital of East Central State after the
end of civil war in 1970. On 3 February 1976 the East Central State was broken
into two new states, namely Imo and Anambra. There were then 19 states in
Nigeria and Enugu was named the capital of Anambra. On 27 August 1991 the
military dictatorship of Ibrahim Babangida divided the old Anambra State into
two new states, Enugu State and Anambra State. Enugu remained as the capital
of the newly created Enugu State, while Awka became the capital of the new
Anambra State. Presently Enugu City serves as the Capital of Enugu State, and
comprises 3 out of the 17 Local Government Areas in Enugu State. These are
Enugu North, Enugu South and Enugu East Local Government Areas.
4.60 Economy
Enugu's economy in the early 20th century depended on coal mining in
the Udi plateau. This industry was the pushing force towards the city's growth.
The Nigerian Coal Corporation has been based in Enugu since its creation in
1950 where it controlled coal mining. With the creation of the Eastern Railway
line, Enugu was connected to the sea via Port Harcourt to its south and later
connected to the city of Kaduna. The Biafran war brought widespread
devastation that forced a decline in coal production as a result of damage or
destruction of equipment. At the end of the war in 1970 Coal mining is no
longer the major source of income and mines lay unused. Other minerals mined
in Enugu include iron ore, limestone, fine clay, marble, and silica sand.
Most goods are sold in open markets or by street hawkers in the city.
There are three main urban markets in Enugu. These are Ogbete Market,
Awkunanaw Market and New Market. New Market is a major market for the
sale of garri. Ogbete market is patronized by merchants from all over the
surrounding area, including merchants from cities like Onitsha, Aguleri,
Abakaliki and Aba. In Ogbete market non-food goods are also sold. While
Awkunanaw Market is known for the sale of livestock due to the closeness of
Garrki the Hausa settlement. Brewing and soft-drink bottling are among other
industries in the city. There is also a Mercedes assembly plant as well as the
production and manufacturing of machinery, pottery, tiles, steel, cement,
asbestos, petroleum, and pharmaceuticals.
The former Eastern Region was once famed for producing half the
world's total output of palm kernels. Since the Nigerian civil war, production
has markedly declined largely because the plantations and processing
equipment were either damaged or destroyed. The production of other important
cash crops such as cocoa, groundnut and groundnut oil, rubber, cassava, cotton
and cotton seed and timber tumbled after the civil war and the subsequent oil
boom years. Consequently, the area called Enugu State as well as the rest of
Nigeria, which was once a self-sufficient net exporter in agricultural produce
now imports foods.
4.70 Urbanization and Housing
The British began talks in 1915 with the indigenous people of the land
that would become Enugu on land acquisition in order to lay the Eastern Line
railway and to build a colliery. The first houses built in the area were in a
temporary settlement consisting of Igbo traditional mud housing inhabited by a
W.J. Leck and some other Europeans on Milliken Hill. Another settlement
known as Ugwu Alfred (Igbo: Alfred's Hill) or "Alfred's Camp", inhabited by an
Alfred Inoma (a leader of indigenous labourers from Onitsha) and his labourers,
was located on a hillside. After the land acquisition by the British, Frederick
Lugard, the Governor-General of Nigeria at the time, named the colliery built at
the bottom of the Udi Hills Enugu Coal Camp to distinguish it from Enugwu
Ngwo, which overlooks the city from atop scarp on Enugu’s west(Floyd,1969).
Enugu became one of the few cities in West Africa created out of contact with
Europeans.
According to Udo (1970), by 1916 parts of Enugu reserved for Europeans were
set up by the colonial government. The area now known as the Government
Reservation Area (GRA) became the European Quarters located north of the
Ogbete River. Alongside this was a section developed for African residents
located south of the river. The built-up area of Enugu comprised the two areas,
and by 1917, the city officially gained township status. On the African side of
the city, a rapid influx of migrant workers sparked the development of squatter
camps on the Udi Hills near the coal mines and the Iva Valley.
4.71 Urbanization Challenges and Responses
Before this time there had not been a comprehensive master plan for the
city only zoning were done, which included the coal camp for the Nigerian mine
workers, and the European quarters otherwise known as Government
Reservation Areas (GRA) for the Europeans and senior civil servants. The Coal
Camp area was grid patterned and put into consideration the other services. As
the city expanded, there was need for a comprehensive master plan to
accommodate more communities and land uses.
The current Master plan is all encompassing and comprehensive.
However their exist high level of landuse conversions in the city. The
residential areas have been converted to commercial uses, and industrial areas
turned into residential areas. The recreation parks and open spaces are being
developed for residential accommodation among other abuses. There exist
several cases of incompatible land uses resulting in environmental and health
hazards and chaotic traffic situation in the city. However, the problems are
being tackled under the Sustainable Enugu Programme (SEP) and development
programmes of international donor agencies. (Sustainable Urbanization and
Urban Development in Nigeria 2006)
4.72 The Urban Residential Space in Enugu Metropolis
The urban residential space in Enugu is classified into low, medium and
high density areas. There are however, over lapping effect, which exists side by
side with planned and unplanned areas. This includes the present period of
reduced economic buoyancy, which allows informal business sectors dot all
over the residential neighbourhoods. Areas of mixed densities do exist.
Low Density Areas
These account for only about 2% of the residential areas in Enugu. Some of
such neighbourhoods include G.R.A, Independence layout, and parts of Trans-
Ekulu. These have a relatively low density of 18 to 60 persons per hectares and
a large stock of semi-detached duplexes, bungalows. Plot sizes in these areas
range from 30x40 to 50x100 square meters with average household size of
between 6 and 8 persons.
Medium Density Area
Medium density neighbourhoods accounts for about 28%m of the residential
areas of Enugu. These areas include Achara layout, Idaw river, New haven,
parts of Trans-Ekulu and Maryland. The average density is about 350 to 400
persons per hectare with average plot sizes of about 20x30meters. The average
household sizes are 6 to 7 persons, especially in Achara layout. Uwani is mixed
density containing both high and medium densities.
High Density Areas
The high-density residential areas in Enugu account for about 70% of the entire
residential neighbourhood in Enugu (Enugu master plan, 1978). These areas
include Coal camp, Ogui-nike, Ogui new layout, Abakpa, Garriki and Emene.
Tenement building dominates in these areas and form about 4.51% of the total
building stock in Enugu. Population density in these areas is about 700 persons
per hectare. The plot size is about (15x25) square meters. An average person per
room is 5 persons. Some of these areas have grown into slum, creating health
hazards due to overcrowding of habitable rooms and over use of available
infrastructure.
4.80 Infrastructure and Basic Services
With regard to water supply, the shortage of portable water in Enugu is
caused by poor or lack of maintenance of water plants and pipes. The state
government has commenced rehabilitation of various water supply equipment in
the city. Similar other cities in Nigeria, Enugu experiences unsteady power
supply, which have affected social and economic activities. To curb the
situation, rehabilitation efforts are in progress to build new power stations in the
city. Enugu State Environmental Protection Agency (ENSEPA), now Enugu
State Waste Management Agency (ESWAMA) is directly responsible for solid
waste management.
The State Government in partnership with the Department for
International Development (DFID), British Council, UN – Habitat and other
organizations has embarked on massive clearance of refuse on the streets of
Enugu. The Sustainable Enugu Programme (SEP) is being implemented with a
focus on waste management, water, supply, neighbourhood upgrading and
institutionalization of the Environmental Planning and Management Process
(EPM).
4.81 Education
Enugu has three main tertiary institutions namely the University of
Nigeria Enugu Campus, Enugu State University of Science and Technology,
Institute of Management and Technology, Caritas University, Godfrey Okoye
University, Collage of Education Technical, and other certificate awarding
institutions. (Egbenta 2009). The city is also home to Our Saviour Institute of
Science and Technology and School of dental technology. Some notable
secondary schools in Enugu include the College of the Immaculate Conception
(CIC) built in 1940, Holy Rosary College (HRC) built in 1943, Colliery
Comprehensive Secondary school, Queen's Secondary School, Federal
Government College and the University of Nigeria Secondary school.
4.82 Transportation
Enugu is located on the narrow-gauge Eastern Line railway linked to the
city of Port Harcourt. The Enugu terminus of train station, which dates back to
coal mining era is by the side of the National Stadium located on Ogui Road.
The main forms of public transportation in the city are taxi cabs, tricycle
(popularly called keke) and buses. Motorcycles (popularly called okada), once
served as public transportation in the city until the State Government banned its
use in April 2009. Most transport enters and leaves the city through Enugu's
Ogbete and Garrki motor parks. The main airport in the state is the Akanu
Ibiam International Airport, which can be accessed by buses and taxis.
Renovations are on going to upgrade it to international standard.
Enugu state government introduced a taxi job scheme in 2009, under
'Coal City Cabs' to help in the eradication of poverty in the city. 200 registered
Nissan Sunny taxis were provided by the state government and 200 registered
Suzuki taxis were provided by the Umuchinemere Pro-Credit Micro Finance
Bank. These were given out on loan to unemployed citizens in the city who will
operate as taxi drivers and will own the vehicles after payments are completed.
20 buses with the capacity for 82 passengers seated and standing (Coal City
Shuttle buses) were introduced as well to provide transport services to the city’s
populace. (Wikipedia 2014).
4.83 Healthcare Services
In Enugu, health care services can be obtained at several institutions
including the ESUT (Enugu State University of Science and Technology)
Teaching Hospital; University of Nigeria, Enugu, Teaching Hospital; Park Lane
General Hospital in the GRA and PMC (Peenok Medical Center) located on
Ziks Avenue in Uwani. Others are Hansa Clinic on Awolowo Street in Uwani;
Niger Foundation Hospital and Diagnostic Centre on Presidential Close in the
Independence Layout; and the Ntasi Obi Ndi no n'Afufu Hospital organization
located on Enuguabor Street in the Trans-Ekulu layout, among others.
Some of the specialist hospitals in Enugu include the Psychiatric Hospital
Enugu and the National Orthopedic Hospital Enugu (NOHE). Many of the
hospitals in Enugu are privately run. The UNTH and the National Orthopedic
Hospital are among some of the government controlled hospitals in the city. The
medical equipment for the UNTH was upgraded in 2009 as well as parts of the
hospital which were renovated in the same year.
4.84 Culture and Tourism
As a Northern Igbo city, Enugu shares cultural traits with its
neighbouring towns. Two important Igbo traditional festivals take place in the
city annually. These are the Mmanwu festival and New yam festivals. The
Mmanwu festival takes place in November and features various types of
masquerades that each has a name. This festival is held at the Nnamdi Azikiwe
Stadium as a parade of carnival-like masquerades that are accompanied by
music and it is supported by the Enugu Council of Arts and Culture. The second
important Igbo festival, the new yam festival known as 'iwa ji', is held between
August and October marking the harvesting and feasting of the new yam
The tourism industry in Enugu, managed by the Enugu State Tourism
Board (ESTB), is small. However, the state government recognizes a variety of
historic and recreational sites. These sites include places like the Udi Hills, from
which the majority of Enugu city can be viewed. The Polo amusement park is a
funfair that is among the first generation of public parks in the city. Other parks
in the city include the Murtala Muhammed Park. Enugu's former coal mines,
Onyeama and Okpara, are open to public visits. Some other spots include: The
Institute of Management and Technology (IMT) Sculptural Garden and Art
Gallery, the Eastern Region Parliamentary Building, the Old Government
Lodge, and Enugu Golf course. Enugu Zoo is another attraction in the city. It is
divided into the botanical garden and the zoological section. A National
Museum is located in the city, although it receives few visitors.
4.85 Cityscape and Architecture
The tallest building in Enugu's Central Business District (CBD) is the
African Continental Bank (ACB) tower with six stories. The tower was built in
the late 50s for the African Continental Bank Limited which was founded by
Nnamdi Azikiwe who became the first president of Nigeria after the country's
independence from the United Kingdom on October 1960. The opening of the
building took place on 30 April 1959. Other tall buildings include the Hotel
Presidential opened on August 1963. The seven-story building contains 100
rooms and is located in the Independence Layout. Hotel Presidential cost $2.5
million to build and was commissioned by the government of what was then the
Eastern Region to serve visiting businessmen, officials and tourists. In the
middle of Enugu is the Michael Okpara Square, dedicated to the premier of the
former Eastern Region Michael Okpara. Beside the square is located the Enugu
State Government House, Enugu State House of Assembly and Enugu State
Judiciary Complex.
4.90 Housing Demand in Enugu Metropolis
Enugu experienced an unprecedented inflow of people from the
hinterlands in quest for white-collar jobs and greener pastures from 1970’s to
early 1990’s. This increased the pressure on available housing facilities with
attendant high demand for accommodation. The increase in population led to
the development of various squatter settlement and satellite towns, including
Abakpa, Nike, Emene, Amechi Awkunanaw, etc. The city centre such as
Obiagu, part of the Coal camp, Asata and Railway quarters have since
developed into slum environments.
Government has intervened in housing provision through development of
new housing estates and layouts, implementation of site and service schemes,
direct construction of different categories of houses and involvement of the
private sector. The government has embarked on and completed a total of 230
detached duplexes, 100 units of bungalows in Ebe-ano and other housing estates
expected to house over 5,000 families.
Despite these significant efforts made by the State Government, the
housing shortages persist. The housing crisis may largely be due to the large
number of students’ population in the city. The major educational institutions
are located within the city centre and the problem they all face is the lack of
space for expansion. Such large establishments also contribute greatly to the
problem of traffic congestion. Blighted areas have emerged as a consequence of
the developments.
