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© Metropolitan East DSP- Chapter Eight (Discussion) draft only March 15, 2004

Analytical DiscussionSocial PurposeWithin the context of history aDiscussion is an analytical text that puts forward andanalyses a range of arguments and evidence which present different views orinterpretations of the past. The purpose of the Analytical Discussion is to reach itsown interpretation of the past based on a careful consideration of all the availableevidence. This may involve putting forward a set of evidence which supports oneinterpretation followed by another set of evidence which supports a differentinterpretation. Further evidence and additional interpretations or perspectives mayalso be considered. Alternatively, a writer may put forward an argument and theevidence that supports it and then immediately counter it by attributing a differentinterpretation to the same evidence or by contrasting it with an opposing argumentand new evidence. In turn, additional arguments or perspectives may be comparedand contrasted. This pattern can continue throughout the text with the writerconsistently setting up an argument and then either critically analysing it in order toshow its strengths and/or limitations or contrasting it with alternative perspectives.In this way the arguments that are surveyed in the Discussion are systematicallyeither confirmed, weakened or refuted altogether. It is only as a result of thisweighing up process that the favoured interpretation is finally proposed.

Discussions are different from Expositions in that they expand the majority ofcounter evidence from a Concession into a full blown Argument Against stage. Inaddition Discussions appear to be taking a more balanced, neutral approach. In fact,their organisation emulates the investigative process whereby both primary andsecondary sources are collected and then critically evaluated in order to build anaccurate picture of the past. In other words, the Thesis/Judgement is only reachedafter considering and debating all the possible sides and angles on the historicalissue. This process is very different from the Exposition text type which works inreverse. In the Exposition, the writer presents his/her picture of the past and thenproves their case by focusing on the evidence that supports it. Thus, althoughcounter evidence or arguments may be acknowledged, the reader is already skewedto consider the counter arguments in relation to the overall thesis. Thus, inExposition the counter argument is conceded but largely dismissed, whereas, in theDiscussion text type, alternative arguments are presented as a serious line ofrefutation and are taken into account in the final weighing up of all the evidence andarguments in order to construct a Thesis/Judgement.


Just as in the Exposition text type, the arguments presented in a Discussion text typeare elaborated upon through reference to historical events, institutions and socialpractices, often through the use of documentary evidence and other primary sourcematerial. Historians’ judgements may also be called upon to give support to thewriter's interpretation. This is particularly common in student writing: by the seniorschool years, the quoting and reporting of established historians is an expectedfeature of most persuasive essays.

We can say, then, that the overall social purpose of a Discussion is to persuadereaders to accept the writer's interpretation of the past as the reasonable and logicaloutcome of a careful consideration of the key evidence and arguments surrounding ahistorical issue or period.

Analytical discussions used in school history writingAnalytical Discussions, like Expositions, are one of the key texts that students areexpected to have mastered by level 6. The NSW 7–10 history syllabus states that bythese years students should be able to read a variety of sources, make judgementsand construct a logical argument. They should also be able to ‘critically comparerepresentations of people, events and issues’ (Strand organiser: Interpretations andPerspectives). Control of this process of historical investigation and the ability toconstruct a written record of it requires control of the Analytical Discussion. As inthe case of the Analytical Exposition text type, students need to collect relevant datain the form of a range of sources, and then to extract and shape key information inorder to produce a logical argument. The difference between the two text types lieslargely in whether the thesis or judgement is placed in first or last position and theimpact this choice has on the selection and treatment of arguments and evidence.

In both the later years of junior secondary school and the senior years, commonassessment tasks for measuring students’ historical knowledge and skills requirewritten Analytical Expositions and Analytical Discussions. This is because they aretexts that reveal how well students are able to follow and document an historicalinvestigation in order to arrive at a particular interpretation. They can also be used toassess how well a student is able to persuade the reader that the interpretation is avalid one. Not surprisingly, then, both Exposition and Discussion essays are keyassessment texts required by HSC exams. For this reason sophisticated control of theAnalytical Discussion text type, as well as the Exposition text type, is critical tostudents' success as they move into senior secondary school and prepare for the


Higher School Certificate. Some examples of questions that students could respondto by writing an Analytical Discussion text type are:

It was by a common effort that the foreign (Persian)invasion was repelled.

To what extent was the defeat of the Persians up to 479 BCthe result of united action by the Greek states?

The Athenian Agora was very much a focus of religious lifein the city. Discuss.

Assess the role of imperial women during the Julio-Claudian period.

The 1920s was a decade of hope. Discuss.

From the sample questions above we can see that students are expected to appraiseand argue the value of a particular interpretative framework for understanding thepast, (for example, the value of interpreting the defeat of the Persians as a result ofunited action by the Greek states, or the value of seeing the Athenian Agora playinga key role as opposed to a minor role in religious life). It may also involve analysingevents from a range of perspectives (for example Was the 1920s equally a decade ofhope from the perspective of America, Germany and England and from theperspective of different groups of people within those countries? ) To carry out suchtasks successfully students need to frame their response as either an AnalyticalExposition, Discussion or Challenge. To respond otherwise, for example to focus onexplaining the cause—effect relationship between united action by the Greek statesand the defeat of the Persians (in other words to write a Factorial Explanation) and toomit the persuasive, argumentative dimension would result in a less highly valuedtext.

As in the case of the Exposition text type, the Analytical Discussion text type mayalso be used as a means to evaluate evidence.

Developing critical literacyIn terms of critical literacy the role of the Analytical Discussion in constructing aninterpretation of the past, and persuading readers to accept it as valid, is one thatstudents must be fully aware of if they are to become critical readers. Once studentshave acquired a set of arguing tools and have developed good control of apersuasive text, these reconstructions of the past can then be critiqued.

Stages in an Analytical Discussion


The social purpose of a Discussion is achieved by moving through three distinctobligatory stages. An optional stage, `Background’ may also occur prior to the Issue.In addition, if more than two perspectives on an issue are explored, the argumentsmay be labelled according to the perspective they take.

• (Background)• Issue• Arguments/Perspectives 1-n• Position

Following are three sample texts (Texts 8.6, 8.7 and 8.8) which are based on essayswritten by Year 10 students. Changes have been made to these essays in order toillustrate typical features of the Analytical Discussion and to show three key ways ofarranging arguments.


