anatomy & physiology...hole’s essentials of human anatomy & physiology david shier jackie...
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Chapter 9
Lecture Outlines*
Hole’s Essentials of Human
Anatomy & Physiology
David Shier
Jackie Butler
Ricki LewisCreated by Dr. Melissa Eisenhauer
Head Athletic Trainer/Assistant Professor
Trevecca Nazarene University
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Chapter 9
Nervous System
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Introduction:
A. The nervous system is composed of neuronsand neuroglia.
1. Neurons transmit nerve impulses alongnerve fibers to other neurons. Neuronstypically have a cell body, axons anddendrites.
2. Nerves are made up of bundles of nervefibers.
3. Neuroglia carry out a variety offunctions to aid and protect componentsof the nervous system.
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B. Organs of the nervous system can be divided into
the central nervous system (CNS), made up of the
brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous
system (PNS), made up of peripheral nerves that
connect the CNS to the rest of the body.
C. The nervous system provides sensory, integrative,
and motor functions to the body.
1. Motor functions can be divided into the
consciously controlled somatic
nervous system and the unconscious
autonomic system.
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General Functions of the Nervous System
A. Sensory receptors at the ends of peripheral
nerves gather information and convert it into nerve
impulses.
B. When sensory impulses are integrated in the
brain as perceptions, this is the integrative
function of the nervous system.
C. Conscious or subconscious decisions follow,
leading to motor functions via effectors.
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Supporting cells
A. Classification of Neuroglial Cells
1. Neuroglial cells fill spaces, supportneurons, provide structural frameworks,produce myelin, and carry onphagocytosis. Four are in the CNS andthe last in the PNS.
2. Microglial cells are small cells thatphagocytize bacterial cells and cellulardebris.
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3. Oligodendrocytes form myelin in thebrain and spinal cord.
4. Astrocytes are near blood vessels andsupport structures, aid in metabolism,and respond to brain injury by filling inspaces.
5. Ependyma cover the inside ofventricles and form choroid plexuseswithin the ventricles.
6. Schwann cells are the myelin-producing neuroglia of the peripheralnervous system.
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Neuron Structure
A. A neuron has a cell body with
mitochondria, lysosomes, a Golgi apparatus,
chromatophilic substance (Nissl bodies)
containing rough endoplasmic reticulum, and
neurofibrils.
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B. Nerve fibers include a solitary axonand numerous dendrites.
1. Branching dendrites carryimpulses from other neurons(or from receptors) toward thecell body.
2. The axon transmits the impulseaway from the axonal hillock ofthe cell body and may give offside branches.
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3. Larger axons are enclosed bysheaths of myelin provided bySchwann cells and are myelinatedfibers.
a. The outer layer of myelinis surrounded by aneurilemma (neurilemmalsheath) made up of thecytoplasm and nuclei of theSchwann cell.
b. Narrow gaps in the myelinsheath between Schwanncells are called nodes ofRanvier.
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4. The smallest axons lack a myelin
sheath and are unmyelinated fibers.
5. White matter in the CNS is due to
myelin sheaths in this area.
6. Unmyelinated nerve tissue in the
CNS comprise the gray matter.
7. Peripheral neurons are able to
regenerate because of the neurilemma
but the CNS axons are myelinated by
oligodendrocytes thus lacking
neurilemma and usually do not
regenerate.
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Classification of Neurons
A. Neurons can be grouped in two ways:
on the basis of structural differences (bipolar,
unipolar, and multipolar neurons), and by
functional differences (sensory neurons,
interneurons, and motor neurons).
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B. Classification of Neurons
1. Bipolar neurons are found in the eyes,nose, and ears, and have a single axonand a single dendrite extending fromopposite sides of the cell body.
2. Unipolar neurons are found in gangliaoutside the CNS and have an axon and adendrite arising from a single short fiberextending from the cell body.
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3. Multipolar neurons have many
nerve fibers arising from theircell bodies and are commonlyfound in the brain and spinalcord.
4. Sensory neurons (afferentneurons) conduct impulses from peripheral receptors to the CNS and are usually unipolar, although some are bipolar neurons.
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5. Interneurons are multipolar
neurons lying within the CNS
that form links between other
neurons.
6. Motor neurons are multipolar
neurons that conduct impulses
from the CNS to effectors.
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Cell Membrane Potential
A. A cell membrane is usually polarized,
with an excess of negative charges on the
inside of the membrane; polarization is
important to the conduction of nerve impulses.