5.00 CHAPTER FIVE: METHODS AND PROCEDURES
5.10 Sources and Types of Data
Data used in this study were collected from secondary and y primary
sources
5.11 Secondary Sources
Data from secondary sources were obtained from both published and
unpublished sources.
5.12 Published Sources
The information and materials from these sources gave a clear
explanation and a considerable justification to the topic under study. It included
the following:
a) Total Population showing, the total population figure of Enugu Metropolis
from 1980 to 2013. The sources are from the population characteristics of
Enugu Metropolis based on 1963, 1991 and 2006 population census of the
National Population Commission (NPC)
b) Total Regular Households in Enugu metropolis indicating, the actual housing
demand from 1980 to 2013. The sources are from the Housing Characteristics
and Amenities Tables (volume II) of 2006 Population and Housing Census of
the Federal Republic of Nigeria. Report, in the Federal Republic of Nigeria
Official Gazette (No 2 Vol. 96 of 2009).
c) Household size showing the size of each household of Enugu metropolis
from 1980 to 2013. The sources are from 1963, 1991 and 2006 population
census of the National Population Commission (NPC) and projected by
researcher.
d) Urbanization rate, showing the rate of urbanization in Enugu Metropolis
from 1980 to 2013. The sources are from (World Bank 2010) and projected by
researcher.
e) Migration rate showing rate of migration in Enugu Metropolis from 1980 to
2013. The sources are from CIA World fact book and projected by researcher.
f) The Location Maps: These include Map of Nigeria showing all the states
including Enugu State (highlighted) Map of Enugu State showing all Local
Government Areas including Enugu North, Enugu South and Enugu East that
made up of Enugu Metropolis, and the Map of Enugu Metropolis showing
different neighbourhoods. These data were sourced from the Enugu Master Plan
prepared by the Ministry of Lands and Survey and Wikipedia.
5.13 Unpublished Sources
a) The number of housing conversions, which showed the number of houses
that were converted from the original use to another in Enugu Metropolis from
1980 to 2013. The sources are from the three Local Government Area Town
Planning Authorities.
b) The number of commercial activities, which indicated the total number of
different commercial activities in Enugu Metropolis from 1980 to 2013. The
sources are the Local Government credit control units
c) Security, indicating the total number of crimes officially recorded in Enugu
Metropolis from 1980 to 2013. The sources are from Enugu State Police
Command.
d) Public utilities showing the total units of electricity in Enugu Metropolis
from 1980 to 2013. The sources are from Power Holding Company of Nigeria
(PHCN) (formerly NEPA).
e) Annual income showing the annual income of civil servants in Enugu
metropolis from 1980 to 2013. The sources are from Enugu State Ministry of
Budget and Planning.
f) Number of schools showing the total of schools in Enugu metropolis from
1980 to 2013. The sources are from Enugu State Ministry of Education
Enugu.
g) Housing supply showing the total number of approved building plans: in
Enugu metropolis from 1980 to 2013. The sources are from the three Local
Government Area Town Planning Authorities.
The data obtained from secondary sources were used extensively in this
study especially in test of hypotheses.
5.20 Primary Sources
Primary data used in this study were collected through the questionnaires,
oral interviews and observation method
a) Questionnaires
Questionnaires were extensively used in the study to collect large volume
of primary data. Through this method, data on the socio-economic
characteristics of the respondents and the factors influencing housing demand
The data collected through the questionnaires was used to test the residents’
perception on housing demand in Enugu metropolis as one of the hypotheses.
b) Oral interview
Face to face oral interview was conducted with selected residents of the
study area which included: traders, workers, businessmen, students,
professionals, and the key officials of the relevant governmental ministries and
parastatals. The information obtained from this source centres on housing
demand, population trend, migration, urbanization, pressure on the existing
infrastructure and those factors influencing housing demand in Enugu
Metropolis.
During the interviews, questions relating to the participation of the stakeholders
in housing sector were discussed. Data collected from this source was used to
validate data collected from other sources.
c) Direct observation
Direct observations were made on the pattern of housing delivery, rate of
urbanization, the housing conditions and those factors that influence housing
demand in Enugu Metropolis. The information collected from direct observation
showed the magnitude some factors affecting housing demand in Enugu
Metropolis. In course of the observation, photographs were taken of housing
conditions.
5.30 Sample Frame and Sample Size
5.31 Sample Frame
The sample frame for this research is 927,642 people, which is the entire
population of Enugu metropolis in 2013. (See table 5.1). The population was
projected from 1991 National population census, using Thomas Malthus’
Exponential Model (Anyaele 2003).
The formula is given as:
Pj = Pt (1+r) n
Where
Pt = population of Base Year (1991).
N = Number of units of time in 22 years.
Pj = Population of projected year 2013.
r = Rate of population changes in percent/population growth rate (2.8).
1 = Constant.
Table 5.1: The 18 Neighbourhoods in Enugu Metropolis (Based on 1991
population census neighbourhood distributions)
S/N Neighbourhood Density
1991 Population* 2013 projected
Population**
1 Abakpa High 90,619 166,367
2 Asata “ 21,828 40,074
3 Iva valley “ 8,891 16,323
4 Akwuke “ 3,326 6,106
5 Ogbete “ 25,994 47,722
6 Ogui new/L/out “ 41,237 75,707
7 Emene “ 79,033 145,097
8 Garriki Awk. “ 19,662 36,097
9 Obiagu “ 5,487 10,074
10 AmechiAwk. “ 13,441 24,676
11 Nike “ 34,501 63,340
12 Achara Layout Medium 50,427 92,579
13 Maryland “ 4,666 8,566
14 Uwani “ 31,875 58,519
15 New haven “ 18,753 34,429
16 GRA Low 19,600 35,984
17 Independence L\out “ 24,466 44,917
18 Trans Ekulu “ 11,474 21,065
Total 505,280 927,642
Source: * Adapted from NPC, 1991.
**Population projected to 2013 by researcher.
5.32 Sampling Size
The sample size was determined using Williams (1978) formula as was
adopted by Kerlinger and Lee (2000). The formula is given as
S =
𝑛
1+𝑛
𝑁
Where:
S = Sample size.
n = The proportion of population that will be sampled which
is 0.05 percent.
N = The total population of Enugu metropolis.
Applying the above formular total population of 460 respondents representing
0.05 percent of the sample frame of 927,642 was drawn from high, medium and
low-density neighbourhoods that make up the Enugu Metropolis. The
breakdown of sample size for each of the selected neighbourhoods in the three
respective housing densities were shown in table 5.2
5.33 Sampling Procedure
The stratified sampling method was used in this study to select the sample
population that was interviewed. The 18 constituent neighbourhoods that make
up Enugu metropolis were used, the reason for using 18 instead of the current
24 constituent neighbourhoods was given in section 1.60 of pages 6 and 7.
The 18 constituent neighbourhoods were first stretched into three, based on the
housing densities namely high, medium and low (see table 5.1)
Afterwards, the names of the neigbourhoods were written on pieces of paper
and were put in three different lucky – dip bags according to the neighbourhood
density. The lucky – dip bags were then shaken and rotated three times.
Subsequently 9 neigbourhoods were randomly picked from the bags without
replacement in the following order: - 4 Neighbourhoods were selected from the
high density, 3 from medium density and 2 from low density.(see Table 5.2)
The variation in the number of selected neigbourhoods was because high
density had the highest number of neigbourhoods (11) in Enugu metropolis. It
was followed in descending order by medium density (4) and low density (3)
The number of households in the chosen neighbourhoods were estimated using
average household size of 6, while that of the sample size of each of the selected
neighbourhoods were estimated using the total sample size of 460 in proportion
to their population. (See Table 5.2)
Table 5.2: The 9 Selected Sample Neighbourhoods and their Sample Sizes.
S/N Density Neighbourhood Projected
population
Number of
households
Sample
size
Percentage
1 HIGH Abakpa 166,367 27,728 136 29.57
2 Ogui New/L/out
///L/L/out
75,707 12,618 62 13.48
3 GarrikiAwk. 36,097 6,016 30 6.52
4 Asata 40,074 6,679 33 7.17
5 MEDIUM Uwani 58,519 9,753 48 10.43
6 Achara L/out 92,579 15,430 76 16.52
7 New Haven 34,429 5,737 28 6.09
8 LOW Trans Ekulu 21,065 3,511 17 3.70
9 GRA 35,984 5,997 30 6.52
Total 560,819 95,469 460 100.00
Source: Researcher’s Survey, 2013.
However, 460 copies of questionnaire were administered in each of the 9
selected neigbourhoods according to their sample size. (See Table 5.2)
Systematic random sampling was used in administering the questionnaires in
each of the 9 selected neighbourhoods. In each of the neighbourhoods, the
residential buildings were enumerated and listed. The first house selected from
each street was randomly chosen through balloting, and then subsequent ones
were administered through systematic random technique at every 5th dwelling
unit. Out of a total of 460 copies of questionnaire that were distributed, 429
copies representing 93.3% were returned (See Table 5.3)
5.34: Number of Questionnaires Administered and Number Returned
Table 5.3 shows that, a total of 460 copies of questionnaire were
administered to the residents of the nine neighbourhoods. However, 429 were
recovered and 31 were not recovered. The response rate is 93.3%.
Table 5.3: Response rate of questionnaire administration
S/N Density N/hoods Number of
questionnaires
administered
%
administered
Number
Returned/
completed
%
Returned/
completed
1 High Abakpa 136 29.6 131 30.5
2 Ogui L/out
///L/L/out
62 13.5 53 12.4
3 GarrikiAw
k.
30 6.5 29 7.0
4 Asata 33 7.2 32 7.2
5 Medium
Uwani 48 10.4 46 10.5
6 Achara
L/out
76 16.5 71 16.8
7 New
Haven
28 6.1 25 5.8
8 Low Trans
Ekulu
17 3.7 16 3.7
9 GRA 30 6.5 26 6.1
Total 460 100.0 429 100.0
Source: Fieldwork, 2014.
5.40 Description of the Instrument used in Data Collection (Questionnaire)
The first step that was taken in the design of questionnaire was the
identification of the variables. This was followed by the decision on the type of
questions to ask the respondents. The questions are in simple language and
arranged in ordered sequence showing a logical and continuous flow of thought.
The questionnaire was divided into two sections. The first section was designed
to collect interval data in some relevant personal and socio – economic status
which includes: Location, Sex, Age, Monthly income, Level of education,
Marital status, Occupation, Household size, Number of Households in their
compound, Number of rooms occupied by each household, Type of house they
reside in and How long they lived in Enugu. The second section covers
information on the housing demand and its determinants in the study area.
Twenty five (25) questions were asked which were supplied with possible
answers. Each of the respondents was expected to tick the appropriate answer to
the questions. The data collected from this source were used extensively in the
test of hypotheses.
5.41 Definition of Variables
In order to test the above-mentioned hypotheses, some of the variables listed
below were used:-
Housing demand (Dependent variable)
Factors that influence housing demand (Independent variables)
Population
Housing conversion
Number of commercial activities
Income
Number of schools
Housing supply
Public utilities
Security
Rate of urbanization.
Household size.
Migration (Rural – Urban) and (Urban – Urban)
5.50 Description of the Statistics used in the Analysis
The analytical techniques used in this study were Analysis of Variance
(ANOVA), Multi - Linear Regression and Chi – Square.
(a) Analysis of Variance (One-Way ANOVA) was used in testing the first
hypothesis, which was to examine whether there is significant variation in trend
of housing demand in Enugu metropolis over the years. The dependent variable
(Y) was the total regular households, and independent variable (X) represents
the three decades (1980-1989, 1990-1999 and 2000 – 2013).
Also, Analysis of Variance (One-Way ANOVA) was used in testing the third
hypothesis, to determine whether housing demand differs significantly among
income groups in Enugu Metropolis. The dependent variable (Y) was the total
regular households, and independent variable (X) represents the various income
groups (high, medium and low-income groups).
The equations of the Simple Factors Analysis of Variance techniques are given
as:-
SST = ∑ 2𝑥 - (∑𝑋2)
𝑁 ……………………………………….. (1)
SSB = (∑X1)2
N + (∑𝑋2)2
𝑁 +
(∑X3)2
N + (∑𝑋1)2
𝑁 …………… (2)
SSW = SST – SSB …………………………………………. (3)
Where:
SST = Total variation (Total sum of squares)
SSB = Variation between groups (Sum of squares between)
SSW = Variation within groups (Sum of squares within)
(b) Multiple linear regressions technique (Stepwise) was used to determine the
factors influencing housing demand in Enugu metropolis. It was specifically
used in the second hypothesis to determine whether significant relationship
exists between housing demand in Enugu Metropolis (the dependent variable Y)
and the determinant factors namely;- population growth, migration ,rate of
urbanization, household size, security ,income, public utilities, housing
conversion, number of schools, number of commercial activities and housing
supply (Independent variable X). Cross sectional data collected from secondary
sources were used in the test.
The Multiple Linear Regression is given as:
Y = a+b1x1+b2x2+b3x3+b4x4…...bnxn+e1… (1);
Where:
Y = the dependent variables;
a = the constant of the regression equation;
x1-xn = independent variables(predictor variables);
b1-bn = the co-efficient of the corresponding x’s;
e = the standard error.