Issue

8.6

To what extent was the 1920s a decade ofHope?

The 1920s has been called a decade of hope– by the end of the decade the feeling ofantiwar was very high in most countriesand many treaties had been signed toensure that there would not be anotherwar. However, it can also be argued thatthe twenties had a pessimistic dimensionin that they prepared the world fordepression. Evidence which supports bothviews will, therefore, need to be examinedin order to state the degree to which the1920s can be viewed as a period of hope.This evidence will include an examinationof antiwar feeling, the signing of varioustreaties and pacts and the economicclimate.

ArgumentFor

One of the main forms of evidence thatindicates that the 1920s was a period ofhope was the strength of antiwar feeling.Soon after World War I people around theworld realised just how much a disasterthe war had really been. They hadwitnessed the millions of men who had diedinnocently and they were affected by themillions of dollars that had been spent onthe war. As a result, antiwar feelingincreased in most countries around theworld.

ArgumentFor

Partly as an outcome of antiwar feelingsmany treaties were signed so that the samemistake would not be made again. In 1925the Locarno Pact was signed at Locarno. Itwas a pact between Germany, France,Belgium, Great Britain and Italy. In it,Germany agreed to accept her westernfrontier with France and Belgium as finaland settled. In 1926 Germany joined theLeague of Nations. This was verysignificant because firstly it showed thatthe other nations accepted Germany as acountry and secondly it showed thatGermany was prepared to forget about thepast and cooperate with the other nations.Generally Germany's behaviour was a signalfor the world to have hope for a peacefulfuture.


ArgumentFor

Further evidence for a peaceful future wasthe ‘Dawes’ and ‘Young’ Plans. These planshelped Germany greatly — especially withher economy. Between 1924 and 1929 Germanymade the payments required by the DawesPlan and expanded her economy. In 1929 aninternational committee headed by anAmerican banker, Owen Young, reducedGermany’s reparations from 6.6 billionpounds to 2 billion pounds to be paid offby 1988. Not surprisingly, the plan waswelcomed by Germany.

ArgumentAgainst

Having looked at the recovery of World WarI and the way in which the 1920s gave hopeto people, the depression, and thepessimism that arose out of this will nowbe considered.

The major piece of evidence thatchallenges the definition of the 1920s asa period of hope was the lead up to thedepression. Under the strain of the war,the European economies had collapsed andneeded a huge boost. Therefore the USAcame to the rescue with giant loans to theAllies. In order to make repayments to theUSA the Allies made Germany pay heavyreparations. For Germany to do this itrelied on huge loans from the USA. Theoutcome was a system that depended on theUSA: if the USA suddenly lost all itsfunds then the whole ‘payback’ systemwould break down and the world wouldexperience economic problems.

ArgumentAgainst

Eventually the breakdown of the repaymentsystem occurred. In October 1929 theAmerican stock market collapsed. Americanslost confidence and called in their loansto Europe. As a result a number ofEuropean banks collapsed which meant manyof their clients were unable to retrievetheir savings.

ArgumentAgainst

Evidence of the despair and depressionthat resulted from these losses wasplentiful: people had little to spend,businesses were unable to sell theirgoods, and production was cut. Many firmshad to close completely. As a result, thenumber of unemployed rose quickly to highlevels.


Position An analysis of the evidence above showsthat the 1920s was to some extent a decadeof hope. Antiwar feeling and a belief thatpotential causes of war were being removedwere both indications of this. However, itis also clear that the 1920s heralded thedepression. This was due to the increasingdependence of the European countries onthe United States and the effect on thesecountries of the stock market crash.

Text 8.6: Analytical Discussion – Example 1.


Issue

8.7

To what extent was the 1920s a decade ofHope?

The 1920s has been called a decade of hope— by the end of the decade the feeling ofantiwar was very high in most countries,many treaties had been signed to ensurethat there would not be another war andthere was great economic growth. However,it can also be argued that the twentieshad a pessimistic dimension in that theyprepared the world for further conflictand depression. Evidence which supportsboth views therefore needs to be examinedin order to state the degree to which the1920s can be viewed as a period of hope.This evidence will include an examinationof antiwar feeling, the signing of varioustreaties and pacts and the economicclimate.

ArgumentFor

One of the main forms of evidence thatindicates that the 1920s was a period ofhope was the strength of antiwar feeling.Soon after World War I people around theworld realised just how much a disasterthe war had really been. They hadwitnessed the millions of men who had diedinnocently and they were affected by themillions of dollars that had been spent onthe war. As a result, anti war feelingincreased in most countries around theworld.

ArgumentFor

Partly as an outcome of antiwar feelingsmany treaties were signed so that the samemistake would not be made again. In 1925the Locarno Pact was signed at Locarno. Itwas a pact between Germany, France,Belgium, Great Britain and Italy. In it,Germany agreed to accept her westernfrontier with France and Belgium as finaland settled. In 1926 Germany joined theLeague of Nations. This was verysignificant because, firstly it showedthat the other nations accepted Germany asa country and secondly it indicated thatGermany was prepared to forget about thepast and cooperate with the other nations.


ArgumentAgainst

However, even though the signing of theLocarno Pact and Germany’s joining of theLeague of Nations can be interpreted asstrong evidence for hope in a peacefulfuture, these events can also be seen asevidence of future conflict. For example,in relation to the Locarno Pact, althoughits aim was to maintain peace withinEurope, many people were aware that thePact would not have the power to preventGermany from invading another country.

ArgumentAgainst

With regard to the establishment of theLeague of Nations it can also be arguedthat its goals of collective security andinternational cooperation were unlikely tobe fulfilled. One reason for this wasthat, among many German people, feelingsof resentment and hostility were farstronger than a desire for cooperation andpeace. This was due to the harshness ofthe Treaty of Versailles which had broughthuge reparations together with loss ofland, population and valuable industries.As a result, German commitment to theLeague and its goals was questioned by theother countries. Another reason forpeoples’ lack of hope in the League wasAmerica’s decision not to join. Thisdecision meant the League did not have thedirect support of America, a countrywhich, after it had displayed its power tostop World War I, was one of the mostfeared in the world. Thus, even thoughGermany's behaviour in terms of signingthe Locarno Pact and joining the Leagueof Nations appeared to be a signal for theworld to have hope for a peaceful future,it can be argued that it did notsufficiently quell many people's fear thatGerman resentment and hostility wouldmanifest itself in future conflict.