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B. Distribution of Ions
1. The distribution of ions is determinedby the membrane channel proteinsthat are selective for certain ions.
2. Potassium ions pass through themembrane more readily than dosodium ions, making potassium ions amajor contributor to membranepolarization.
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C. Resting Potential
1. Due to active transport, the cellmaintains a greater concentration ofsodium ions outside and a greaterconcentration of potassium ionsinside the membrane.
2. The inside of the membrane hasexcess negative charges, while theoutside has more positive charges.
3. This separation of charge, orpotential difference, is called theresting potential.
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D. Potential Changes
1. Stimulation of a membrane can locallyaffect its resting potential.
2. When the membrane potential becomesless negative, the membrane isdepolarized.
3. If sufficiently strong depolarizationoccurs, a threshold potential is achievedas ion channels open.
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4. At threshold, an action potential
is reached.
5. Action potentials may be reached
when a series of subthreshold
stimuli summate and reach
threshold.
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E. Action Potential
1. At threshold potential, membrane
permeability to sodium suddenly
changes in the region of stimulation.
2. As sodium channels open, sodium ions
rush in, and the membrane potential
changes and becomes depolarized.
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3. At the same time, potassiumchannels open to allow potassiumions to leave the cell, themembrane becomes repolarized,and resting potential isreestablished.
4. This rapid sequence of events is the action potential.
5. The active transport mechanismthen works to maintain theoriginal concentrations of sodiumand potassium ions.
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Nerve Impulse
A. A nerve impulse is conducted as an action
potential is reached at the trigger zone. This
spreads by a local current flowing down the
fiber, and adjacent areas of the membrane
reach action potential.
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B. Impulse Conduction
1. Unmyelinated fibers conductimpulses over their entiremembrane surface.
2. Myelinated fibers conduct impulses from one Node of Ranvier to the next, a phenomenon called saltatory conduction.
3. Saltatory conduction is manytimes faster than conduction onunmyelinated neurons.
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C. All-or-None Response
1. If a nerve fiber responds at all to
a stimulus, it responds completely
by conducting an impulse (all-or-
none response).
2. Greater intensity of stimulation
triggers more impulses per
second, not stronger impulses.
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The Synapse
A. Nerve impulses travel from neuron to
neuron along complex nerve pathways.
B. The junction between two
communicating neurons is called a
synapse; there exists a synaptic cleft
between them across which the impulse
must be conveyed.
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C. Synaptic Transmission
1. The process by which the impulse
in the presynaptic neuron is
transmitted across the synaptic
cleft to the postsynaptic neuron is
called synaptic transmission.
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2. When an impulse reaches the
synaptic knobs of an axon,
synaptic vesicles release a
neurotransmitter into the synaptic
cleft.
3. The neurotransmitter reacts with
specific receptors on the
postsynaptic membrane.
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D. Excitatory and Inhibitory Actions
1. Neurotransmitters that increase postsynaptic membrane permeability to sodium ions may trigger impulses and are thus excitatory.
2. Other neurotransmitters may decrease membrane permeability to sodium ions, reducing the chance that it will reach threshold, and are thus inhibitory.
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3. The effect on the postsynaptic
neuron depends on which
presynaptic knobs are activated.
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E. Neurotransmitters
1. At least 50 kinds of neurotransmitters are produced by the nervous system, most of which are synthesized in the cytoplasm of the synaptic knobs and stored in synaptic vesicles.
2. When an action potential reachesthe synaptic knob, calcium ionsrush inward and, in response,some synaptic vesicles fuse withthe membrane and release theircontents to the synaptic cleft.
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3. Enzymes in synaptic clefts and on
postsynaptic membranes rapidly
decompose the neurotransmitters
after their release.
4. Destruction or removal of the
neurotransmitter prevents
continuous stimulation of the
postsynaptic neuron.
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Impulse Processing
A. How impulses are processed is dependent upon how neurons are organized in the brain and spinal cord.
B. Neuronal Pools
1. Neurons within the CNS areorganized into neuronal poolswith varying numbers of cells.
2. Each pool receives input fromafferent nerves and processes theinformation according to thespecial characteristics of the pool.
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C. Facilitation
1. A particular neuron of a pool may
receive excitatory or inhibitory
stimulation; if the net effect is
excitatory but subthreshold, the
neuron becomes more excitable
to incoming stimulation (a
condition called facilitation).