The equation (1) is expressed in the test of second hypothesis as:
TRH = a + b1PG1 + b2HC2 + b3NCA3 + b4IN4 + b5HS5 + b6NS6 + b7PU7 + b8SE8
+ b9UR9 +b10HHS10 +b11MR11 + e…………… (2);
Where:
TRH = Total regular household (Actual demand);
PG = Population growth;
HC = Housing conversion;
NCA = Number of commercial activities;
IN = Income;
HS = Housing supply;
NS = Number of schools;
PU = Public Utilities;
SE = Security;
UR = Urbanization rate;
HHS = Household size;
MR = Migration rate.
a’s, b’s and e are already defined in the equation (1)
(c) Chi – Square was used in testing the fourth hypothesis, which was to
identify whether there is significant difference in the residents’ perception of the
housing demand in Enugu metropolis. Residents’ perception was the dependent
variable (Y) and independent variable (X) was represented by the residents of
Enugu metropolis.
The general formula for the computation of chi-square is;
X2=∑ (0-E) 2
E
Where, O = Observed frequency
E = Expected frequency
∑= Summation of all cells
the value of chi – square may also be defined as:
X2 – (x – u)2
Where
X variables are normally distributed mean U and standard deviation 0
The level of significance (α) used was 0.05
6.00: CHAPTER SIX: DATA PRESENTATION,
ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS
6.10 Secondary Data Presentation and Analysis
6.11 Range of the Time Period of the Study in Decades.
Table 6.11 shows that the study covered a time period of 34 years,
ranging from 1980 to 2013. The time period was aggregated into three decades
as follows, which the first decade started from 1980 – 1989 (First decade), 1990
– 1999(Second decade) and 2000 – 2013(Third decade). However, the last
decade exceeded other decades by four years (2010 – 2013) because of the need
to use current data in the analysis.
Table 6.11: Range of the time period of the study in decades.
1st Decade (1980 - 1989) 2nd Decade (1990 - 1999) 3rd Decade (2000 - 2013)
1980 1990 2000
1981 1991 2001
1982 1992 2002
1983 1993 2003
1984 1994 2004
1985 1995 2005
1986 1996 2006
1987 1997 2007
1988 1998 2008
1989 1999 2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Source: Researcher’s Survey, 2013.
6.12 Total Population of Enugu Metropolis.
Table 6.12 shows the population of Enugu metropolis, which was
projected, using the 1963, 1991 and 2006 population censuses as base years. It
was in order to obtain the population of Enugu metropolis for the study. From
1980 – 1990, 1991 – 2005 and 2006 – 2013 using 1963, 1991 and 2006
population censuses respectively. The 1963, 1991 and 2006 population censuses
were used because they are the officially recognized censuses in the country.
Analysis showed that the population of Enugu metropolis increased from 1980
to 2013. This as a result of increase in natural population due to better medical
health care, technological and economic development resulting to rural – urban
migration and high rate of urbanization. Other reasons are that Enugu has been
the administrative capital since the discovery of coal deposit in the city and the
capital of the Igbo nation. This pulls migrants from different parts of the country
to the city.
Table 6.12: Total Population in Enugu metropolis.
Year Population Year Population Year Population
1980 258,888 1990 374,105 2000 703,761
1981 268,597 1991 505,280 2001 730,152
1982 278,669 1992 524,228 2002 757,532
1983 289,119 1993 543,887 2003 785,940
1984 299,961 1994 564,282 2004 815,413
1985 311,210 1995 585,443 2005 845,991
1986 322,880 1996 607,397 2006 717,291
1987 334,988 1997 630,174 2007 744,189
1988 347,550 1998 653,806 2008 772,097
1989 360,583 1999 678,324 2009 801,050
2010 831,090
2011 862,255
2012 894,590
2013 927,642
SOURCE: Adapted from NPC, 1963, 1991and 2006; and projected to 2013 by researcher.
6.13 Total Regular Households in Enugu Metropolis.
Table 6.13 shows the total regular households in Enugu metropolis for the
time period of 34years, ranging from 1980 to 2013, which indicates the housing
demand in Enugu metropolis. The data was adapted from 2006 Population and
Housing Census of the Federal Republic of Nigeria: Housing Characteristics
and Amenities Tables (volume II), and projected by researcher. The data shows
that the housing demand was highest during the third (2000-2013) decade and it
was followed in descending order by second (1990-1999) and first (1980-1989)
decades. This is because of increase in population due to the increase in the
factors affecting population such as migration, rate of urbanization, and
household sizes.
Table 6.13: Total Regular Households in Enugu metropolis.
Year Housing
demand Year
Housing
demand Year
Housing
demand
1980 82,632 1990 108,913 2000 143,553
1981 84,946 1991 111,963 2001 147,572
1982 87,324 1992 115,098 2002 151,704
1983 89,788 1993 118,320 2003 155,952
1984 92,302 1994 121,633 2004 160,319
1985 94,867 1995 125,039 2005 164,807
1986 97,523 1996 128,540 2006 169,422
1987 100,021 1997 132,139 2007 174,166
1988 103,061 1998 135,839 2008 179,043
1989 105,947 1999 139,643 2009 184,056
2010 189,209
2011 194,507
2012 199,953
2013 205,552
SOURCE: Adapted from 2006 Population and Housing Census of the Federal Republic of
Nigeria: Housing Characteristics and Amenities Tables (volume II), and projected by
researcher.
6.14. Variation in Housing Demand among Various Income Groups in
Enugu Metropolis.
Table 6.14 shows the housing demand among various income groups
(high, medium and low) in Enugu metropolis. Which is the total regular
households among the various income groups in Enugu metropolis for the time
period of 34years, ranging from 1980 to 2013. The data was adapted from 2006
Population and Housing Census of the Federal Republic of Nigeria: Housing
Characteristics and Amenities Tables (volume II), and projected by researcher.
The data indicates that the low-income group had the highest housing demand
and it was followed in descending order by medium – income and high-income
groups. This variation in housing demand is due to the gap between the rich and
the poor in the country, which Enugu metropolis is not an exemption. Due to
such gap, there is every tendency that low income group has high housing
demand than any other income groups due to the fact that they do not have
money as to own their own houses, and also their increase in population.
Table 6.14: The housing demand among various income groups
Year Low income group Medium income group High income group
1980 54,050 19,462 9,120
1981 55,564 20,007 9,375
1982 57,120 20,567 9,638
1983 58,725 21,155 9,907
1984 60,369 21,748 10,185
1985 62,054 22,343 10,470
1986 63,791 22,969 10,763
1987 65,358 23,612 11,052
1988 67,413 24,273 11,374
1989 69,301 24,953 11,693
1990 71,242 25,651 12,020
1991 73,236 26,370 12,357
1992 75,287 27,108 12,703
1993 77,395 27,867 13,058
1994 79,562 28,647 13,424
1995 81,790 29,450 13,800
1996 84,080 30,274 14,186
1997 86,434 31,122 14,584
1998 88,854 31,993 14,992
1999 91,342 32,889 15,412
2000 93,900 33,810 15,843
2001 96,529 34,756 16,287
2002 99,232 35,730 16,743
2003 102,010 36,730 17,212
2004 104,867 37,758 17,694
2005 107,803 38,816 18,189
2006 110,822 39,902 18,698
2007 113,924 41,020 19,222
2008 117,114 42,168 19,760
2009 120,394 43,349 20,313
2010 123,764 44,563 20,882
2011 127,230 45,811 21,467
2012 130,792 47,093 22,068
2013 134,454 48,412 22,686
SOURCE: Adapted from 2006 Population and Housing Census of the Federal Republic of
Nigeria: Housing Characteristics and Amenities Tables (volume II), and projected by
researcher.
6.15. Housing Conversions from residential to other uses in Enugu
Metropolis.
Table 6.15 shows the housing conversions from residential to other uses
in Enugu metropolis, which has been one of the problems encountered in the
urban areas, due to high rate of urbanization. In this case, some of the houses
would be changed from its original statues due to the high demand for housing.
This is the fifth and sixth stages of a city growth, called inversion and
succession. The inversion is a situation whereby in residential areas many
houses are converted into shops, while succession is the complete replacement
of one functional zone by the other, like the complete replacement of the
residential areas by commercial activities. This is a situation whereby some
residential buildings can be converted to commercial building due to the
encroachment of the commercial activities. The basis for choosing it as one of
the variables is that, when some residential buildings are converted to other
uses, that will eventually have impact on housing demand, which may result to
shortage in housing stock.
Table 6.15: Housing conversions from residential to other uses in Enugu
Metropolis
Year
Housing conversions
from other residential
to other uses
Year
Housing conversions
from other residential
to other uses
Year
Housing conversions
from other residential to
other uses
1980 95 1990 63 2000 99
1981 72 1991 54 2001 53
1982 70 1992 58 2002 36
1983 69 1993 39 2003 67
1984 53 1994 49 2004 69
1985 54 1995 51 2005 67
1986 45 1996 51 2006 45
1987 65 1997 39 2007 63
1988 55 1998 60 2008 82
1989 45 1999 63 2009 66
2010 54
2011 59
2012 61
2013 67
SOURCE: L.G.A. Town Planning Authorities.
6.16. Number of Commercial Activities in Enugu Metropolis
Table 6.16 shows the number of commercial activities Enugu metropolis, this
has significant influence on housing demand, the commercial activities
increased from the first decade to the third decade and having astronomical
increase in the third decade these are as the result of urbanization, which
increased both the economic and social activities in the city. The commercial
activities has impact on housing demand, due to the fact that increase in
commercial activities affect housing demand, because high commercial
activities results to high rate of housing conversions, that is, why it was chosen
as one of the determinant factors of housing demand.
Table 6.16: Number of commercial activities in Enugu metropolis
Year
Number of
commercial
activities
Year
Number of
commercial
activities
Year
Number of
commercial
activities
1980 3,340 1990 4,216 2000 13,626
1981 3,340 1991 7,640 2001 13,626
1982 3,340 1992 7,640 2002 23,219
1983 3,340 1993 7,640 2003 23,219
1984 3,340 1994 7,640 2004 23,219
1985 3,340 1995 76,940 2005 23,219
1986 4,216 1996 76,940 2006 23,219
1987 4,216 1997 13,626 2007 23,219
1988 4,216 1998 13,626 2008 26,000
1989 4,216 1999 13,626 2009 26,000
2010 26,000
2011 26,000
2012 26,000
2013 26,000
SOURCE: Local Government Credit Control Unit, Enugu
6.17. Annual Income
Table 6.17 shows the income of the residents of Enugu metropolis. It is one of
the major determinant of housing demand, the income of the civil servant
towards the end of the second decade increased and with high rate of increase in
the third decade due the increase in salary of the public servants and also due to
inflationary rate in the country. It is regarded as the one of the determinant
factors because it determines the ability of the household to pay for house rent
or to have their own house.
Table 6.17: Annual income of civil servants in Enugu metropolis
Year Income Year Income Year Income
1980 2,891.00 1990 15,612.41 2000 72,914,675.00
1981 2,934.00 1991 14,789.87 2001 754,868,916.00
1982 3,098.34 1992 24,440.24 2002 726,982,363.00
1983 3,692.60 1993 36,779.55 2003 864,753,000.00
1984 4,789.21 1994 15,948.00 2004 734,471,516.00
1985 6,221.70 1995 19,029.00 2005 939,385,405.00
1986 5,667.78 1996 18,496.00 2006 969,694,560.00
1987 9,779.78 1997 76,682,748.00 2007 1,128,995,002.00
1988 10,679.21 1998 53,548,759.00 2008 1,160,108,334.00
1989 12,009.95 1999 69,874,388.00 2009 4,125,445,804.00
2010 6,620,042,358.00
2011 6,910,112,343.00
2012 7,332,436,578.00
2013 8,145,642,386.00
SOURCE: Enugu State Ministry of Budget and Planning
6.18: Housing Supply in Enugu Metropolis
Table 6.18 shows the housing supply in Enugu metropolis. It is of great
importance, as the increase in supply will reduce the demand for housing and
under supply increases the demand for housing. The rate of housing supply is
very low and is not proportional to the demand, and this has created increase in
housing demand due to the fact that the increase in supply is not steady as the
demand is on increase. The data is all about the approved building plans from
the L.G.A. Town Planning Authorities. The housing supply affects the housing
demand due to the fact that rate of supply determines the rate of demand.
Table 6.18: Housing supply in Enugu metropolis.
Year Housing supply Year Housing supply Year Housing supply
1980 221 1990 317 2000 280
1981 216 1991 340 2001 289
1982 130 1992 312 2002 292
1983 241 1993 309 2003 368
1984 145 1994 391 2004 246
1985 313 1995 415 2005 351
1986 332 1996 260 2006 288
1987 277 1997 281 2007 320
1988 304 1998 267 2008 354
1989 340 1999 260 2009 350
2010 389
2011 397
2012 400
2013 396
SOURCE: L.G.A. Town Planning Authorities.
6.19: Number of Schools in Enugu Metropolis
Table 6.19 shows the number of schools. It has influence on housing demand as
the case may be due to the problem associated with inadequate hostels and
dormitories in higher institution and secondary schools respectively. This makes
students to struggle for accommodation spaces with other people in the city and
as the number of schools increases with time, the demand for housing increases
in Enugu metropolis. The number of schools increased from 1980 to 2013.The
number of schools can determine the housing demand, because of the need for
the staff to be accommodated, that will then have impact on housing demand.