ArgumentFor

The third main argument for interpretingthe 1920s as a period of hope was thegeneral economic growth across Europe. Inparticular, the ‘Dawes’ and ‘Young’ Planswere instrumental in assisting growthwithin Germany. Between 1924 and 1929Germany made the payments required by theDawes Plan and expanded her economy. In1929 an international committee headed byan American banker, Owen Young, reducedGermany’s reparations from 6.6 billionpounds to 2 billion pounds to be paid offby 1988. Within the Allied countries,American loans led to a significantincrease in production, trade and personalincomes. This was strong evidence for the1920s being viewed as a period ofoptimism.

ArgumentAgainst

On the other hand, this payback system canalso be seen as evidence of futureeconomic disaster. This was because, inorder for the Allies to make repayments tothe USA, they had to make Germany paytheir heavy reparations. To do this,Germany also relied on huge loans from theUSA. The overall outcome was a paybacksystem that depended on the USA. Thus itwas obvious to many people that if the USAsuddenly lost all its funds the whole‘payback’ system would break down and theworld would experience economic problems.This did of course occur in October 1929when the American stock market collapsed.The results of this collapse included theclosure of many firms and businesses, adecrease in production and a sharpincrease in the number of unemployed.Thus, whilst at first the economic boommay have led to hope among some people, oncloser analysis it is clear that theinherent risk of the payback systemresulted in a cynical response from manyothers.


Position An analysis of the evidence above showsthat the 1920s were only to some extent adecade of hope. Although anti-war feeling,a belief that the potential causes of warwere being removed and initial economicrecovery were all indications of hope, itis also clear from the evidence that, formany people across Europe, this hope was,at best, tenuous. This was due to the lackof confidence in both the Locarno Pact andthe League of Nations. In addition, it wasobvious to many, that economic depressionwas the inevitable result of theincreasing financial dependence of theEuropean countries on the United States ofAmerica.

Text 8.7 Analytical Discussion – Example 2


Background(optional)

8.8

The main effects of World War I weresignificant factors in determiningattitudes and degrees of optimism and hopein the 1920s. There were factors whichgreatly contributed to the feeling ofhopelessness at the conclusion of theFirst World War, including the loss ofsome ten million lives and the economiclosses of over $180 billion (Mills, 1984,p.25). Also, the defeated countries wereruined while the victors, apart from theUnited States of America, suffered variousdegrees of bankruptcy. The Allies,particularly Britain and France, soughtrevenge on Germany.

Issue In discussing the question as to whatextent the 1920s was a decade of hope, itis necessary to examine the perspectivesof the countries of the United States ofAmerica, Great Britain and Germany inrelation to their respective participationin the peace settlements of World War 1,and in relation to their foreign policies.


PerspectiveOne

Firstly, from the perspective of theUnited States, it can be argued that thisis reflected in their participation in thepeace settlements and in foreign affairsin the 1920s.

In his dealings with the Allied leaders atthe Versailles Peace Conference in 1919,from which the defeated Germany wasexcluded, the American President, Wilson,did not wish to impose heavy penalties onGermany. He hoped that his fourteen pointsfor peace would be accepted by the Allies,and that a lenient peace would help Germaneconomic recovery and so make world peacemore secure. Despite the fact thatWilson’s plan for the creation of theLeague of Nations was accepted, Wilson wasoutmanoeuvred by the Allies and thesettlement was made a great deal lessgenerous that he would have liked. Inaddition, many Americans wanted to returnto a policy of isolation in order to avoidfuture wars, and consequently Wilson’shopes for acceptance of the League ofNations on the part of the United Stateswere destroyed when the Senate votedagainst United States participation in theLeague in 1920.

Under President Harding, the United Stateswas greatly influenced by the policy offoreign isolationism with its refusal tojoin the Court of International Justice in1922 and in 1927 and in the heavyrestrictions imposed on the number ofimmigrants entering the United States.Fortunately, some hopes for internationalpeace were realised when Dawes, anAmerican, devised a plan whereby Germany,with the aid of American loans, would payoff a reduced debt by instalments, andwhen the United States became furtherinvolved in the problem of reparations in1929 with the Young Plan setting up asliding scale of repayments. However,these plans collapsed and hopes were oncemore destroyed with the coming of the WallStreet Crash in 1929. Thus it can be seenfrom the evidence above that despiteAmerica’s attempts to create peace andstability, hope for a peaceful futuregradually faded.


PerspectiveTwo

From the British perspective, it can alsobe argued that although there was somehope in the 1920s, it was also a decade ofdespair and disillusionment. For example,the British Prime Minister, Lloyd George,only adopted two of Wilson’s fourteenpoints at the Paris Peace Conference,these points being national self-determination and the general associationof nations. Hopes for peace were furtherlost when the British government requiredthat the German navy should be annihilatedand the German army limited. Britainwanted Germany to pay, forcing extremelyharsh reparations on her through theTreaty of Versailles. In addition, theBritish government’s imperialist ambitionsand activities and responses to problemsin Ireland and India brought shame anddisillusionment to many people. The affectof these policies on the Britishpopulation are a clear signal that by theend of the 1920s there was little hope.


PerspectiveThree

Thirdly, from the German perspective, theterms of the Treaty of Versailles wereintolerable and quite hopeless. TheGermans felt bitter and humiliated. Theywere particularly upset by the severeterritorial losses, including the lossesto Poland in the east, and Germany beingsplit into two by the Polish Corridor.They also complained that the Allies weretrying to bankrupt Germany and to destroythe Weimar Republic with the extremelyhigh reparation claims; that the terms ofthe Treaty of Versailles were worked outin secret and forced upon the Germans;that all Germany’s colonies were takenfrom her; and that the Germans had toaccept blame for the war and had to disarmwithout any guarantee that their Alliedneighbours would do likewise (Mills, 1984,p.23). Many Germans never forgave thepoliticians who signed the peace treatyfor them, the Weimar Republic was run bytraitors. The Weimar Republic was alsobeset with extreme inflation andunemployment.