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D. Convergence
1. A single neuron within a pool
may receive impulses from two
or more fibers (convergence),
which makes it possible for the
neuron to summate impulses
from different sources.
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E. Divergence
1. Impulses leaving a neuron in a
pool may be passed into several
output fibers (divergence), a
pattern that serves to amplify an
impulse.
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Types of Nerves
A. A nerve is a bundle of nerve fibers held
together by layers of connective tissue.
B. Nerves can be sensory, motor, or mixed,
carrying both sensory and motor fibers.
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Nerve Pathways
A. The routes nerve impulses travel are called pathways, the simplest of which is a reflex arc.
B. Reflex Arcs
1. A reflex arc includes a sensoryreceptor, a sensory neuron, aninterneuron in the spinal cord, amotor neuron, and an effector.
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C. Reflex Behavior
1. Reflexes are automatic,subconscious responses to stimulithat help maintain homeostasis(heart rate, blood pressure, etc.)and carry out automatic responses(vomiting, sneezing, swallowing,etc.).
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2. The knee-jerk reflex (patellartendon reflex) is an example of amonosynaptic reflex (nointerneuron).
3. The withdrawal reflex involvessensory neurons, interneurons,and motor neurons.
a. At the same time, theantagonistic extensormuscles are inhibited.
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Meninges
A. The brain and spinal cord are surrounded
by membranes called meninges that lie
between the bone and the soft tissues.
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B. The outermost meninx is made up of tough, white dense connective tissue, contains many blood vessels, and is called the dura mater.
1. It forms the inner periosteum ofthe skull bones.
2. In some areas, the dura materforms partitions between lobes ofthe brain, and in others, it formsdural sinuses.
3. The sheath around the spinal cordis separated from the vertebrae byan epidural space.
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C. The middle meninx, the arachnoidmater, is thin and lacks blood vessels.
1. It does not follow theconvolutions of the brain.
2. Between the arachnoid and piamater is a subarachnoid spacecontaining cerebrospinal fluid.
D. The innermost pia mater is thin andcontains many blood vessels and nerves.
1. It is attached to the surface of thebrain and spinal cord and followstheir contours.
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Spinal Cord
A. The spinal cord begins at the base of the
brain and extends as a slender cord to the
level of the intervertebral disk between the
first and second lumbar vertebrae.
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B. Structure of the Spinal Cord
1. The spinal cord consists of31 segments, each of which givesrise to a pair of spinal nerves.
2. A cervical enlargement gives riseto nerves leading to the upperlimbs, and a lumbar enlargementgives rise to those innervating thelower limbs.
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3. Two deep longitudinal grooves (anterior median fissure and posterior median sulcus) divide the cord into right and left halves.
4. White matter, made up of bundlesof myelinated nerve fibers (nervetracts), surrounds a butterfly-shaped core of gray matterhousing interneurons.
5. A central canal containscerebrospinal fluid.
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C. Functions of the Spinal Cord 1. The spinal cord has two major
functions: to transmit impulses to and from the brain, and to house spinal reflexes.
2. Tracts carrying sensoryinformation to the brain are calledascending tracts; descendingtracts carry motor informationfrom the brain.
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3. The names that identify nerve
tracts identify the origin and
termination of the fibers in the
tract.
4. Many spinal reflexes also pass
through the spinal cord.
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Brain
A. The brain is the largest, most complex portion of the nervous system, containing 100 billion multipolar neurons.
B. The brain can be divided into the cerebrum (largest portion and associated with higher mental functions), the diencephalon (processes sensory input), the cerebellum(coordinates muscular activity), and the brain stem (coordinates and regulates visceral activities).
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C. Structure of the Cerebrum
1. The cerebrum is the largest portion ofthe mature brain, consisting of twocerebral hemispheres.
2. A deep ridge of nerve fibers called thecorpus callosum connects thehemispheres.
3. The surface of the brain is marked byconvolutions, sulci, and fissures.
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4. The lobes of the brain are named according to the bones they underlie and include the frontallobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, occipital lobe, and insula.
5. A thin layer of gray matter, thecerebral cortex, lies on theoutside of the cerebrum andcontains 75% of the cell bodies inthe nervous system.
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6. Beneath the cortex lies a mass of
white matter made up of
myelinated nerve fibers
connecting the cell bodies of the
cortex with the rest of the
nervous system.