Table 6.19: Number of schools in Enugu metropolis
Year Number of
Schools Year
Number of
Schools Year
Number of
Schools
1980 175 1990 239 2000 607
1981 180 1991 269 2001 430
1982 187 1992 280 2002 432
1983 189 1993 289 2003 525
1984 204 1994 300 2004 547
1985 212 1995 440 2005 501
1986 221 1996 235 2006 571
1987 213 1997 266 2007 567
1988 224 1998 273 2008 679
1989 231 1999 599 2009 691
2010 694
2011 710
2012 652
2013 705
SOURCE: Enugu State Ministry of Education
6.20: Public Utilities in Enugu Metropolis
Table 6.20 shows that the public utilities increase steadily from the first
decade to the third decade of the study period. This as a result of urbanization,
that results to the increase in the public utilities, which does not correspond with
the increase in population thereby resulting too much pressure on the existing
ones and this has effect on the housing demand. The availability of public
utilities has impact on the demand for housing, because that will attract tenants
or property owners, unlike places that do not have public utilities.
Table 6.20: Public utilities in Enugu metropolis
Year Public utilities Year Public utilities Year Public utilities
1980 4,714 1990 476,234 2000 520,621
1981 4,844 1991 465,072 2001 614,040
1982 4,967 1992 478,094 2002 631,418
1983 5,092 1993 505,242 2003 649,986
1984 446,039 1994 548,887 2004 667,662
1985 466,833 1995 563,987 2005 686,557
1986 468,629 1996 465,632 2006 722,664
1987 469,833 1997 478,809 2007 731,467
1988 470,341 1998 492,359 2008 764,396
1989 472,411 1999 506,293 2009 769,724
2010 796,098
2011 804,901
2012 810,229
2013 819,032
SOURCE: Power Holding Company of Nigeria (PHCN) (formerly NEPA)
6.21: Security in Enugu Metropolis
Table 6.21 shows in Security Enugu Metropolis, which means the number
of officially recorded crimes in the Enugu metropolis. The rate of crimes
increased much from the end of the second decade and steadily to the third
decade due to high rate of unemployment in the country and sometimes the
inability of the security operative in tackling such social vises. It is chosen as
one of the determinant factors because, where there is high rate of crimes,
people fear to live in such areas and in such case affects the housing demand.
Table 6.21 : Security in Enugu Metropolis
Year
Number of
crimes
officially
recorded
Year
Number of
crimes officially
recorded
Year
Number of
crimes officially
recorded
1980 475 1990 896 2000 1,574
1981 525 1991 912 2001 1,748
1982 686 1992 936 2002 1,703
1983 712 1993 965 2003 1,734
1984 746 1994 986 2004 1,673
1985 810 1995 997 2005 1,735
1986 864 1996 1,032 2006 1,675
1987 832 1997 1,051 2007 1,159
1988 864 1998 1,078 2008 1,211
1989 892 1999 1,086 2009 1,332
2010 1,559
2011 1,680
2012 1,733
2013 1,783
SOURCE: Enugu State Police Command
6.22: Rate of Urbanization in Enugu Metropolis
Table 6.22 shows the rate of urbanization, which has been steady increase
due to the increase in the rate of rural – urban and urban – urban migration. The
migration increase the population of the city as the population increases the rate
of urbanization also increase resulting to high housing demand. The figure was
projected using the rate of urbanization in Nigeria, which is 3.75%. The rate of
urbanization has been chosen due to the fact that high rate of urbanization
eventually, results to high rate of housing demand, due to the expansion of the
town.
Table 6.22: Rate of Urbanization in Enugu metropolis.
Year Rate of
Urbanization in % Year
Rate of
Urbanization in % Year
Rate of
Urbanization in %
1980 3.716 1990 3.748 2000 3.743
1981 3.759 1991 3.757 2001 3.764
1982 3.754 1992 3.732 2002 3.747
1983 3.762 1993 3.768 2003 3.748
1984 3.728 1994 3.742 2004 3.753
1985 3.760 1995 3.746 2005 3.743
1986 3.749 1996 3.761 2006 3.765
1987 3.748 1997 3.747 2007 3.733
1988 3.756 1998 3.745 2008 3.763
1989 3.748 1999 3.751 2009 3.735
2010 3.763
2011 3.745
2012 3.750
2013 3.748
SOURCE: CIA factbook en.Wiki/demographic_ofNigeria_population
6.23: Household Size in Enugu Metropolis.
Table 6.23shows the household size in Enugu metropolis, which has the
highest household size in the second decade and the early third decade. This is
as result of fluctuation on the rate of housing supply, which does not correspond
in proportional rate with the demand. In addition, the increase in the number of
household increases the household size. The household size has serious impact
on housing demand, because the increase in household size will result in
formation of household, thereby resulting to demand for housing.
Table 6.23: Household size in Enugu metropolis
Year Household Size Year Household Size Year Household Size
1980 2.68 1990 2.68 2000 4.51
1981 2.68 1991 4.51 2001 4.51
1982 2.68 1992 4.52 2002 4.51
1983 2.68 1993 4.52 2003 4.51
1984 2.68 1994 4.53 2004 4.51
1985 2.68 1995 4.51 2005 4.51
1986 2.68 1996 4.51 2006 4.23
1987 2.69 1997 4.51 2007 4.23
1988 2.68 1998 4.51 2008 4.23
1989 2.68 1999 4.51 2009 4.23
2010 4.23
2011 4.23
2012 4.23
2013 4.23
SOURCE: Adapted from NPC, 1963, 1991and 2006; and projected to 2013 by researcher
6.24: The Migration Rate in Enugu Metropolis.
Table 6.24The population of the new residents determines the rate of
migration. These people are first time residents in the city. These are people that
migrated from urban or rural areas to the city. This is determined by the
difference between the original residents and the first time residents. The rate of
migration is greatest in the first decade. This is due to the high rate of
urbanization in the decade. The migration rate is important in determining the
housing demand, because this migration results to addition to existing
population thereby increasing the population of the affected areas thereby
causing high population increase, which finally will result to housing demand.
If it is out migration the demand for housing will be low, therefore it has impact
on housing demand.
Table 6.24: The migration rate in Enugu metropolis.
Year Migration rate Year Migration rate Year Migration rate
1980 0.443 1990 0.071 2000 0.183
1981 0.459 1991 0.096 2001 0.190
1982 0.477 1992 0.100 2002 0.197
1983 0.494 1993 0.103 2003 0.204
1984 0.513 1994 0.107 2004 0.212
1985 0.062 1995 0.094 2005 0.338
1986 0.065 1996 0.097 2006 0.287
1987 0.067 1997 0.101 2007 0.298
1988 0.070 1998 0.105 2008 0.309
1989 0.072 1999 0.109 2009 0.320
2010 0.332
2011 0.345
2012 0.358
2013 0.371
SOURCE: CIA factbook en.Wiki/demographic of Nigeria_populationn
6.30 Primary Data Presentation and Analysis
6.31: Number of Questionnaires Administered and Number Returned
A total of 460 copies of questionnaire were administered to the residents
of the nine neighbourhoods. However, 429 were recovered and 31 were not
recovered. The response rate is 93.3%. (See Table 5.3)
6.40: Socio-Economic Status of Respondents
The socio – economic characteristics of respondents comprises of Gender, Age
range, Marital status, Occupation, Educational level, Household size, Type of
houses, Number of rooms and Monthly.
6.41: Gender of the Respondents
Table 6.41shows that 64 respondents (30.2%) are males and 67
respondents (30.9%) are females in Abakpa . In Ogui New Layout, 28 and 25
respondents (13.2% and 11.5%) are males and females respectively. In Garriki
Awkunanaw 10 and 19 respondents (4.7% and 8.7%) are males and females
respectively. In Asata 17 respondents (8.0%) are males and 15 respondents
(6.9%) are females. In Uwani 20 and 26 respondents (9.4 % and 12.0%) are
males and females respectively. In Achara-Layout, 37 and 34 respondents
(17.5% and 15.7%) are males and females respectively. In New Haven 12 and
13 respondents (5.7% and 6.0%) are males and females respectively. Also in
Trans-Ekulu, 8 respondents (3.8%) are males and 8 respondents (3.7%) are
females. while in GRA, 16 and 10 respondents (7.5% and 4.6%) are males and
females respectively. The number of female is greater than male by 3
respondents.
Table 6.41: Gender of respondents
S/N Density Neighbourhood
GENDER
MALE FEMALE
Freq % Freq %
1
High
Abakpa 64 30.2 67 30.9
2 Ogui N/L/out 28 13.2 25 11.5
3 Garriki Awk. 10 4.7 19 8.7
4 Asata 17 8.0 15 6.9
5
Medium
Uwani 20 9.4 26 12.0
6 Achara L/out 37 17.5 34 15.7
7 New Haven 12 5.7 13 6.0
8 Low
Trans – Ekulu 8 3.8 8 3.7
9 GRA 16 7.5 10 4.6
Total 212 100.0 217 100.0
Source: Fieldwork, 2014.
6.42: Age Range of Respondents
Analysis in table 6.42 shows that 173 respondents representing 40.3% are
in the age bracket of 18 – 34. The next age bracket of 35 – 50 has 178
respondents representing 41.5%. Then 64 respondents are within the age bracket
of 51 – 60 representing 14.9% while only 14 respondents are within the age
bracket of 60 and above representing 3.3%. However, 3.3% of respondents are
within the age of 60 and above. The reasons for having 3.3% respondents at the
age of 60 and above are due to illiteracy level in the country and issue of elderly
people retiring to villages, thereby making the active population maintaining
higher percentage, at the same time it shows some level of immigration in the
city.
Table 6.42: Age range of respondents
Density HIGH MEDIUM LOW
N/hoods Abakpa
Ogui
L/o
Garrki
Awk.
Asata Uwani Achara
L/o
New
Haven
Trans
Ekulu
GRA Freq %
Age
Range
18 - 34 37 47 8 10 13 23 13 8 14 173 40.3
35 - 50 63 5 16 17 17 39 10 2 9 178 41.5
51 – 60 22 1 5 3 14 8 2 6 3 64 14.9
61 and
Above 9 - - 2 2 1 - - - 14 3.3
Total 131 53 29 32 46 71 25 16 26 429 100.0
Source: Fieldwork, 2014.
6.43: Marital Status of Respondents
Table 6.43 and Figure 6.43 show that 197 respondents (45.9%) are married,
whereas 190 (44.3%) ,25 (5.8%),17 (4.0%) are single, divorced and widowed
respectively. In Ogui Layout, 48 out of 53 respondents unmarried, because most
of the respondents are students.
Table 6.43: Marital status of respondents
Density HIGH MEDIUM LOW
N/hoods Abakpa
Ogui
L/o
Garrki
Awk.
Asata Uwani Achara
L/o
New
Haven
Trans
Ekulu
GRA Freq %
Marital
Status
Married 67 5 23 14 24 26 11 10 17 197 45.9 Single 37 48 6 13 21 37 13 6 9 190 44.3 Divorced 14 - - 2 1 7 1 - - 25 5.8 Widowed 13 - - 3 - 1 - - - 17 4.0
Total 131 53 29 32 46 71 25 16 16 429 100.0
Source: Fieldwork, 2014.
Figure 6.43: Distribution marital status of respondents
6.44: Occupation of Respondents
Table 6.44 shows that 137 respondents (32.0%) are public servants, 136
respondents (31.7%) are traders, 36 respondents (8.4%) are artisan, 22
respondents (5.1%) are Craftsmen, 22 respondents (5.1%) are technicians, and
75 respondents (17.5%) are students, while only 1 respondent (0.2%) was a
house wife. This shows that 32.0% are public servants, which means that the
metropolis is an administrative town. Then only 0.2% being housewife shows
that the conception of being a house wife is declining due to economic reasons.
Table 6.44: Occupation of respondents
Density HIGH MEDIUM LOW
N/hoods Abakpa
Ogui
L/o
Garrki
Awk.
Asata Uwani Achara
L/o
New
Haven
Trans
Ekulu
GRA Freq %
Occupation
Public
Servant 57 5 9 5 9 24 6 7 15 137 32.0
Trader 41 7 9 19 15 34 6 2 3 136 31.7
Artisan 8 1 7 4 4 4 6 1 1 36 8.4
Craftsman 9 1 1 2 2 4 1 - 2 22 5.1
Technician 11 - 1 2 3 4 1 - - 22 5.1
Student 4 39 2 - 13 1 5 6 5 75 17.5 House
Wife 1 - - - - - - - - 1 0.2
Total 131 53 29 32 46 71 25 16 26 429 100.0
Source: Fieldwork, 2014
6.45: Educational Level of Respondents
Table 6.45 below and figure 6.45 show that 23 respondents (5.4%) have
primary education, 160 and 185 respondents (37.3% and 43.1%) have
secondary and tertiary education respectively, 55 respondents (12.8%) have
vocational education, while 6 respondents (1.4%) are not formally educated.
Having shown that 43.1% of respondents have tertiary education proves that
Enugu metropolis is really administrative and educational town having many
higher institutions and this makes them have much knowledge about the issue of
housing demand in Enugu metropolis.
Table 6.45: Educational level of respondents
Density HIGH MEDIUM LOW
N/hoods Abakpa
Ogui
L/o
Garrki
Awk.
Asata Uwani Achara
L/o
New
Haven
Trans
Ekulu
GRA Freq %
EDUCATI
ONAL
LEVEL
Primary 6 - 2 4 1 9 1 - - 23 5.4 Secondary 55 6 17 19 13 29 10 3 8 160 37.3 Tertiary 36 47 10 6 29 15 13 12 17 185 43.1
Vocational 28 - - 3 3 18 1 1 1 55 12.8 Not
Formally
educated 6 - - - - - - - - 6 1.4
Total 131 53 29 32 46 71 25 16 26 429 100.0
Source: Fieldwork, 2014
Figure 6.45: Educational levels of respondents
6.46: Household Size of Respondents
Table 6.30.6 and figure 6.30.3 show that 30 respondents (7.0%) have only
1as household size, 163 and 183 respondents (38.0% and 42.7%) have 2 – 4 and
5 – 7 household size, 53 respondents (12.3%) have 8 – 10 household size, while
no respondent has household size of above 10. This shows that more than 80%
of the respondents have household size between 2 – 7, due to the economic
situation and people adhering to family planning policy of the government.