Later in the 1920s, there was the returnof some hope, short-lived and tenuous asit was. This was in the form of aid in thepayment of reparations and in the economygenerally through the Dawes Report of 1924and the Young Plan of 1929. Also, Germanywas permitted to join the League ofNations in 1926, and to sign the Kellogg-Briand Pact in 1928, this pact renouncingwar. There was also reason for some hopewith the positive response to thepublication of the antiwar novel, AllQuiet on the Western Front, written by theGerman, Erich Maria Remarque. However,with the onset of the Wall Street Crashand the Great Depression in 1929, hopeswere once again lost for Germany.


Position In conclusion it is clear that the extentto which the 1920s can be characterised asa decade of hope largely depends on theperspective taken. Thus, from theperspective of the United States and GreatBritain, it can be argued that althoughthere was some hope and optimism in theearlier part of the 1920s, this hadlargely faded by the end of the decade. Incontrast, the analysis above shows that,from Germany’s viewpoint, there wasvirtually no hope at the conclusion ofWorld War 1 and despite some hope as aresult of reparation payments in thesecond half of the 1920s, this was shortlived; by the end of the decade there wasgeneral disillusionment.

Text 8.8: Analytical Discussion – Example 3

The purpose of each stageThe Background stage of an Analytical Discussion is an optional stage which, wherenecessary, serves to provide a context for the historical issue that is the focus of thetext.

The Issue stage of a Discussion puts forward, in summary form, two or morepossible interpretations of the past. They are the interpretations that will be analysedin the body of the essay in order to reach a conclusion.

The function of the Arguments stage is to put forward a series of arguments andevidence that, as a whole, will convince the reader to accept the writer's finalinterpretation which will be put forward in the Position stage. Some AnalyticalDiscussions separate the arguments by presenting first one set of arguments thatsupport one perspective on the issue and then a second set of arguments whichsupport a different perspective on the issue. This is the case in Text 8.6. Text 8.7, onthe other hand, alternates arguments for and against. Likewise in Text 8.8 threedifferent perspectives are weaved together so that one argument and perspective canbe evaluated in relation to the others. This gives the writer the opportunity tocontinually weigh up and evaluate, which strengthens the final Position. Thesepatterns are shown in Table 8.4.


Text 8.6 Text 8.7 Text 8.8

Issue

Argument For

Argument For

Argument For

Argument Against

Argument Against

Argument Against

Position

Issue

Argument For

Argument For

Argument Against

Argument Against

Argument For

Argument Against

Position

Background

Perspective 1

Perspective 2

Perspective 3

Position

Table 8.4: Patterns of arguments in Analytical Discussions

In an Analytical Discussion text type the arguments and evidence put forward arecritically evaluated or challenged either by considering the same events from adifferent perspective or angle or by presenting different events and informationwhich counter a particular argument or present an alternative perspective. In thisway it appears the issue is being explored from a neutral or disinterested position.However, generally, the writer is subtly weighting the arguments and evidence todirect the reader towards the final Position that has already been decided upon. Forthis reason the arguments and counter arguments are not necessarily equal. Inaddition, the ordering patterns may play a key role, for example whether thearguments for or against are placed in first, or Theme position in the text.

In terms of the evidence that is used to inform the arguments, typically it comprisescondensed Historical Recounts or Accounts, Reports and Explanations.

The Position stage is the point at which the final interpretation is put forward. It ispresented as the logical outcome of the canvassing and critical evaluation of a rangeof arguments and evidence that took place in the body of the essay. The success orfailure of the writer in persuading the reader to agree with the Position depends, ofcourse, upon the relative weight of evidence and arguing strategies used to support


the alternative perspectives. In the Position stage the main arguments are oftenpicked up and summarised before a final judgement or thesis is made. In a two sidedDiscussion, the thesis may totally support one or other side or arrive at a pointbetween the two poles. Likewise, in a multisided Discussion, one or moreperspectives may be favoured over the rest. Alternatively each perspective may beseen as a relative `truth’.

Amplification is a typical part of this stage. It functions to show the degree to whicha thesis and evidence holds true, for example:

an analysis of the evidence above shows that the 1920swere only, to some extent, a decade of hope

How the Context of Situation aaffects the language choices?Field and language choice: Building a picture of the worldIn Texts 8.6, 8.7 and 8.8 the Field is the same set of historical events as in theExposition text type we examined in the first section of this chapter. It is, therefore, atypical historical text that constructs the past in terms of change and continuity aswell as presenting causal links between events.

The language resources in the sample Discussion texts which construct a largelyabstract world of specialised legal and bureaucratic processes in which people arelargely erased, are the same as those described in the section on the Exposition texttype (namely, Specialised terms and Participants realised by abstract nouns andNominalisation).

Likewise, the resources for constructing time, change and continuity, as well ascausality are the same as those described for the Exposition.

Tenor and language: How the writer relates to the readerIn an Analytical Discussion a range of arguments and evidence is included in orderto give the impression that Discussions weigh up evidence in a rational, balancedway before passing a judgement. These arguments and evidence are evaluatedthroughout the essay in order to steer the reader towards the final interpretation thatis presented in the Position stage. Thus some arguments are given more weight thanothers. Control over resources for both strengthening and weakening arguments iscritical if students are to successfully persuade their readers to agree with theirparticular point of view. As in the Exposition text type, other persuasive strategiesinclude making assessments and maintaining an ‘objective’ voice.


It is this use of various types of persuasive strategies at both the level of text and thelevel of clause that distinguishes Discussions, together with Expositions andChallenges from other types of historical writing.In order to persuade the reader to agree with a point of view, the writer must includeevidence to support the arguments that are made. We have already stated thatevidence in history largely consists of events, social practices and institutions. Thisinformation is gathered from a variety of sources, both primary and secondary.Relevant data is then selected and incorporated into a persuading text. Thisintegration is achieved through the use of a variety of language resources. In thissection we look at how condensed or ‘mini’ text types can rework the data collectedinto the arguments stage of a Discussion. Information that is integrated in this waymay be attributed to a particular source and explicitly referencedand we look at whyand how sources are acknowledged in our description of the Challenge text typewhich follows. In this section our focus is on how the evidence is packaged as acondensed text type, such as an Historical Recount or Account, a Report or anExplanation.