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D. Functions of the Cerebrum
1. The cerebrum provides higher
brain functions, such as
interpretation of sensory input,
initiating voluntary muscular
movements, memory, and
integrating information for
reasoning.
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2. Functional Regions of the Cerebral Cortex
a. The functional areas of the brain overlap, but the cortex can generally be divided into motor, sensory, and association areas.
b. The primary motor areas lie in thefrontal lobes, anterior to the centralsulcus and in its anterior wall.
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c. Broca’s area, anterior to the primary motor cortex, coordinates muscular activity to make speech possible.
d. Above Broca’s area is the frontal eyefield that controls the voluntarymovements of the eyes and eyelids.
e. The sensory areas are located in severalareas of the cerebrum and interpretsensory input, producing feelings orsensations.
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f. Sensory areas for sight lie within the occipital lobe.
g. Sensory and motor fibers alike crossover in the spinal cord or brain stem socenters in the right hemisphere areinterpreting or controlling the left sideof the body, and vice versa.
h. The various association areas of thebrain analyze and interpret sensoryimpulses and function in reasoning,judgment, emotions, verbalizing ideas,and storing memory.
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i. Association areas of the frontal lobe
control a number of higher intellectual
processes.
j. A general interpretive area is found at
the junction of the parietal, temporal,
and occipital lobes, and plays the
primary role in complex thought
processing.
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3. Hemisphere Dominance
a. Both cerebral hemispheres function in
receiving and analyzing sensory input
and sending motor impulses to the
opposite side of the body.
b. Most people exhibit hemisphere
dominance for the language-related
activities of speech, writing, and
reading.
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c. The left hemisphere is dominant in 90%
of the population, although some
individuals have the right hemisphere as
dominant, and others show equal
dominance in both hemispheres.
d. The non-dominant hemisphere
specializes in nonverbal functions and
controls emotions and intuitive
thinking.
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e. The basal ganglia are masses of gray
matter located deep within the cerebral
hemispheres that relay motor impulses
from the cerebrum and help to control
motor activities by producing inhibitory
dopamine.
f. Basal ganglia include the caudate
nucleus, the putamen, and the globus
pallidus.
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E. Ventricles and Cerebrospinal Fluid
1. The ventricles are a series of connected
cavities within the cerebral hemispheres
and brain stem.
2. The ventricles are continuous with the
central canal of the spinal cord, and are
filled with cerebrospinal fluid.
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3. Choroid plexuses, specialized
capillaries from the pia mater, secrete
cerebrospinal fluid.
a. Most cerebrospinal fluid arises in
the lateral ventricles.
4. Cerebrospinal fluid has nutritive as well
as protective (cushioning) functions.
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F. Diencephalon
1. The diencephalon lies above thebrain stem and contains thethalamus and hypothalamus.
2. Other portions of thediencephalon are the optic tractsand optic chiasma, theinfundibulum (attachment for thepituitary), the posterior pituitary,mammillary bodies, and thepineal gland.
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3. The thalamus functions in sorting
and directing sensory information
arriving from other parts of the
nervous system, performing the
services of both messenger and
editor.
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4. The hypothalamus maintains homeostasis by regulating a wide variety of visceral activities and by linking the endocrine system with the nervous system.
a. The hypothalamus regulates heartrate and arterial blood pressure,body temperature, water andelectrolyte balance, hunger andbody weight, movements andsecretions of the digestive tract,growth and reproduction, andsleep and wakefulness.
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5. The limbic system, in the area of the diencephalon, controls emotional experience and expression.
a. By generating pleasant or unpleasant feelings about experiences, the limbic system guides behavior that may enhance the chance of survival.
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G. Brain Stem
1. The brain stem, consisting of
the midbrain, pons, and
medulla oblongata, lies at the
base of the cerebrum, and
connects the brain to the
spinal cord.
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2. Midbrain
a. The midbrain, located betweenthe diencephalon and pons,contains bundles of myelinatednerve fibers that convey impulsesto and from higher parts of thebrain, and masses of gray matterthat serve as reflex centers.
b. The midbrain contains centers forauditory and visual reflexes.
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3. Pons
a. The pons, lying between the
midbrain and medulla
oblongata, transmits impulses
between the brain and spinal
cord, and contains centers
that regulate the rate and depth of
breathing.