Table 6.46: Household size of respondents
Density HIGH MEDIUM LOW
N/hoods Abakpa
Ogui
L/o
Garrki
Awk.
Asata Uwani Achara
L/o
New
Haven
Trans
Ekulu
GRA Freq %
HOUSE
HOLDSIZ
E
1 14 3 - 5 1 5 - - 2 30 7.0
2 – 4 48 9 12 19 3 49 9 1 13 163 38.0
5 – 7 56 32 16 8 23 15 14 9 10 183 42.7
8 - 10 13 9 1 - 19 2 2 6 1 53 12.3
Above 10 - - - - - - - - - 0 0.0
Total 131 53 29 32 46 71 25 16 26 429 100.0
Source: Fieldwork, 2014
Figure 6.46: Distributions of household sizes of respondents
6.47: Type of House of respondents
Table 6.47 and Figure 6.47 show that 21 respondents (4.9%) reside in
semi – detached bungalows, 32 respondents (7.5%) reside in detached
bungalows, 46 respondents (10.7%) reside in tenement buildings, 203
respondents (47.3%) reside in block of flats, 48 respondents (11.2%) reside in
duplexes, while 79 respondents (18.4%) reside in one family unit. This shows
that 47.3% of the respondents live in block of flats, this indicates that more
people prefer block of flats and more easily affordable.
Table 6.47: Type of house of respondents
Density HIGH MEDIUM LOW
N/hoods
Abakpa
Ogui
L/o
Garrki
Awk.
Asata Uwani Achara
L/o
New
Haven
Trans
Ekulu
GRA Freq %
TYPE OF
HOUSE
Semi –
detached
bungalow 9 2 1 4 1 2 - - 2 21 4.9 Detached
bungalow 11 7 1 4 - 1 3 2 3 32 7.5 Tenement
room 6 7 9 7 4 7 4 1 1 46 10.7
Block of
flats 74 20 16 5 27 30 16 8 7 203 47.3
Duplex 1 14 2 2 14 - 2 4 9 48 11.2
One family
unit 30 3 - 10 - 31 - 1 4 79 18.4
Total 131 53 29 32 46 71 25 16 26 429 100.0
Source: Fieldwork, 2014
Figure 6.47: Incidence type of house of respondents
6.48: Number of Rooms occupied by Household the Respondents
Table 6.48 shows that 59 respondents (13.7%) have 1 room, 138
respondents (32.2%) have 2 rooms, 157 respondents (36.6%) have 3 rooms, 52
respondents (12.1%) have 4 rooms, while 23 respondents (5.4%) have 5 rooms
and above. This shows that the more the household size the more the number of
rooms demanded by the respondents, that shows household size is directly
proportional to the number of rooms required by the respondents
Table 6.48: Number of rooms of respondents
Density HIGH MEDIUM LOW
N/hoods Abakpa
Ogui
L/o
Garrki
Awk.
Asata Uwani Achara
L/o
New
Haven
Trans
Ekulu
GRA Freq %
NO OF
ROOMS
1 13 3 4 13 6 16 3 1 - 59 13.7 2 49 9 10 11 7 34 6 5 7 138 32.2 3 62 17 9 6 19 18 10 5 11 157 36.6 4 6 16 3 2 8 2 4 5 6 52 12.1 5 or more 1 8 3 - 6 1 2 - 2 23 5.4
Total 131 53 29 32 46 71 25 16 26 429 100.0
Source: Fieldwork, 2014
6.49: Monthly Income of Respondents
Table 6.49 shows that, 79 respondents (18.4%) earn N10, 000 or less ,
111 respondents (25.9%) earn N 10,001 - N 20,000, 35 respondents (8.2%) earn
N 20,001 - N 30,000, 83 respondents (19.3%) earn N 30,001 - N 40,000, 67
respondent (15.6%) earn N 40,001 - N 60,000, 36 respondents (8.4%) earn N
60,001 - N 80,000, 5 respondents (1.2%) earn N 80,001 - N 100,00, 10
respondents (2.3%) earn N 100,001 - N 300,000, while 3 respondent earn N
300,001 and Above. This shows that the high-income earners are of smaller in
number to compare the low and middle-income earners, and economic situation
affects the affordability of housing by these low-income earners.
Table 6.49: Monthly income of respondents
Density HIGH MEDIUM LOW
N/hoods Abakpa
Ogui
L/o
Garrki
Awk.
Asata Uwani Achara
L/o
New
Haven
Trans
Ekulu
GRA Freq %
MONTHL
Y
INCOME
Less than
N10,000 25 13 2 10 2 15 6 2 4 79 18.4 N 10,001 -
N 20,000 45 19 5 7 6 21 2 4 2 111 25.9 N 20,001 -
N 30,000 16 5 3 - 2 7 1 - 1 35 8.2 N 30,001 -
N 40,000 26 6 13 3 11 14 6 - 4 83 19.3 N 40,001 -
N 60,000 13 2 6 7 13 12 4 2 8 67 15.6 N 60,001 -
N 80,000 5 3 - 4 8 2 4 5 5 36 8.4 N 80,001 -
N 100,00 - 1 - 1 1 - - 1 1 5 1.2 N 100,001
- N
300,000 1 2 - - 3 - 1 2 1 10 2.3 N 300,001
and Above - 2 - - - - 1 - - 3 0.7
Total 131 53 29 32 46 71 25 16 26 429 100.0
Source: Fieldwork, 2014.
6.50: THE FACTORS INFLUENCING HOUSING DEMAND
6.51: Hometown of the Residents in Enugu Metropolis
Table 6.51shows that 199 respondents (46.4%) are the indigenes of
Enugu metropolis, while 230 respondents (53.6%) are not indigenes. This
shows that the non indigenes are more in number and shows that there is high
level of immigration in the metropolis.
Table 6.51: Indigene of Enugu metropolis
Density HIGH MEDIUM LOW
N/hoods Abakpa
Ogui
L/o
Garrki
Awk.
Asata Uwani Achara
L/o
New
Haven
Trans
Ekulu
GRA Freq %
ORIGINA
LITY
Indigene of
Enugu
metropolis 47 17 11 22 32 45 5 12 8 199 46.4 Non
indigene 84 36 18 10 14 26 20 4 18 230 53.6
Total 131 53 29 32 46 71 25 16 26 429 100.0
Source: Fieldwork, 2014
6.52: Length of Stay in Enugu Metropolis by Non Indigene
Table 6.52 and Figure 6.52 reveal that out of 230 respondents who are not
indigenes of Enugu Metropolis, 109 respondents (47.4%) have lived between 1
– 10 years, 68 respondents (29.5%) have lived 11 – 20 years, 34 respondents
(14.8%) have lived between 21 – 30 years, 14 respondents (6.1%) have lived
between 31 – 40 years, while 5 respondents (2.2%) have lived from 41years and
above. Having shown that 47.4% of the respondents have lived between 1 – 10,
this reveals that, there have been high rate of immigration in recent years,
thereby increasing the population of the metropolis.
Table 6.52: Length of stay in Enugu metropolis by non indigene
Density HIGH MEDIUM LOW
N/hoods Abakpa
Ogui
L/o
Garrki
Awk.
Asata Uwani Achara
L/o
New
Haven
Trans
Ekulu
GRA Freq %
NUMBE
R OF
YEARS
1 – 10 29 26 3 8 7 16 12 4 4 109 47.4
11 – 20 25 7 10 2 4 3 8 - 9 68 29.5
21 – 30 18 2 5 - 2 4 - - 3 34 14.8
31 – 40 9 1 - - 1 1 - - 2 14 6.1
41 and
Above 3 - - - - 2 - - - 5 2.2
Total 84 36 18 10 14 26 20 4 18 230 100.0
Source: Fieldwork, 2014
Figure 6.52: Length of stay in Enugu metropolis by non-indigene
6.53: Rate of migration
Table 6.53 shows that 130 respondents (30.3%) said that the rate of
migration is very high, 137 respondents (31.9%) said it is high, 139 respondents
(32.4%) said it is moderate, 20 respondents (4.7%) said it is low, 3 respondents
(0.7%) said it is very low. The data reveals that the rate of migration is on high
side.
Table 6.53: Rate of migration
Density HIGH MEDIUM LOW
N/hoods Abakpa
Ogui
L/o
Garrki
Awk.
Asata Uwani Achara
L/o
New
Haven
Trans
Ekulu
GRA Freq %
RATE OF
MIGRATI
ON
Very high 45 10 4 16 7 46 1 - 1 130 30.3
High 59 16 10 7 12 16 8 2 7 137 31.9
Moderate 22 26 15 6 20 6 13 13 18 139 32.4
Low 4 1 - 3 6 2 3 1 - 20 4.7
Very low 1 - - - 1 1 - - - 3 0.7
Total 131 53 29 32 46 71 25 16 26 429 100.0
Source: Fieldwork, 2014
6.54: Migration Effect on Population Growth
Table 6.54 and Figure 6.54 show that, 103 respondents (24.0%) supported the
idea that migration has very high effect on population growth, 158 respondents
(36.8%) said it has high effect, 130 respondents (30.3%) said the effect is
moderate, 30 respondents (7.0%) said it has low effect, while 8
respondents(1.9%) said it has very low effect. The data reveal that there is high
migration effect on population growth.
Table 6.54: Migration effect on population growth
Density HIGH MEDIUM LOW
N/hoods Abakpa
Ogui
L/o
Garrki
Awk.
Asata Uwani Achara
L/o
New
Haven
Trans
Ekulu
GRA Freq %
MIGRATI
ON
EFFECT
Very high
effect 34 8 4 14 5 35 1 - 2 103 24.0 High
effect 58 22 15 3 17 11 12 5 15 158 36.8
Moderate 26 20 8 8 21 22 8 9 8 130 30.3
Low
effect 10 3 2 4 2 2 4 2 1 30 7.0
Very low
effect 3 - - 3 1 1 - - 8 1.9
Total 131 53 29 32 46 71 25 16 26 429 100.0
Source: Fieldwork, 2014
Figure 6.54: Incidence of migration effect on population growth
6.55: Rate of Urbanization
Table 6.55 shows that, 102 respondents (23.8%) believed that the rate of
urbanization is very high, 119 respondents (27.7%) believed it is high, 158
respondents (36.8%) believed it is moderate, 45 respondents (10.5%) believed it
is low, while 5 respondents (1.2%) believed it is very low. The data show that
there is high rate of urbanization in the metropolis.
Table 6.55: Rate of urbanization
Density HIGH MEDIUM LOW
N/hoods Abakpa
Ogui
L/o
Garrki
Awk.
Asata Uwani Achara
L/o
New
Haven
Trans
Ekulu
GRA Freq %
RATE OF
URBANI
ZATION
Very high 35 10 4 10 9 28 3 1 2 102 23.8
High 35 25 6 7 11 19 5 2 9 119 27.7
Moderate 47 17 13 9 17 16 11 13 15 158 36.8
Low 13 1 6 5 9 7 4 - - 45 10.5
Very low 1 - - 1 - 1 2 - - 5 1.2
Total 131 53 29 32 46 71 25 16 26 429 100.0
Source: Fieldwork, 2014
6.56: Major Causes of Urbanization
Table 6.56 shows that, 174 respondents (40.5%) observed that population
growth is the major cause of urbanization, 30 respondents (7.0%) observed it as
that of infrastructural facilities, 39 respondents (9.1%) observed it as good
governance, and 163 respondents (38.0%) observed it as migration, while 23
respondents (5.4%) observed the major cause as job opportunities. The data
indicate that majority of the respondents observed population growth as the
major cause of urbanization in Enugu metropolis, which means that population
growth has been the major factor that causes urbanization.
Table 6.56: Major causes of urbanization
Density HIGH MEDIUM LOW
N/hoods Abakpa
Ogui
L/o
Garrki
Awk.
Asata Uwani Achara
L/o
New
Haven
Trans
Ekulu
GRA Freq %
MAJOR
CAUSE OF
URBANIZATI
ON
Population
growth 50 15 2 15 26 60 5 1 - 174 40.5
Infrastructural
facilities 5 9 1 2 8 3 - 1 1 30 7.0
Good
governance 7 9 7 7 4 3 1 - 1 39 9.1
Migration 56 15 19 5 7 4 19 14 24 163 38.0
Job
opportunities 13 5 - 3 1 1 - - - 23 5.4
Total 131 53 29 32 46 71 25 16 26 429 100.0
Source: Fieldwork, 2014
6.57: Major Causes of Housing Shortage
Table 6.57 shows that, 77 respondents (18.0%) observed that the major
cause of housing shortage is as result of high cost of construction, 101
respondents (23.5%) observed it as high demand for housing, 104 respondents
(24.2%) observed it as rapid population increase, 90 respondents (21.0%)
observed it as limited supply of land, 45 respondents (10.5%) observed it as
lack of income, 12 respondents (2.8%) observed it as lack of infrastructure.
From the indication of the data presented, the rapid population increase is the
major cause of housing shortage in the metropolis.