Packaging evidence as a ‘mini’-Historical Recount/AccountIn history a common form of evidence is to recount a series of events as theyunfolded over time. Causal links between these events may also be made explicit. Inaddition, the final section of a `for’ or ‘against’ argument may act as a deduction,drawing out the significance of the events that were recorded. In short, a ‘mini-Historical Recount or Account can be drawn on as powerful support for anargument. Here are some examples taken from the sample texts:


ArgumentFor

Partly as an outcome of antiwarfeelings many treaties were signed sothat the same mistake would not bemade again. In 1925 the Locarno Pactwas signed at Locarno. It was a pactbetween Germany, France, Belgium,Great Britain and Italy. In it,Germany agreed to accept her westernfrontier with France and Belgium asfinal and settled. In 1926 Germanyjoined the League of Nations. This wasvery significant because firstly itshowed that the other nations acceptedGermany as a country and secondly itshowed that Germany was prepared toforget about the past and cooperatewith the other nations. GenerallyGermany's behaviour was a signal forthe world to have hope for a peacefulfuture.

Event 1

Event 2

Deduction

Example 1: Historical Recount (from Text 8.6)

ArgumentFor

The third main argument forinterpreting the 1920s as a period ofhope was the general economic growthacross Europe. In particular, the‘Dawes’ and ‘Young’ Plans wereinstrumental in assisting growthwithin Germany. Between 1924 and 1929Germany made the payments required bythe Dawes Plan and expanded hereconomy. In 1929 an internationalcommittee headed by an Americanbanker, Owen Young, reduced Germany'sreparations from 6.6 billion pounds to2 billion pounds to be paid off by1988. Within the Allied countries,American loans led to a significantincrease in production, trade andpersonal incomes. This was strongevidence for the 1920s being viewed asa period of optimism.

Event 1

Event 2

Event 3

Deduction

Example 2: Historical Recount (from Text 8.7)


A time line may be used not only as evidence for a single argument but may runthrough two or more arguments as illustrated in Example 3 . This elasticity, wherebya time line may be compressed to serve at the level of an argument or may beexpanded to serve at the level of an entire text, makes it a powerful form of evidence.This is largely because events on a time line are difficult to dispute. They are seen asan uncontroversial record of the past and accepted as factual, unbiased history.However, as we have seen in Chapter Five, Chronicling History it is the process ofselection, construction and deduction which enables Recounts and Accounts toposition the reader. In example 3 cause and effect links are in bold.

ArgumentFor

One of the main forms of evidence thatindicates that the 1920s was a periodof hope was the strength of antiwarfeeling. Soon after World War I peoplearound the world realised just howmuch a disaster the war had reallybeen. They had witnessed the millionsof men who had died innocently andthey were affected by the millions ofdollars that had been spent on thewar. As a result,anti war feelingincreased in most countries around theworld.

AccountSequence

Event 1

Event 2

ArgumentFor

Partly as an outcome of antiwarfeelings many treaties were signed sothat the same mistake would not bemade again. In 1925 the Locarno Pactwas signed at Locarno. It was a pactbetween Germany, France, Belgium,Great Britain and Italy. In it,Germany agreed to accept her westernfrontier with France and Belgium asfinal and settled. In 1926 Germanyjoined the League of Nations. This wasvery significant because firstly itshowed that the other nations acceptedGermany as a country and secondly itshowed that Germany was prepared toforget about the past and cooperatewith the other nations. GenerallyGermany’s behaviour was a signal forthe world to have hope for a peacefulfuture.

Event 3

Event 4Deduction

Example 3: Historical Account (from Text 8.6)(cause and effect links are in bold)

Packaging evidence as a ‘mini’Factorial or Consequential ExplanationFactorial and Consequential Explanations frequently appear in a condensed form tosupport an argument. In the example below from Text 8.7 the outcome is put


forward as a hypothesis and reasons or factors are used to strengthen and makereasonable the hypothesised outcome.

ArgumentAgainst

With regard to the establishment of theLeague of Nations it can also be arguedthat its goals of collective securityand international cooperation wereunlikely to be fulfilled. One reasonfor this was that, among many Germanpeople, feelings of resentment andhostility were far stronger than adesire for cooperation and peace. Thiswas due to the harshness of the Treatyof Versailles which had brought hugereparations together with loss of land,population and valuable industries. Asa result, German commitment to theLeague and its goals was questioned bythe other countries. Another reason forpeople’s lack of hope in the League wasAmerica's decision not to join. Thisdecision meant the League did not havethe direct support of America, acountry which, after it had displayedits power to stop World War I, was oneof the most feared in the world. Thus,even though Germany's behaviour interms of signing the Locarno Pact andjoining the League of Nations appearedto be a signal for the world to havehope for a peaceful future, it can beargued that it did not sufficientlyquell many people's fear that Germanresentment and hostility would manifestitself in future conflict.

Outcome

Factor 1

Factor 2

Packaging evidence as a ‘mini’- ReportAlthough Reports are commonly used as a way of packaging evidence in theDiscussion and Exposition text types, our sample texts rely more on Recounts,Accounts and Explanations as support for their arguments.

Weakening evidence the role of Dependent clausesAs we have already noted in the section on Exposition text type, one resource thatcan be used to diminish or qualify the power of evidence is to construct it as aDependent clause. In a Discussion text type this is a resource that may be used toweight the evidence discussed in the main body of the essay in a way that will matchthe final thesis. Typically, in a Discussion text type, evidence is referred to in thisway after it has already been introduced and elaborated. That is, it is only weakenedin a Dependent clause as a means of summarising it and bringing it into relationshipwith another contrasting argument. For example, in Text 8.6, Germany's signing of


the Locarno Pact and joining of the League of Nations is at first put forward asevidence that the 1920s were a decade of hope. After being challenged throughcounter evidence, this position is then re-evaluated:

Thus, even though Germany's behaviour in terms of signingthe Locarno Pact and joining the League of Nationsappeared to be a signal for the world to have hope for apeaceful future, it can be argued that it did notsufficiently quell many people's fear that Germanresentment and hostility would manifest itself in futureconflict.