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4. Medulla Oblongata
a. The medulla oblongata transmits all ascending and descending impulses between the brain and spinal cord.
b. The medulla oblongata also houses nuclei that control visceral functions, including the cardiac center that controls heart rate, the vasomotor center for blood pressure control, and the respiratory center that works, along with the pons, to control the rate and depth of breathing.
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c. Other nuclei in the medulla
oblongata are associated with
coughing, sneezing,
swallowing, and vomiting.
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5. Reticular Formation
a. Throughout the brain stem,
hypothalamus, cerebrum,
cerebellum, and basal ganglia, is
a complex network of nerve
fibers connecting tiny islands of
gray matter; this network is the
reticular formation.
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b. Decreased activity in the
reticular formation results in
sleep; increased activity
results in wakefulness.
c. The reticular formation filters
incoming sensory impulses.
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H. Cerebellum
1. The cerebellum is made up of
two hemispheres connected by a
vermis.
2. A thin layer of gray matter called
the cerebellar cortex lies outside
a core of white matter.
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3. The cerebellumcommunicates with otherparts of the central nervoussystem through cerebellar
peduncles.
4. The cerebellum functions tointegrate sensory informationabout the position of body partsand coordinates skeletal muscleactivity and maintains posture.
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Peripheral Nervous System
A. The peripheral nervous system (PNS)consists of the cranial and spinal nervesthat arise from the central nervoussystem and travel to the remainder ofthe body.
B. The PNS is made up of the somaticnervous system that oversees voluntaryactivities, and the autonomic nervoussystem that controls involuntaryactivities.
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C. Cranial Nerves
1. Twelve pairs of cranial nervesarise from the underside of thebrain, most of which are mixednerves.
2. The 12 pairs are designated bynumber and name and include theolfactory, optic, oculomotor,trochlear, trigenimal, abducens,facial, vestibulocochlear,glossopharyngeal, vagus,accessory, and hypoglossalnerves.
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3. Refer to Figure 9.31 and Table
9.6 for cranial nerve number,
name, type, and function.
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D. Spinal Nerves
1. Thirty-one pairs of mixed nervesmake up the spinal nerves.
2. Spinal nerves are groupedaccording to the level from whichthey arise and are numbered insequence, beginning with those inthe cervical region.
3. Each spinal nerve arises from tworoots: a dorsal, or sensory, root,and a ventral, or motor, root.
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4. The main branches of somespinal nerves form plexuses.
5. Cervical Plexuses
a. The cervical plexuses lieon either side of the neckand supply muscles andskin of the neck.
6. Brachial Plexuses
a. The brachial plexuses arisefrom lower cervical andupper thoracic nerves andlead to the upper limbs.
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7. Lumbrosacral Plexuses
a. The lumbrosacral plexuses
arise from the lower spinal
cord and lead to the lower
abdomen, external
genitalia, buttocks, and
legs.
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Autonomic Nervous System
A. The autonomic nervous system has the
task of maintaining homeostasis of
visceral activities without conscious
effort.
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B. General Characteristics
1. The autonomic nervous systemincludes two divisions: thesympathetic and parasympatheticdivisions, which exert opposingeffects on target organs.
a. The parasympatheticdivision operates undernormal conditions.
b. The sympathetic divisionoperates under conditionsof stress or emergency.
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C. Autonomic Nerve Fibers
1. In the autonomic motor
system, motor pathways
include two fibers: a
preganglionic fiber that
leaves the CNS, and a
postganglionic fiber that
innervates the effector.
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2. Sympathetic Division
a. Fibers in the sympathetic division arise from the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord, and synapse in paravertebral ganglia close to the vertebral column.
b. Postganglionic axons leadto an effector organ.
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3. Parasympathetic Division
a. Fibers in the
parasympathetic division
arise from the brainstem
and sacral region of the
spinal cord, and synapse in
ganglia close to the
effector organ.
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4. Autonomic Neurotransmitters a. Preganglionic fibers of
both sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions release acetylcholine.
b. Parasympatheticpostganglionic fibers arecholinergic fibers andrelease acetylcholine.
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c. Sympatheticpostganglionic fibersare adrenergic and releasenorepinephrine.
d. The effects of these two divisions, based on the effects of releasing different neurotransmitters to the effector, are generally antagonistic.
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5. Control of Autonomic Activity
a. The autonomic nervoussystem is largely controlledby reflex centers in thebrain and spinal cord.
b. The limbic system andcerebral cortex alter thereactions of the autonomicnervous system throughemotional influence.
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