Table 6.57: Major cause of housing shortage
Density HIGH MEDIUM LOW
N/hoods
Abakpa
Ogui
L/o
Garrki
Awk.
Asata Uwani Achara
L/o
New
Haven
Trans
Ekulu
GRA Freq %
MAJOR
CAUSE OF
HOUSING
SHORTAGE
High cost of
construction 11 8 10 12 9 16 4 - 7 77 18.0
High demand
for housing 21 25 8 5 15 16 5 2 4 101 23.5
Rapid
population
increase 55 8 4 6 11 11 5 - 4 104 24.2
Limited
supply of land 27 6 3 1 5 23 4 13 8 90 21.0
Lack of
income 13 6 4 7 3 4 4 1 3 45 10.5
Lack of
infrastructure 4 - - 1 3 1 3 - - 12 2.8
Total 131 53 29 32 46 71 25 16 26 429 100.0
Source: Fieldwork, 2014
6.58: The Consideration of Determinant Factors of Housing Demand
Table 6.58 and Figure 6.58 provide information on the consideration of
determinant factors by the respondents in their areas; Considering population
growth, 191respondents (44.5%) indicated a very high impact, 123 respondents
(28.7%) indicated high impact, 91 respondents (21.2%) indicated moderate
impact,20 respondents (4.7%) indicated low impact, while 4 respondents (0.9%)
indicated a very low impact. On the Rural – urban migration, 80 respondents
(18.6%) indicated a very high impact, 152 respondents (35.4%) indicated high
impact, 141 respondents (32.9%) indicated moderate impact, 47 respondents
(11.0%) indicated low impact, 5 respondents (1.2%) indicated a very low
impact, while 4 respondents (0.9%) indicated that there is no impact. On the
Urban – urban migration, 49 respondents (11.9%) indicated a very high impact,
121 respondents (28.2%) indicated high impact, 144 respondents (33.6%)
indicated moderate impact, 56 respondents (13.1%) indicated low impact, 27
respondents (6.3%) indicated a very low impact, while 32 respondents (7.5%)
indicated that urban – urban migration has no impact at all. On issue of
Urbanization, 45 respondents (10.5%) indicated a very high impact, 144
respondents (33.6%) indicated high impact, 160 respondents (37.3%) indicated
moderate impact, 52 respondents (12.1%) indicated low impact, 23 respondents
(5.4%) indicated a very low impact, while 5 respondents (1.2%) indicated that
there is no impact. On the household size, 53 respondents (12.4%) indicated a
very high impact, 133 respondents (31.0%) indicated high impact, 158
respondents (36.8%) indicated moderate impact, 67 respondents (15.6%)
indicated low impact, 16 respondents (3.7%) indicated a very low impact, while
2 respondents (0.5%) indicated no impact. On the issue of household formation,
46 respondents (10.7%) indicated a very high impact, 139 respondents (32.4%)
indicated high impact, 157 respondents (36.6%) indicated moderate impact, 58
respondents (13.5%) indicated low impact, and 20 respondents (4.7%) indicated
a very low impact, while 9 respondents indicated that there is no impact.
Table 6.58: The consideration of determinant factors
DETERMINANT FACTORS
Pop.
growth
Rural –
urban
migration
Urban –
urban
migration
Urbanization Household
size
Household
formation
Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq %
Very high 191 44.5 80 18.6 49 11.4 45 10.5 53 12.4 46 10.7
High 123 28.7 152 35.4 121 28.2 144 33.6 133 31.0 139 32.4
Moderate 91 21.2 141 32.9 144 33.6 160 37.3 158 36.8 157 36.6
Low 20 4.7 47 11.0 56 13.1 52 12.1 67 15.6 58 13.5
Very low 4 0.9 5 1.2 27 6.3 23 5.4 16 3.7 20 4.7
Not at all - 0.0 4 0.9 32 7.5 5 1.2 2 0.5 9 2.1
Total 429 100.0 429 100.0 429 100.0 429 100.0 429 100.0
429 100.0
Source: Fieldwork, 2014
Figure 6.58: The incidence of determinant factors
6.59: Variation in Housing Demand among Various Income Groups
Table 6.59 and figure 6.59 show that, 48 respondents (11.2%) indicated that
there is a very high variation in housing demand among various income groups,
142 respondents (33.1%) indicated high variation, 204 respondents (47.6%)
indicated moderate variation, and 28 respondents (6.5%) indicated low
variation, while 7 respondents (1.6%) indicated very low variation.
Table 6.59: Variation in housing demand among various income groups
Density HIGH MEDIUM LOW
N/hoods Abakpa
Ogui
L/o
Garrki
Awk.
Asata Uwani Achara
L/o
New
Haven
Trans
Ekulu
GRA Freq %
VARIATI
ON IN
HOUSING
DEMAND
Very high 24 9 - 1 6 5 - 3 - 48 11.2
High 59 20 13 8 18 10 8 3 3 142 33.1
Moderate 39 19 16 14 20 51 15 8 22 204 47.6
Low 6 4 - 7 2 4 2 2 1 28 6.5
Very low 3 1 - 2 - 1 - - - 7 1.6
Total 131 53 29 32 46 71 25 16 26 429 100.0
Source: Fieldwork, 2014
Figure 6.59: Prevalence of housing demand variation among various
income groups
6.60: Standard of Buildings
Table 6.60 and figure 6.60 show the level of standard of buildings in the
Metropolis, which 115 respondents (26.8%) said, that the standard of building is
of very good, 91 respondents (21.2%) said they are of good standard, 146
respondents (34.0%) said it is of moderate standard, 62 respondents (14.5%)
said it is of poor standard, while 15 respondents (3.5%) said it is of very poor
standard. The data presentation indicates that 115 and 91 respondents (26.8%
and 21.2%) said the standard of buildings is very good and good respectively.
Table 6.60: Standard of buildings
Density HIGH MEDIUM LOW
N/hoods Abakpa
Ogui
L/o
Garrki
Awk.
Asata Uwani Achara
L/o
New
Haven
Trans
Ekulu
GRA Freq %
STANDAR
D OF
BUILDING
S
Very good 14 14 3 15 2 50 6 4 7 115 26.8
Good 42 16 1 3 10 8 4 3 4 91 21.2
Moderate 57 16 13 6 12 13 9 6 14 146 34.0
Poor 18 3 10 5 18 - 4 3 1 62 14.5
Very poor - 4 2 3 4 - 2 - - 15 3.5
Total 131 53 29 32 46 71 25 16 26 429 100.0
Source: Fieldwork, 2014
Figure 6.60: Incidence of building standard
6.61: Nature of Existing Housing Demand
Table 6.61and Figure 6.61 shows assessment of the nature of existing
housing demand, which indicate that, 82 respondents (19.1%) said there is very
high existing housing demand, 152 respondents (35.4%) said it is high, 150
respondents (35.0%) said it is moderate, 39 respondents (9.1%) said it is low,
while 6 respondents (1.4%) said it is very low. The majority of the respondents
said there is high existing housing demand, having 82 and 152 respondents
(19.1% and 35.4%) indicated very high and high existing housing demand
respectively.
Table 6.61: Nature of existing housing demand
Density HIGH MEDIUM LOW
N/hoods Abakpa
Ogui
L/o
Garrki
Awk.
Asata Uwani Achara
L/o
New
Haven
Trans
Ekulu
GRA Freq %
NATURE
OF
EXISTING
HOUSING
DEMAND
Very high 25 7 2 11 3 32 1 1 - 82 19.1
High 61 26 11 3 8 10 7 8 18 152 35.4
Moderate 38 16 16 7 21 27 14 5 6 150 35.0
Low 7 3 - 7 14 2 3 1 2 39 9.1
Very low - 1 - 4 - - - 1 - 6 1.4
Total 131 53 29 32 46 71 25 16 26 429 100.0
Source: Fieldwork, 2014
Figure 6.61: Incidence of existing housing demand
6.62: Existence of Housing Shortage
Table 6.62 shows the opinion of the respondents on the existence of
housing shortage, which 349 respondents (81.4%) said there is existence of
housing shortage, while 80 respondents (18.6%) said that there is no housing
shortage in Enugu metropolis. This data presentation signifies that there is very
high housing shortage.
Table 6.62: Existence of housing shortage
Density HIGH MEDIUM LOW
N/hoods Abakpa
Ogui
L/o
Garrki
Awk.
Asata Uwani Achara
L/o
New
Haven
Trans
Ekulu
GRA Freq %
Existenc
e of
housing
shortage
Yes 112 38 25 26 36 63 17 12 20 349 81.4
No 19 15 4 6 10 8 8 4 6 80 18.6
Total 131 53 29 32 46 71 25 16 26 429 100.0
Source: Fieldwork, 2014
6.63: Recommendation on how to solve the problem of Housing Demand
Table 6.63shows that 83 respondents (19.4%) suggested government
intervention should be the solution, 103 respondents (24.0%) suggested of
provision of housing estates, 179 respondents (41.7%) suggested of provision of
sites and services, 25 respondents(5.8%) suggested of provision of loans and
credit facilities, 30 respondents (7.0%) suggested of rents control measures, 3
respondents (0.7%) suggested of population control, 6 respondents (1.4%)
suggested of promoting commercial housing. The data presentation indicates
that the majority of the respondents (41.7%) thought of provision of sites and
services and as it should be, site and services is the best alternative in tackling
the high housing demand in Enugu metropolis.
Table 6.63: Recommendation to solve the problem of high housing demand
Density HIGH MEDIUM LOW
N/hoods Abakpa
Ogui
L/o
Garrki
Awk.
Asata Uwani Achara
L/o
New
Haven
Trans
Ekulu
GRA Freq %
SOLUTION
TO HIGH
HOUSING
DEMAND
Govt.
intervention 29 16 1 6 7 23 - - 1 83 19.4
Provision
of housing
estates 17 10 20 3 22 11 4 2 14 103 24.0
Provision
of site and
services 71 10 6 8 15 32 18 9 10 179 41.7
Provision
of loans and
credit
facilities 5 6 2 5 1 4 - 1 1 25 5.8
Rents
control
measure 8 10 - 4 1 - 3 4 - 30 7.0
Population
control - 1 - 2 - - - - - 3 0.7
Promote
commercial
housing 1 - - 4 - 1 - - - 6 1.4
Easy access
to land - - - - - - - - - 0 0.0
Total 131 53 29 32 46 71 25 16 26 429 100.0
Source: Fieldwork, 2014
6.64: Existence of slum as one of the problems of high housing demand
Table 6.64 and figure 6.64 show that the opinion of the respondents
regarding the existence of slum as one of the problems of high housing demand.
The data indicate that 65 respondents (15.2%) strongly agreed, that existence of
slum is one of the problems of high housing demand, 137 respondents (31.9%)
agreed, 104 respondents (24.2%) could not decide whether it is due to high
housing demand or not, 79 respondents (18.4%) disagreed on the matter, while
44 respondents (10.3%) strongly disagreed. The data presentation shows that
majority of the respondents agreed on the issue, due the poverty level in the
country as people choose to live in slums whenever there is high housing
demand.
Table 6.64: Existence of slum as one of the problems of high housing
demand
Density HIGH MEDIUM LOW
N/hoods Abakpa
Ogui
L/o
Garrki
Awk.
Asata Uwani Achara
L/o
New
Haven
Trans
Ekulu
GRA Freq %
Existence of
slum is due
to the
problem of
high housing
demand
Strongly
agree 14 4 5 5 10 17 2 4 4 65 15.2
Agree 37 5 10 12 15 40 8 2 8 137 31.9
Undecided 48 11 8 4 8 6 10 3 6 104 24.2
Disagree 26 19 3 7 6 6 4 4 4 79 18.4
Strongly
disagree 6 14 3 4 7 2 1 3 4 44 10.3
Total 131 53 29 32 46 71 25 16 26 429 100.0
Source: Fieldwork, 2014
Figure 6.64: Incidence of existence of slum as one of the problems of high
housing demand
6.70: TESTING OF HYPOTHESES
6.71. Hypothesis 1:
H0 : There is no significant variation in trend of housing demand in Enugu
metropolis
Results: The result of the test of hypothesis suggests that in aggregate, the trend
of housing demand differed significantly over the years in Enugu metropolis, at
less than 0.01 significant level. (See Table 6.71)
Table 6.71 Analysis of variance output table Sum of squares Df Mean Square F Sig.
Between Groups 3.826E10 2 1.913E10 88.763 0.000
Within Groups 6.682E9 31 2.155E8
Total 4.495E10 33
Source: SPSS, 2014.
The ANOVA multiple comparisons output in table 6.72 shows that the mean
differences in housing demand among the three decades were significant at less
than 0.01 level.
Table 6.72 Analysis of Variance Multiple Comparison Output table
(I) Decades (J) Decades
Mean
Difference (I-J)
Standard
Error Significance
95% Confidence Interval
Lower Bound Upper Bound
1st Decade
(1980 - 1989)
2nd Decade (1990 -1999) -2.98716E4 4098.76294 .000 -40736.9708 -19006.2292
3rd Decade (2000 - 2013) -7.90028E4 5875.43335 .000 -94462.0114 -63543.6457
2nd Decade
(1990 -1999)
1st Decade (1980 - 1989) 29871.60000* 4098.76294 .000 19006.2292 40736.9708
3rd Decade (2000 - 2013) -4.91312E4 6252.16532 .000 -65384.7752 -32877.6820
3rd Decade
(2000 - 2013)
1st Decade (1980 - 1989) 79002.82857* 5875.43335 .000 63543.6457 94462.0114
2nd Decade (1990 -1999) 49131.22857* 6252.16532 .000 32877.6820 65384.7752
*The mean difference is significant at the 0.01 level
Source: SPSS, 2014.