This pattern is repeated with regard to the third main argument – economic growth :

Thus, whilst at first the economic boom may have led tohope among some people, on closer analysis it is clearthat the inherent risk of the payback system resulted in acynical response from many others.

In the final Position stage, the arguments for the 1920s being a period of hope aresummarised and constructed as a dependent clause. In this way they are weakened:

Although antiwar feeling, a belief that the potentialcauses of war were being removed and initial economicrecovery were all indications of hope, it is also clearfrom the evidence that, for many people across Europe,this hope was, at best, tenuous.

Weakening and strengthening evidence – the role of making deductionsAs we have already noted above, Recounts and Accounts are a typical means ofproviding support for arguments. We have also seen that, as part of theRecount/Account, the optional stage of Deduction may be included. Typically thisDeduction, whereby the significance of the events that were recorded is drawn out,occurs in the final stage of a section — the Section Review. In both Exposition andDiscussion essays this Deduction stage plays an important role in weighing upevidence and in ‘proving’ the argument put forward and thus, in turn, ‘proving’ thethesis. In Discussion essays that alternate different points of view on an issue, itplays a particularly important role in preparing the reader for the final Position. Thisis because it serves to synthesise and weigh up different sides of an issue at differentpoints in the essay. This places less pressure on the Position stage to gather togetherand weigh up evidence from the whole text. Deductions may follow a ‘mini’-Recount, Account, Report or Explanation. Here are some examples:


Record ofEvents

Deduction

Partly as an outcome of antiwar feelingsmany treaties were signed so that the samemistake would not be made again. In 1925the ‘Locarno Pact’ was signed at Locarno.It was a pact between Germany, France,Belgium, Great Britain and Italy. In it,Germany agreed to accept her westernfrontier with France and Belgium as finaland settled. In 1926 Germany joined theLeague of Nations. This was verysignificant because, firstly it showedthat the other nations accepted Germany asa country and secondly it indicated thatGermany was prepared to forget about thepast and cooperate with the other nations.

Paragraph 3 from Text 8.7

Outcome

Factors

Deduction

With regard to the establishment of the Leagueof Nations it can also be argued that itsgoals of collective security and internationalcooperation were unlikely to be fulfilled. Onereason for this was that, among many Germanpeople, feelings of resentment and hostilitywere far stronger than a desire forcooperation and peace. This was due to theharshness of the Treaty of Versailles whichhad brought huge reparations together withloss of land, population and valuableindustries. As a result, German commitment tothe League and its goals was questioned by theother countries. Another reason for peoples’lack of hope in the League was America’sdecision not to join. This decision meant theleague did not have the direct support ofAmerica, a country which, after it haddisplayed its power to stop World War I, wasone of the most feared in the world. Thus,even though Germany's behaviour in terms ofsigning the Locarno Pact and joining theLeague of Nations appeared to be a signal forthe world to have hope for a peaceful future,it can be argued that it did not sufficientlyquell many people's fear that Germanresentment and hostility would manifest itselfin future conflict.

Paragraph 5- From Text 8.7

Deductions may be used to strengthen or weaken an argument. This is an importantpersuasive strategy — deductions linked to arguments that counteract the Positionin a Discussion need to be weakened. Deductions linked to arguments that support


the thesis, on the other hand, need to be strengthened. Two of the languageresources used to make the deduction more, or less, convincing are choice of Processand Appraisal, particularly Modality and Valuation.

In the example below the deduction made is that Germany's behaviour (with regardto signing pacts and joining the League of Nations) is ‘very significant’. The choice ofthe intensifier ‘very’ does, of course, strengthen the Attribute and therefore thededuction. Intensifiers such as ‘quite’ (as in quite significant) or an absence ofintensifiers would have coloured the deduction very differently. Likewise, the choiceof Process in elaborating the significance of the deduction contributes to its strengthor weakness. For instance, in the example below, whilst ‘showed’ is fairly neutral wecan say that there is an element of tentativeness in the Process ‘indicated’.

This was very significant because, firstly it showed thatthe other nations accepted Germany as a country andsecondly it indicated that Germany was prepared to forgetabout the past and cooperate with the other nations.

Figure 8.1 shows how the Processes that are typically used in the construction ofdeductions may be placed along a continuum from weaker to stronger.

Weaker Stronger---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------indicate signal demonstrate provesuggest sign show

Figure 8.1: Continuum of Processes

Modality is another device for grading a deduction. In the following example thechoice of ‘appeared to be’ casts doubt on a deduction made earlier in the text.

Deduction madeearlier in thetext

This was very significant because, firstlyit showed that the other nations acceptedGermany as a country and secondly itindicated that Germany was prepared toforget about the past and cooperate with theother nations.

Thus, even though Germany’s behaviour interms of signing the Locarno Pact andjoining the League of Nations appeared to bea signal for the world to have hope for apeaceful future, it can be argued that itdid not sufficiently quell many peoples’fear that German resentment and hostilitywould manifest itself in future conflict.


This extract above also illustrates the turning of a Process of deduction into a Thingin this case a ‘signal’. A Thing can, of course, be described. Often choices are madefrom the Valuation system. For example a ‘clear signal’, a ‘good sign’.

In the sample deductions above the source of the deductions is the historical eventitself. There are no references to the writer or other historians as the interpreters ofthe events. This process of naturalising the interpretive process has already beendiscussed in the section on Analytical Exposition.

Apart from being directly linked to historical events, deductions may also beattributed to established historians. As we will see in the sections on the role ofquoting, reporting and acknowledging in the Challenge Ttext type discussion,deductions made by historians which are integrated into a text to form part of anargument or act as evidence to support the argument may be strengthened orweakened (or more or less ‘endorsed’).

Making assessmentsIf we look at the pattern of Modality in sample Text 8.6 we can see how it is similarto that displayed in the sample Exposition (Text 8.1). That is, all of the argumentsthat are called upon to support the overall thesis are presented in absolute terms.Only the thesis draws attention to the interpretive process:

However, it can also be argued that the twenties had apessimistic dimension

Evidence which supports both views will, therefore, needto be examined in order to state the degree to which the1920s can be viewed as a period of hope

In Texts 8.7 and 8.8, however, the distribution of Modality is quite different. Most ofthe arguments put forward to counter previous evidence draw attention to the factthat events can be interpreted in different ways. In other words, deductions can bechallenged. Here are some examples from Text 8.7.

