analyzing and evaluating arguments
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Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments. GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills. What is an argument ?. Forms of discourse that attempt to persuade readers or listeners to accept a claim, whether acceptance is based on logical or emotional appeals or, is usually a case, on both. - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
GXEX1406
Thinking and Communication Skills
Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments
2GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments
What is an argument ?
Forms of discourse that attempt to persuade readers or listeners to accept a claim, whether acceptance is based on logical or emotional appeals or, is usually a case, on both.
Statement or statements offering support for a claim.
3GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments
Components of argument
Claim
Statement that is either true or false. Must always have a
truth value, i.e. it must be true or false.
Support / Premise
Consists of materials used by arguer to
convince the claim. Include evidence &
motivational appeals.
Warrant / ConclusionAn inference / assumption, a belief / principlethat is taken for granted. Allow to make the
connection between support & claim.
4GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments
Example
Claim or not? Student in FSKTM like PBL class. Please shut the door behind you.
Support / Premise 98% of the students in PBL class passed the
exam. Warrant / Conclusion
Most of the student in FSKTM like PBL class.
5GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments
The Claim
FactAssert that a condition has existed, exists or will exist
based on facts or data that objectively verifiable.
ValueAttempt to prove that
some things are more or
less desirable than others.
Policy
Assert that specific policies
should be instituted as solutions to problems.
E.g. should, must, ought to,
etc.
6GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments
Evaluating Argument
Should be able to : Identify assumptions Recognize contradictions Distinguish between fact & opinion Recognize bias Distinguish between fact & inference
7GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments
Examples
Teaching is rewarding occupation & you only work until 2.00p.m. It is a suitable profession for anyone who wants their afternoon free
MyKad has been produced with the most secure technology. It has been cloned once
(assumptions).
(contradiction).
8GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments
Cont..
Mount Kinabalu is a beautiful mountain
Mount Kinabalu is the highest peak in Southeast Asia
I don’t think teaching in English is good and practical because my son is not able to understand what the teacher is talking about
(opinion).
(fact).
(bias).
9GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments
Cont..
You noticed that your friend is loosing weight, quieter than usual & her face is sunken. When you asked ‘Are you OK?’, the replies ‘Oh, I’m fine’. It would be reasonable to conclude: She is on diet Suffering from some disease On hallucinatory drugs
The conclusions is reasonable but not factual reports. It is called inferences.
10GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments
Reasons for using arguments
Persuading others
E.g.
She should marry you
because you are so good
looking.
Making decisions
E.g.
Being a carpenter, because you are good at working
with your hands & like building
things.
Explaining things
E.g.
You are late for an important
meeting, and the boss wants to know why.
11GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments
How to detect an argument1. Search for
premise & conclusion indicator
words.
E.g. Since, because, for, follows from,
therefore, thus, so, it follows
that, accordingly, etc.
2. Determine if the purpose of the words is to
persuade someone.
3. Make an effort to understand the
context of the passage in question.
12GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments
Examples (1)
1) All Malaysians like badminton. Hafiz is a Malaysian. So, Hafiz likes badminton.
2) April 28 is when federal income taxes are due. So, Malaysians take April 28 seriously.
So (1) conclusion indicator. So (2) X conclusion indicator.
13GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments
Common Premise indicators
As shown by Because Follows from For For the reason that Given that Since
14GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments
Common conclusion indicators Accordingly Consequently Hence In conclusion It follows that So Then Therefore Thus We can conclude that
15GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments
Examples (2)
1) I was late for an appointment because my car broke down & an accident slowed down the traffic.
2) I think Bush was the worst person in the 21st century because he was responsible for the death of millions of people & because he promoted hate & violence.
(1) explanation (2) arguments
16GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments
Examples (3)
Suppose abortion is being discussed & someone says, “I disagree with you, let me tell you why.” means that an argument will be forthcoming.
Suppose you & a friend are trying to figure out why the economy is doing so well. You ask, “Why is it doing so well?” & she responds, “How about the following reasons?” although she is offering reasons, she is not trying to persuade you anything (not arguments).
17GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments
Other kinds of Non-Arguments
Descriptions
E.g.
•Dr. Mahathir is a Prime Minister.
•Winters are cold in Alaska.
•My old brother is 45 years old
•Ajai was a composer
Reports
E.g.
•The dropping of atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
(1945)
•The formation of United Nations (1945)
•The first human on the moon (1969)
18GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments
Characteristics of Arguments
Elements of an arguments.
Premise(s) + Conclusion
Standard form for an argument.
1. Premise (1)
2. Premise (2)
:. Conclusion
One important principle
Principle of charity : when more than one reading of an argument is
possible, interpret the
argument in the way most
flattering to its presenter
19GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments
Inductive vs. Deductive arguments
Deductive – premises guarantees the truth of the conclusion
Inductive – strong argument: truth of the premises conclusion probably true. Weak argument: truth of premises conclusion
probably not true.
Characteristics of Arguments (Cont.)
20GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments
Examples
Jorge: Everyone should be a vegetarian. That’s a claim but not argument. For it to be
argument, make a claim & give some support or reasons for it.
Jorge: Everyone should be a vegetarian because my grandmother says so.
That’s an argument. Made a claim – everyone should be a vegetarian & offered reason – grandmother says so – in support of it.
21GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments
Cont..
1. Anyone who is out of food should buy some more.
2. Lili is out of food.
____________________________
:. Lili should buy some food
22GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments
Cont..
1. Most (80%) of the people from Singapore has been infected with SARS.
2. Joe is from Singapore.
_____________________________
:.Joe has been infected with SARS.
Inductively strong, conclusions contradictory; they cannot both be true.
23GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments
7 Good argument patterns
1. Modus Ponens1. If A, then B.2. A.:. B.e.g.1. If I study, then I will pass.2. I will study.
:. I will pass.
24GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments
Modus Tollens
1. If A, then B.
2. Not B.
:. Not A.
e.g.
1. If Tamika is healthy, then she’s happy.
2. Tamika is not happy.
:. Tamika is not healthy.
25GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments
Disjunctive argument
1. Either A or B.
2. Not A
:. B
e.g.
1. Either I sleep or eat
2. I am not sleeping
:. I am eating.
26GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments
Hypothetical Syllogism
1. If A, then B.
2. If B, then C.
:. If A, then C.
e.g.
1. If I work, then I’ll get paid.
2. If I get paid, then I’ll be happy.
:. If I work, then I’ll be happy.
27GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments
Chain argument1. A
2. If A, then B.
3. If B, then C.
:. C.
e.g.
1. Antoine is short.
2. If Antoine is short, then Camille won’t date him.
3. If Camille won’t date him, then Antoine will ask Donna out.
:. Antoinne will ask Donna out.
28GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments
Predicate Instantiation
1. All A’s are B’s.
2. M is an A.
:. M is a B.
e.g.
1. All carpenters are good at building.
2. Mahmud is a carpenter.
:. Mahmud is good at building.
29GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments
Universal Syllogism
1. All A’s are B’s.
2. All B’s are C’s.
:. All A’s are C’s.
e.g.
1. All whales are mammals.
2. All mammals nurse their young.
:. All whales nurse their young.
30GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments
Missing parts of argumentsImplicit conclusions
E.g.
1. If Brian is late, then Gail will be angry.
2. Brian is late.____
:. Gail will be angry.
1. If A, then B.
2. A.____________
:. B. (implicit)
Implicit Premises
E.g.
1. If Lukes loves Laura, then he will treat her well.
2. He often does not treat her well._____________
:. ?
1. If A, then B.
2. Not B._____
:. ?
31GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments
Distinguishing Good Arguments from Bad Ones.
Validity
1. All whales are mammals
2. All mammals nurse their young.________
:. All whales nurse their young.
Conclusion follows from the premises. Premises true + conclusion true = valid.
Soundness
If and only if
-It is valid
-All premise are reasonable or rationally acceptable.