The subset of ANOVA analysis in table 6.73 indicated that the housing demand
was highest (172,844 housing units per annum) during the third (2000-2013)
decade. It was followed in descending order by second (1990-1999) and first
(1980-1989) decades with housing demand of 123,713 and 93,841 housing units
per annum respectively. The details of the results were shown in appendix 3.
Table 6.73 Subset of ANOVA analysis
Decades N
Subset for alpha = 0.05
1 2 3
1st Decade (1980 - 1989) 10 93841.1000
2nd Decade (1990 -1999) 10 123712.7000
3rd Decade (2000 - 2013) 14 172843.9286
Source: SPSS, 2014.
6.74. Hypothesis 2:
H0 : There is no significant relationship between housing demand and the
determinant factors of housing demand in Enugu Metropolis.
Results: There was a significant relationship between housing demand and 6
out of 11 determinant factors at 0.01 significant level. (See table 6.74).
Moreover, the standardized coefficient (beta) results of the regression analysis
showed the 6 significant figures. (See table 6.75). The details of the results were
shown in appendix 4
Table 6.74 The result of the six determinant factors
R 2 = 0..988 F – cal = 365.367
Adjusted R2 = 0.985
Standard error = 4500.34366
P = 0.000
α significant = 0.01
Source: SPSS Analysis, 2014
Table 6.75 The relationship between housing demand and six significant
determinant factors
Variable Standardized
Coefficient(β) T P α Sign Comment
Pop. figure per year (X1) 1.037 7.641 .000 < 0.01 Significant
Income (X4) .110 2.927 .007 < 0.01 Significant
Number of schools (X6) .133 2.299 .029 < 0.05 Significant
Public Utilities (X7) .120 2.978 .006 < 0.01 Significant
Security (X8) -.164 -2.785 .010 < 0.01 Significant
Household Size (X10) -.261 -4.152 .000 < 0.01 Significant
Source: SPSS Analysis, 2014
6.76. Hypothesis 3:
H0 : Housing demand does not differ significantly among income groups in
Enugu Metropolis.
Results: The result of the test of hypothesis suggests that in aggregate, Housing
demand differed significantly among various income groups (high, medium and
low) in Enugu metropolis, at less than 0.01 significant level. (See Table 6.76)
Table 6.76 Analysis of variance output table Sum of squares Df Mean Square F Sig.
Between Groups 1.007E11 2 5.036E10 223.835 .000
Within Groups 2.227E10 99 2.250E8
Total 1.230E11 101
Source: SPSS, 2014.
The ANOVA multiple comparisons output in table 6.77 shows that the mean
differences in housing demand among the various income groups (high,
medium and low) in Enugu metropolis were significant at 0.01 level.
Table 6.77 Analysis of Variance Multiple Comparison Output table
(I) Income (J) Income groups Mean Std. Error Sig. 95% Confidence Interval
groups Difference (I-J) Lower Bound Lower Bound
Low income
group
Medium income group 56571.29412* 4400.46796 .000 45622.1520 45622.1520
High income group 73488.97059* 4198.93854 .000 62958.5680 62958.5680
Medium
income group
Low income group -5.65713E4 4400.46796 .000 -67520.4362 -67520.4362
High income group 16917.67647* 1645.84255 .000 12842.3313 12842.3313
High income
group
Low income group -7.34890E4 4198.93854 .000 -84019.3732 -84019.3732
Medium income group -1.69177E4 1645.84255 .000 -20993.0216 -20993.0216
*The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level
Source: SPSS, 2014.
The result of subsets of the ANOVA analysis in table 6.78 indicated that the
low-income group has the highest housing demand (88,406 housing units per
annum). It was followed in descending order by medium – income (31,835
housing units per annum) and high-income (14,917 housing units per annum)
groups. The details of the results were shown in appendix 5
Table 6.78 Subset of ANOVA analysis
Income groups N
Subset for alpha = 0.05
1 2 3
High income group 34 14916.9706
Medium income group 34 31834.6471
Low income group 34 88405.9412
Source: SPPS, 2014.
6.79. Hypothesis 4:
H0 : There is no significant difference in the residents’ perception of the housing
demand in Enugu metropolis.
Results: The results suggest that there existed a significant difference in
residents’ perception of the housing demand in Enugu metropolis at less than
0.05 significant level ( X2 = 167.771; α – Sign =0.000 at p <0.05). [See Table
6.79] .The details of the results were shown in appendix 6.
Table 6.79 The Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 167.771a 32 .000
Likelihood Ratio 151.405 32 .000
Linear-by-Linear
Association
2.719 1 .099
N of Valid Cases 429
Source: SPPS, 2014.
6.80 Discussions
6.81 To examine the trend of housing demand in Enugu Metropolis.
(Objective one)
The results show that there existed significant difference in the housing demand
among the three decades. This implies that the housing demand differed for the
three decades. The mean difference in housing demand (See Table 6.72)
between third and first decade was 79,009 housing units (highest). It was
followed in a descending order by third versus second decade 49,131housing
units and second versus first decade 29,872 housing units.
The subset of ANOVA analysis indicated that the housing demand was highest
(172,844 housing units per annum) during the third (2000-2013) decade and it
was followed in descending order by second (1990-1999) and first (1980-1989)
decades with housing demand of 123,713 and 93,841 housing units per annum
respectively. (See Table 6.73 and Figure 6.71)
Figure 6.71 The mean housing demand among the three decades
The results indicated that there had been differences in the trend of housing
demand over the three decade; the demand for housing was highest in the last
decade of the study. This is as a result of the high increase in population
including inadequate supply of housing in recent years, due to inability of the
policy makers to tackle the problem of housing shortages in the country.
The housing demand increased from the first decade through the second and
third decade, in comparison the first decade had the lowest demand, while the
third decade had the highest demand.
The average housing demand increased by 31.8% in the 2nd decade and 39.7%
in the 3rd decade. This shows an unprecedented increase in housing demand
over the years. A comparison of mean housing demand in each of the decades
shows that the housing demand is still on the high side, due to the fact that
Nigerian population needs 500,000 housing units annually according to
statistics, to meet the demand for housing.
With this increase in housing demand and the housing supply does not match
with the demand, therefore the gap between the supply and demand for housing
will continue to widen in Enugu metropolis.
6.82 To identify factors that influence housing demand (determinants) in
Enugu metropolis. (Objective two)
The results of the hypothesis suggest that there was a very strong relationship
between housing demand and the six of the eleven determinant factors initially
identified in this research. These are Population, Household Size, Security,
Public Utilities, Income and Number of schools. (R 2 = 0.988, significant at
0.01) .This implies that these six aforementioned variables explain 98.8 % of
changes in housing demand. Then Adjusted R2 = 0.985, this indicates 98.5%
certainty in prediction of housing demand (dependent variable), based on the six
aforementioned variables (independent variables). See Table 6.74
As shown in Table 6.75 and Figure 6.72, the six determinant factors
show the following responses to housing demand.
(1) Population responds positively and significantly to the housing demand in
Enugu metropolis [β =1.037; t = 7.641; ρ = 0. 000 (< 0.01 significant level)].
This suggests that as the housing demand increases, the population increases. It
indicates that the elasticity of housing demand for population (1.037), suggests
that a unit increase in population will result to 1.037 unit increase in housing
demand.
(2) Income responds positively and significantly to the housing demand in
Enugu metropolis [β = 0.110; t = 2.927; ρ = 0. 007 (< 0.01 significant level)].
This suggests that as the housing demand increases, the income increases. It
indicates that the elasticity of housing demand for income (0.110), suggests that
a unit increase in the income will result to 0.110 unit increase in housing
demand.
(3) Number of schools responds positively and significantly to the housing
demand in Enugu metropolis [β = 0.133; t = 2.299; ρ = 0. 029 (< 0.05
significant level)]. This suggests that as the housing demand increases, the
number of schools increases. It indicates that the elasticity of housing demand
for Number of schools (0.133), suggests that a unit increase in the Number of
schools will result to 0.133 unit increase in housing demand.
(4) Public Utilities responds positively and significantly to the housing demand
in Enugu metropolis [β = 0.120; t = 2.978; ρ = 0. 006 (< 0.01 significant level)].
This suggests that as the housing demand increases, Public Utilities increases. It
indicates that the elasticity of housing demand for Public Utilities (0.120),
suggests that a unit increase in the Public Utilities will result to 0.120 unit
increase in housing demand.
(5) Security responds negatively and significantly to the housing demand in
Enugu metropolis [β = - 0.164; t = -2.785; ρ = 0. 010 (< 0.01 significant level)].
This suggests that as crime decreases the housing demand increases. This
inverse relationship implies that housing demand increases with decrease in
crime. It indicates that the elasticity of housing demand for Security (0.164),
suggests that a unit increase in the crime will result to 0.164unit decrease in
housing demand.
(6) Household Size responds negatively and significantly to the housing demand
in Enugu metropolis [β = - 0.261; t = - 4.152; ρ = 0.000 (< 0.01 significant
level)]. This suggests that as household size decreases the housing demand
increases. This inverse relationship implies that housing demand increases with
decrease in household Size. It indicates that the elasticity of housing demand for
household size (- 0.261), suggests that a unit increase in the household size will
result to 0.261unit decrease in housing demand.
This automatically indicated that the number of officially recorded crimes
should be discouraged as this negatively affects housing demand in Enugu
metropolis
In Enugu metropolis, there are six factors found to be influencing housing
demand. This included population, income, number of schools, security, public
utilities and household size. After testing eleven factors believed to be
determinant of housing demand, the aforementioned six factors were finally
identified to be significant. This result disapproved the earlier notion that
population is the only or major determinant of the housing demand.
Figure 6.72 Relationship between housing demand and determinant factors
Therefore the housing demand is:
Y = 71647.871(constant) + 1.037(population) x 1 + 0.11 (income) x 1 +
0.133(No of schools) x 1 + 0.12 (public utility) x 1 + - 0.164 (security) x 1 +
- 0.261(household size) x 1 + 4500.344 (standard error) = 76149.19 housing
units per annum.
6.83 To determine whether there is variation in housing demand among
various income groups (high, medium and low) in Enugu metropolis.
(Objective three)
The result of the test of the hypothesis shows that there existed significant
difference in the housing demand among the various income groups. This
implies that the housing demand differed among the various income (low,
medium and high) groups. The mean difference in housing demand (See Table
6.77) between low and high-income groups was 73,489 housing units (highest).
It was followed in a descending order by low versus medium income groups
(56,571housing units) and medium versus high-income groups (16,919 housing
units).
The result of subsets of the ANOVA analysis indicated that the low-
income group has the highest housing demand (88,406 housing units per
annum) and it was followed in descending order by medium – income (31,835
housing units per annum) and high-income (14,917 housing units per annum)
groups. (See table 6.78 and Figure 6.73)
Figure 6.73 The mean housing demand among the three income groups
The study showed that, there had been significant variation in housing demand
among various income groups in Enugu metropolis.
This income groups are the low, medium and high income groups, the study
further showed that the low-income group has the highest rate of housing
demand, followed by the medium and high-income groups. The housing
demand gap between the low and high-income group is much. This is attributed
to income variation, as the low-income groups cannot afford house rent not talk
of owning a house of their own.
The study also showed that the increase in average housing demand in medium
income group is 113.4% higher than that of high-income group, while low-
income group is 177.7% higher than the medium income group.
This proved that there is much differences in the rate of increase in housing
demand among the various income groups.
6.84 To identify residents’ perception of the housing demand in Enugu
metropolis. (Objective Four)
The result of the test of the hypothesis shows that there existed a significant
difference in residents’ perception of the housing demand in Enugu metropolis
( X2 = 167.771; α – Sign =0.000 at p <0.05).
Residents perceived housing demand from different perspectives; some
said it was high, while some said it was low.
The study further indicated that 82 respondents (19.1%) said there was very
high existing housing demand, 152 respondents (35.4%) said it was high, 150
respondents (35.0%) said it was moderate, 39 respondents (9.1%) said it was
low, while 6 respondents (1.4%) said it was very low. The majority of the
respondents said there is high existing housing demand, having 82 and 152
respondents (19.1% and 35.4%) indicated very high and high existing housing
demand respectively. See Table 6.61
This showed that majority of the respondents showed that there was high
housing demand in Enugu metropolis. Then the variation in perception of
housing demand by residents may be due the variation in income earning, which
high placed individuals may not know anything about housing demand since
they have their own houses scattered all over the city.
6.90 Summary of the Findings
The study examined the trend of housing demand in Enugu metropolis
and results showed that the average housing demand increased by 31.8% in the
2nd decade and 39.7% in the 3rd decade, and that the housing demand was
highest in the third decade. This shows an unprecedented increase in housing
demand over the years
The study indentified six variables that are significantly related to
housing demand out of eleven variables earlier applied. These include
Population, Household Size, Security, Public Utilities, Income and Number of
schools.
This has cleared the earlier notion that, population is the only or major
determinant factor of housing demand.
The study also determined the variation in housing demand among the
income (low, medium and high) groups in Enugu metropolis and results showed
that the increase in average housing demand in medium income group is
113.4% higher than that of high-income group, while low-income group is
177.7% higher than the medium income group.