…even though signing the Locarno Pact and Germany'sjoining the League of Nations can be interpreted as strongevidence for hope in a peaceful future, these events canalso be seen as evidence of future conflict.

With regard to the establishment of the League of Nationsit can also be argued that its goals of collectivesecurity and international cooperation were unlikely to befulfilled.


Thus, even though Germany's behaviour in terms of signingthe Locarno Pact and joining the League of Nationsappeared to be a signal for the world to have hope for apeaceful future, it can be argued that it did notsufficiently quell many people's fear that Germanresentment and hostility would manifest itself in futureconflict.

On the other hand, this payback system can also be seen asevidence of future economic disaster.

Thus, whilst at first the economic boom may have led tohope among some people, on closer analysis it is clearthat the inherent risk of the payback system resulted in acynical response from many others.

Constructing an ‘objective’ voiceAs in the case of the Exposition text type the authorial voice of an AnalyticalDiscussion text type is generally unobtrusive with the writer making very littleexplicit appraisal that can be directly attributed to him or her. For a full discussionof language resources used to construct a seemingly neutral, unbiased voice, see thesections on ‘Tokens of Appraisal’ in Chapter Four — Interpretations and Perspectives.

Mode and language choice: Organising the textAnalytical Discussions tend not to organise historical events and issues along a timeline. Just as reasons and factors are the pegs on which information is hung inExplanation text types, arguments and evidence are the organising principles in thepersuading text types. In a Discussion text type, arguments and evidence are madecohesive through the use of Theme (Text and Section Previews and clause levelTheme) as well as Text sequencing words.

Text Preview/Macro themeIn the Issue stage of the sample Texts 8.6, 8.7 and 8.8 , there is a section thatforeshadows the order and type of arguments or evidence that will be elaboratedupon. This use of a Text Preview is common in the Discussion text type. In theArguments stage of the text, each of the arguments listed in the Text Preview becomeSection Previews. This relationship between Text and Section Previews helps to bindthe text together. Table 8.6, based on Text 8.7, illustrates the relationship between theparts of the text.


See photocopy No 25 Draw in arrows!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

Table 8.6: Relationship between Text and Section Previews

Text Preview This evidence will include an examination of antiwarfeeling, the signing of various treaties and pacts and theeconomic climate.

Paragraph 2Section Preview

One of the main forms of evidence that indicates that the1920s was a period of hope was the strength of antiwarfeeling.


Partly as an outcome of antiwar feelings many treatieswere signed so that the same mistake would not be madeagain.


However, even though the signing of the Locarno Pact andGermany’s joining of the League of Nations can beinterpreted as strong evidence for hope in a peacefulfuture, these events can also be seen as evidence of futureconflict.


With regard to the establishment of the League of Nationsit can also be argued that its goals of collective security andinternational cooperation were unlikely to be fulfilled.


The third main argument for interpreting the 1920s as aperiod of hope was the general economic growth acrossEurope.


On the other hand, this payback system can also be seen asevidence of future economic disaster.

Text sequencing words and text comparing wordsThe sample Discussion texts use typical text sequencing words which are placed infirst (or Theme) position in many of the Section Previews. In addition, in aDiscussion text type where a writer juxtaposes different versions of, or perspectiveson, the past (as in Texts 8.7 and 8.8), cohesion and relations between ideas are builtup not just through a temporal ordering of arguments but through words whichexpress relationships of comparison. The table below shows how these two types ofrelations are constructed:


Table 8.7: Sequencing and comparison relations

Paragraph 3 Partly as an outcome of antiwar feelingsmany treaties were signed so that the samemistake would not be made again.

Paragraph 4Text comparison

However, even though the signing of theLocarno Pact and Germany's joining of theLeague of Nations can be interpreted asstrong evidence for hope in a peacefulfuture, these events can also be seen asevidence of future conflict.


With regard to the establishment of theLeague of Nations it can also be argued thatits goals of collective security andinternational cooperation were unlikely tobe fulfilled.

Paragraph 6Text sequencing

The third main argument for interpreting the1920s as a period of hope was the generaleconomic growth across Europe.


On the other hand, this payback system canalso be seen as evidence of future economicdisaster.

Section PreviewsIn the section on paragraph organisation in Consequential Explanations we saw howthere is a movement from general to specific information. In other words, thestarting point for a paragraph or section — the Section Preview — is usually moredense and more abstract than the elaboration of the specific causes andconsequences. The means for constructing generalised, abstract consequences wasNominalisation and complex Nominal groups (in the sample ConsequentialExplanation we saw how a number of smaller consequences were bundled togetherinto one Nominal group to form a general consequence). In persuasive text types,Nominalisation and complex Nominal groups are drawn on for the same reason; thatis, as a resource for condensing and generalising. Table 8.8 shows examples of thisfrom Text 8.7. The Nominal groups are in bold. Nominalisations are in italics.


Table 8.8: Resources for condensing and generalising


One of the main forms of evidence thatindicates that the 1920s was a period ofhope was the strength of antiwar feeling.


Partly as an outcome of antiwar feelingsmany treaties were signed so that the samemistake would not be made again.


However, even though the signing of theLocarno Pact and Germany’s joining of theLeague of Nations can be interpreted asstrong evidence for hope in a peacefulfuture, these events can also be seen asevidence of future conflict.

Paragraph 5Section preview

With regard to the establishment of theLeague of Nations it can also be argued thatits goals of collective security andinternational cooperation were unlikely tobe fulfilled. .


The third main argument for interpreting the1920s as a period of hope was the generaleconomic growth across Europe.


On the other hand, this payback system canalso be seen as evidence of future economicdisaster.