The study also identified residents’ perception of the housing demand in
Enugu metropolis and result indicated that 82 respondents (19.1%) said there
was very high existing housing demand, 152 respondents (35.4%) said it was
high, 150 respondents (35.0%) said it was moderate, 39 respondents (9.1%) said
it was low, while 6 respondents (1.4%) said it was very low. The majority of the
respondents said there is high existing housing demand, having 82 and 152
respondents (19.1% and 35.4%) indicated very high and high existing housing
demand respectively.
7.00: CHAPTER SEVEN: RECOMMENDATIONS AND
CONCLUSION
7.10 Recommendations
Generally, meeting the housing demand has been one of the major
challenges facing Nigeria, due to the fact that over the years, housing demand
has witnessed an unprecedented growth. In a bid to meet the demand,
government embarked on improving the housing supply through various
programmes and schemes. But the efforts have not yielded the desired results
because housing shortages still persist. This has been attributed to the inability
of the policy makers to identify factors that are responsible for phenomenonal
growth of the housing demand, which have made all efforts in tackling housing
demand ineffective. Against this background, the following recommendations
are hereby made:
Provision of adequate housing.
Government should improve its efforts in tackling the problem of housing
demand by providing adequate houses to cushion the effect of housing deficit.
This is because Nigerian population needs 500,000 housing units annually to
meet the demand. Therefore, serious effort should be made in tackling the
housing demand in order to close the gap.
Consideration of the identified determinant factors.
Policy makers should put into consideration the six identified determinant
factors of housing demand (population, income, number of schools, public
utilities, security and household size) in the formulation of future housing
policies and programmes. However, the issue of population been regarded as
the major or the only determinant of housing should be deemphasized, because
other factors exist that influence housing demand. The inculcation of the
identified factors in determining housing demand will in no small measure
enhance the current efforts in solving the problem of housing demand.
Variation in housing demand among the income groups
The problem of the housing demand of the low-income group should be
given priority attention by providing affordable housing for them. This is
because they have the highest housing demand among the three income groups.
This can be achieved by undertaking, within poverty alleviation programmes
through direct and indirect financial assistance.
7.20 Conclusion
This study identified the determinant of housing demand in Enugu
metropolis. It was found that the housing demand differed over period of three
decades from 1980 to 2013. There was also variation in housing demand among
the various income groups. The low-income group had the highest housing
demand among other income groups. It was followed in descending order by
medium income and high-income groups respectively.
Six factors influenced housing demand at 0.01 significant level. These are
population, income, number of schools, public utilities, security and household
size. Four of the six identified factors namely population, income, number of
schools and public utilities responded positively to housing demand. On the
other hand, the remaining two variables (security and household size) responded
negatively to housing demand. This implied that the six factors are the
determinants of housing demand and therefore should be considered in future
housing policies and programmes. Furthermore, the finding has improved the
earlier notion, upon which housing policies and programmes are based, that
population alone is the determinant factor of housing demand. Other identified
factors which also influence housing demand are income, number of schools,
public utilities, security and household size. This finding is the major
contribution of this study to the existing knowledge in housing demand and
supply.
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APPENDIX 1
RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE:
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, ENUGU CAMPUS
DEPARTMENT OF URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING
Dear Respondent,
This questionnaire is for academic purpose in a research topic: “Analysis of Housing Demand in
Enugu Metropolis”. All replies will be treated in the strictest confidence. Please tick the boxes as
appropriate. Thanks.
SECTION A: PERSONAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC DATA
1. What is your area of residence?......................................................................
2. What is your gender? □ Male □ Female
3. What is your age range? □ 18 – 34 □ 35 – 50 □ 51 – 60 □ 61 and above
4. What is your marital status? □ Married □ Single □ Divorced □ Widowed
5. What is your occupation? □ Public servant □ Trader □ Artisan □ Craftsman
□ Technician □ Others specify………………………………
6. What is the level of your Education? □ Primary □ Secondary □ Tertiary
□ Vocational □ Not formally educated
7. What is your household size? □ 1 □ 2 – 4 □ 5 – 7 □ 8 – 10 □ Above 10
8. What type of house do you live in? □ Semi – detached bungalow □ Detached
bungalow □ Tenement room □ Block of flats □ Duplex □ One family unit
9. How many bedrooms does your household live in? □ 1 □ 2 □ 3 □ 4
□ 5 or more
10. What is your monthly income? □ Less than N10, 000 □ N10, 001-N20,000
□ N20,001- N30,000 □ N30,001-N40,000 □ N40,001-N60,000 □ N60,001 -
N80,000 □ N80,001 - N100,000 □ N100,001-N300,000 □ N300,001 and above
SECTION B: THE FACTORS INFLUENCING HOUSING DEMAND IN ENUGU
METROPOLIS
11. Are you an indigene of Enugu Metropolis? □ Yes □ No
12. If No, how long have you lived in Enugu Metropolis?................................
13. How do you consider the rate of migration in Enugu? □ Very High □ High
□ Moderate □ Low □ Very low
14. How does migration affect population growth in your area? □ Very high effect
□ High effect □ Moderate □ Low effect □ Very low effect
15. How do you consider the rate of urbanization in Enugu? □ Very High □ High
□ Moderate □ Low □ Very low
16. What is the major cause of urbanization in Enugu? □ Population growth
□ Infrastructural facilities □ Good governance □ Migration □ Job opportunities
17. What is the major cause of housing shortage in your area? □ High cost of
Construction □ High demand for housing □ Rapid population increase
□ Limited supply of land □ Lack of income □ Lack of infrastructure
18. In your own opinion to what extent do you consider the existing determinant factors of housing demand in your area? (Please tick the scores of the demographic
factors)
DEMOGRAPHIC
FACTORS
SCORES
(Please tick the score of your choice)
(5)
Very
high
(4)
High
(3)
Moderate
(2)
Low
(1)
Very
low
(0)
Not at
all
Population growth
Rural – urban migration
Urban – urban migration
Urbanization
Household size
Household formation
19. How do you consider the variation in housing demand among various income
groups in Enugu? □ Very high □ High □ Moderate □ Low □ Very low
20. How do you consider the standard of your building? □ Very good □ Good
□ Moderate □ Poor □ Very Poor
21. What is the nature of existing housing demand in your areas? □ Very high
□ High □ Moderate □ Low □ Very low
22. Do you think there is shortage of housing in your area? □ Yes □ No
23. What is your recommendation in solving the problem of high housing demand?
□ Government intervention □ Provision of model housing estates □ Provision of
site and services □ Provision of loans and credit facilities □ Rents control measure
□ Population control □ Promote commercial housing □ Easy access to land
□ Others specify……………………………… 24. Do you think that existence of slum is one of the problems of high housing demand?
□ Strongly agree □ Agree □ Undecided □ Disagree □ Strongly disagree
25. In your own opinion to what extent do these factors influence housing demand in
Enugu metropolis? (Please tick the score of your choice for each effect of the
determinant factors of housing demand)
Effects of population growth on
housing demand
SCORES (Please tick the score of your choice)
(5)
Very high
(4)
High
(3)
Moderate
(2)
Low
(1)
Very low
(0)
Not at all
Deterioration of existing houses
Inadequate basic amenities
Poor spatial arrangement
High cost of building materials
Increase in household size
Reduction in the vacancy rate
Deterioration of the infrastructural
facilities
Overcrowding in the households
Settlement choice of the
households
Increase in housing prices
Net investment on housing.
Lack of adequate and affordable
housing
Straining urban infrastructure
Higher net migration
Cost of rent and purchasing of
dwellings
Inadequate supply of housing
Age distribution
Household formation
Acute shortage of living
accommodation.
Difficulty in securing land
High room occupancy rates
High housing rents per housing
unit
Students housing problems
High cost of housing designs and
professional fees
Thank you.
APPENDIX 2
RESULT FOR RELIABILITY ANALYSIS (Cronbach’s Alpha)
Scale: Cronbach's Alpha
Case Processing Summary
N %
Cases Valid 429 100.0
Excludeda 0 .0
Total 429 100.0
a. Listwise deletion based on all variables in the
procedure.
Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's
Alpha N of Items
.832 53
APPENDIX 3
ANOVA RESULT FOR TREND OF HOUSING DEMAND IN ENUGU METROPOLIS
APPENDIX 4
MULTI – LINEAR REGRESSION FOR FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE HOUSING
DEMAND (DETERMINANTS) IN ENUGU METROPOLIS
APPENDIX 5
ANOVA FOR VARIATIONS IN HOUSING DEMAND AMONG VARIOUS INCOME
GROUPS (HIGH, MEDIUM AND LOW) IN ENUGU METROPOLIS
APPENDIX 6
CHI – SQUARE FOR THE RESIDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS OF THE HOUSING DEMAND IN
ENUGU METROPOLIS
Case Processing Summary
Cases
Valid Missing Total
N Percent N Percent N Percent
Area of Residence * Nature of
existing housing demand
429 100.0% 0 .0% 429 100.0%
Chi-Square Tests
Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 167.771a 32 .000
Likelihood Ratio 151.405 32 .000
Linear-by-Linear Association 2.719 1 .099
N of Valid Cases 429
a. 19 cells (42.2%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is .22.
APPENDIX 7
SYNOPSIS
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA SCHOOL OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES
APPLICATION FOR APPROVAL OF TITLE OF DISSERTATION
NAME OF STUDENT CHUKWU, Francis Ogbuna
REGISTRATION NUMBER PG/MURP/10/54613
DEPARTMENT Urban and Regional Planning
FACULTY Environmental Studies
DEGREE IN VIEW Master of Urban and Regional Planning
EXPECTED YEAR OF GRADUATION 2015
PROPOSED TITLE OF DISSERTATION Analysis of Housing Demand in Enugu
Metropolis, Enugu State, Nigeria
SYNOPSIS
INTRODUCTION
Meeting the housing demand has been one of the major challenges facing Nigeria. This is because
housing has been universally accepted as one of the three most essential human needs, the rest being
food and clothing. Over the years, housing demand has witnessed an unprecedented growth. In a bid
to meet the demand, government embarked on improving the housing supply through various
programmes which include site and services scheme, direct housing construction, National Housing
Policy, National Housing Fund scheme and the setting up of Nigerian Building Society. Others
include the establishment of the National Prototype Housing Programme, setting up of the Federal and
State Housing Corporations, creation of the Federal Mortgage Bank of Nigeria, and the Federal
Ministry of Housing and Urban Development, among others. The efforts have not yielded desired
results because housing shortages still persist. Statistics show that about 60% of the Nigerian
population are without adequate shelter. This has been attributed to the inability of the policy makers
to identify factors that are responsible for phenomenonal growth of the housing demand, which have
made all efforts in tackling housing demand ineffective. Moreover, existing studies failed to
empirically establish the factors that determine housing demand. It is necessary to indentify the
factors and the extent they influence housing demand in Nigeria using Enugu as a case study. This is
necessary towards formulation of appropriate policies for efficient provision of affordable housing to
meet the needs of Nigerians. Therefore, this study was aimed at empirically identifing the
determinants of housing demand in Enugu metropolis. To this end, the objectives of the study were to:
(i) examine the trend of housing demand in Enugu Metropolis, (ii) identify factors that influence
housing demand (determinants) in Enugu metropolis, (iii) determine whether there is variation in
housing demand among various income groups (high, medium and low) in Enugu metropolis and (iv)
identify residents’ perception of the housing demand.
METHODOLOGY
Survey design method was adopted for this study. Data used in this study was collected from both
secondary and primary sources. Secondary data were obtained from published materials on housing
demand and its determinants. The primary data on the residents’ perception of the nature of housing
demand was collected with the aid of structured questionnaire, which contained 2 major sections and
53 questions. The questionnaire was validated by the two lecturers in the department of Urban and
Regional Planning, University of Nigeria and a statistician from the department of Planning and
Research in Enugu State Ministry of Environment, who were all experts in the field. The questions
were structured using 5-point Likert scale. Reliability of the test instrument was determined using
Cronbach’s Alpha, which yielded a correlation coefficient of 0.83. The pilot survey was carried out to
test the clarity of the questions on the questionnaire. The study covered a time period of 34 years
(1980 - 2013). The sample size of 460 respondents was determined from the sample frame of 928,127
(the projected city’s population) using William’s formula representing 1% of the population. The
stratified sampling technique was employed in selecting 460 respondents. However, 429
questionnaires were duly completed and retrieved reflecting 93.3% return rate. Three statistical
techniques used in this study were analysis of variance (ANOVA), Multi-linear Regression and Chi
square at 0.05 significant level.
RESULTS The trend of housing demand differed significantly over the years (p < 0.05) in Enugu metropolis. The
housing demand was highest (172,844 housing units per annum) during the third (2000-2013) decade
and it was followed in descending order by second (1990-1999) and first (1980-1989) decades with
housing demand of 123,713 and 93,841 housing units per annum respectively. There was a significant
relationship (p < 0.05) between housing demand and the determinant factors (Population growth,
Income, Institutions, Public utilities, Security and Household size). This implies that the six identified
afore-mentioned factors are the determinants of housing demand in Enugu metropolis. Housing
demand differed significantly (p < 0.05) among various income groups (high, medium and low) in
Enugu metropolis. The low-income group has the highest housing demand (88,406 housing units per
annum) and it was followed in descending order by medium – income (31,835 housing units per
annum) and high-income (14,917 housing units per annum) groups. There was a significant difference
(p < 0.05) in residents’ perception of the housing demand in Enugu metropolis.
Chukwu, Francis Ogbuna
(Student)
Date
Dr. Nwachukwu, M. U.
(Supervisor)
Date
Prof. Uchegbu, S. N.
(Head of department)
Date
Dr. Onyebueke, V. U.
(Faculty Rep: SPGS)
Date