As can be seen from Table 8.8, the clause structure of the Section Preview is oftenquite simple with two Nominal groups being linked together through either aRelational (‘being’ or ‘having’) Process or a Mental Process (such as seeing orinterpreting). These Processes function to relate the general argument of the text tothe specific arguments of the section. For example:

One of the main forms of evidence that indicates that the1920s was a period of hope was the strength of antiwarfeeling.

main argumentspecific argument

The third main argument for interpreting the 1920s as aperiod of hope was the general economic growth acrossEurope.

main argumenteconomic argument


Section ReviewsAnother important resource for organising information within Analytical Discussiontext types is the Section Review. While Previews function as starting points for themessage, Section Reviews function to bring each argument to an ending. They areused after all the evidence has been elaborated and, in a persuading text type,function to make a logical deduction or conclusion. A Section Review is a very usefultool for guiding the reader towards accepting a point of view. In an AnalyticalDiscussion essay which presents a range of points of view, it is particularly critical inthat it is able to review and evaluate alternative perspectives at different stagesthroughout the text and make a judgement which will be used as a basis for the finalPosition. Again, complex Nominal groups and Nominalisation are key resources inconstructing a Section Review.

Table 8.9 uses examples from Text 8.6 to examine Section Reveiws. The Nominalgroups are in bold. Nominalisations are in italics.

Table 8.9: Examples of Section Reviews

Paragraph 3Section Review

This was very significant because, firstly,it showed that the other nations acceptedGermany as a country and secondly itindicated that Germany was prepared toforget about the past and cooperate withthe other nations.


Thus, even though Germany’s behaviour interms of signing the Locarno Pact andjoining the League of Nations appeared tobe a signal for the world to have hope fora peaceful future, it can be argued that itdid not sufficiently quell many people'sfear that German resentment and hostilitywould manifest itself in future conflict.


This was strong evidence for the 1920sbeing viewed as a period of optimism.


Thus, whilst at first the economic boom mayhave led to hope among some people, oncloser analysis it is clear that theinherent risk of the payback systemresulted in a cynical response from manyothers.


Analytical discussions in a writing pathway in junior secondaryschool history?As already discussed in the section on the Exposition text type, learning to controlany one of the persuading text types requires the skilful choice and use of a range oflanguage resources.

Analytical Discussions in reading historyIn junior secondary school history textbooks, persuading text types are notcommonly found. This is because contemporary textbook writers are reluctant todirectly argue the case for a particular version of the past. The expectation is thatstudents will form their own interpretations based on the raw data and basicnarrative that the textbooks provide. For this reason, competing theories oralternative interpretations of the past are put forward and students are expected toreach their own position as to which is the most reliable ‘version’. Text 8.9 is anexample.


Issue

Perspective 1.

Perspective 2

8.9

Source: Five Modern TheoriesAfter examining the evidence, historians developed differenttheories about the settlement of New South Wales. Five ofthese modern theories are those of Dallas, Crawford, Blainey,Frost and Rasmussen.

CrawfordR.M. Crawford believes, along with the historians Shaw, Clarkand many others, that the major reason for settling New SouthWales was as a ‘dumping ground’ for British convicts. Allother reasons were simply added to support the choice ofBotany Bay.

DallasK.M. Dallas claims that the British Government was not reallyinterested in Botany Bay as a penal colony. He argues that theconvict problem could have been solved more cheaply bysending convicts to a place closer to Britain.

Dallas believed that the British really settled Botany Bay:

• as a port for ships trading with Asia, Africa, Americaand in the Pacific. Crews could rest, restock andrepair ships at Botany Bay

• as a port for a safer journey to the Far East, PacificOcean and the Americas, instead of going through theDutch East Indies

• to keep other countries, including France, Hollandand Spain, out of New South Wales

Dallas believes that convicts were sent to New South Wales todevelop a port, not to establish a penal colony.


Perspective 3

Perspective 4

Perspective 5

BlaineyGeoffrey Blainey believes that there were two reasons forsettling Botany Bay:

• to solve the British convict problem

• to gain the timber and flax of Norfolk Island. Thepines of Norfolk Island were suitable for ship’s masts,and the flax was needed for rope and sail making.

FrostAllen Frost argues that Botany Bay was settled for militaryreasons:

• the French were moving into the Pacific area, and warbetween Britain and France was possible

• the French might settle New South Wales themselvesand this could give them a military advantage overBritain

• Botany Bay could be used to store military and foodsupplies for British naval shipping

• Botany Bay could be used as a station where shipscould be repaired using Norfolk pine and flax

RasmussenCarolyn Rasmussen argues that the most important reason forsettling New South Wales was the desire to expand the BritishEmpire and earn new wealth for Britain. The convicts couldprovide cheap labour to develop the new colony and theirtransportation would, at the same time, ease the convictproblem in Britain.

Text 8.9: Exploration text type from J. Lawrence, J. Eshuys and V. Guest (1991) Dreamtime toNation, Macmillan, Crows Nest, NSW: 79-80

Overview of Analytical Discussion

Social purpose persuading the reader to adopt aparticular point of view on an issueby discussing two or more points ofview

Role in school history increasingly important in Year 10 aspersuading text types are one of themain forms of assessment at HSClevel.


Staging Key language resources Examples from sample Text(Text 8.7)

Background Nominalisation of time The 1920s has been calleda decade of hope

Issue Modality

Explicit Judgement

Abstract Participants

Text Preview (Nominalgroup andNominalisation)

It can also be argued thatthe twenties had a

pessimistic dimension

This evidence includes…

This evidence will includean examination of antiwarfeeling, the signing ofvarious treaties and pactsand the economic climate.

Argumentsfor andArgumentsagainst

Construction ofarguments/evidencethrough:Polarity

Abstract Participants,including time and cause

Dependent clauses withconcessive conjunctions

Acknowledging phrases

Deduction — Processes orNominalisation

Organisation of messagethrough:Section Preview (textsequencing and comparingwords)

One of the main forms ofevidence that indicatesthat the 1920s was aperiod of hope was thestrength of antiwarfeeling.

…the strength of antiwarfeeling.…the 1920s was a period ofhopeOne reason for this was…

Thus, even thoughGermany's behaviour interms of signing theLocarno Pact…

it can be argued that itdid not sufficiently quellmany people's fear…

firstly it showed that theother nations acceptedGermany as a country…

The third main argument…On the other hand, thispayback system…


Position Explicit Judgement

Amplification

Valuation/ModalAdjunct

the 1920s were only tosome extent a decade ofhope

the 1920s were only tosome extent,

it is also clear from theevidence that…

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