Ancient Rome

Group 3

March 9, 2007

Government

Domestic Politics

Government Background• Roman Republic founded after the end of the

Etruscan Kingship in 509 B.C.• Based on the Ancient Greek model of

government• Republic 509 B.C.-27 B.C.; Empire 31 B.C.-293

A.D.

The Roman Empire reached its greatest extent in the year 116 under the rule of the emperor Trajan.

The Republic• Roman laws traditionally could only be

passed by a vote of the popular assembly • Candidates for public positions had to run

for election by the people • The Senate held great authority, but no

actual legislative power; it was technically only an advisory council

• Senators were chosen from among the most accomplished patricians by Censors who could also remove a Senator from his office if he was found "morally corrupt"

The Republic• To prevent any one person from gaining too much

power, new magistrates were elected annually and had to share power with another

• Normally the highest authority was held by two consuls, but in emergencies a temporary dictator might be appointed

• The structure of the administration was changed multiple times due to internal changes

Tiberius

14 A.D.-37 A.D.

The Empire• In the early years of the empire, the government remained

a “republic” • Augustus was the first true emperor, ruling after he

dismantled the final triumvirate• The first five emperors of the New Rome were considered

the Julio-Claudian Emperors as they were “descendants” of Julius Caesar; they ruled 27 B.C.-68 A.D.

Augustus

27 B.C.-14 A.D.

Caligula

37 A.D.-41 A.D.

Claudius

41 A.D.-54 A.D.

Nero

54 A.D.-68 A.D.

The Empire• Over time the emperor became more and more

autocratic and the Senate truly lost power• Territory was divided into multiple provinces• Towns were divided into colonies composed of

former soldiers or members of the Roman underclass

• After the Julio-Claudian line of emperors, many other lines followed before the East-West split

• Pax Romana 27 B.C.-180 A.D. was a period of relative peace for the Roman Empire

• The Crisis of the Third Century occurred 235-284 and almost caused the complete collapse of the empire

• Diocletian gained complete power in 285 and divided the empire into East and West

GovernmentForeign Politics

Roman Empire in 250 B.C After wars with allies, the Etruscans, the Samnites and the Greeks, Rome is victorious and has city-states that

pay tribute to Rome where citizenship is either offered or can be earned.

Roman Empire in 241-227 B.C. After the first Punic War, the Romans take control of

Sicily and later take possession of Sardinia and Corsica. Praetors are created to be the official governing body in each of Rome’s new provinces (Sicily, Sardinia/Corsica).

Roman Empire in 197 B.C.After the Second Punic War, Rome takes Southern Spain from

the Carthaginians, dividing it into Hispana Citerior and Hispana Ulterior, each with its own praetor.

Roman Empire in 167 B.C. In the Third Macedonian War, Rome defeats King Gentium and takes an unofficial hold of the Ilyrian

coastline.

Roman Empire in 146 B.C. Corinth and Carthage are defeated and destroyed.

Macedonia-Achaia and Africa are added as provinces of Rome.

Roman Empire in 133 B.C. The Lusitanii are defeated in Northern and Eastern

Spain. King Attalus Pergamum in Asia Minor leaves his wealthy kingdom in his will to the possession of Rome.

Roman Empire in 121-102 B.C. Celtic tribes, along with the Teutones and the Cimbri along the

Rhone are defeated, allowing the addition of the Gallia Narbonensis province.

The Baelaric Islands are taken and Roman Victory over pirates in part of Cilicia in Southern Asia Minor also adds new territory.

Roman Empire in 74-60 B.C. After Sulla’s defeat of the King of Pontus, the province Bithynia et Pontus in present-day Northern Turkey is

added. Pompey later expands this territory and creates a new province, Syria, though no new praetors are added.

Roman Empire in 44 B.C.Caesar conquers the majority of Gaul.

Pompey takes control of Northern Spain.

Family and Gender Relations

Marriage• More of a financial and

political alliance than romantic association in hopes of improving family’s wealth or class

• Arranged marriages– Fathers usually began

seeking husbands for their daughters when they reached ages 12-14

– Husband typically older than bride

• Monogamous• Women presented dowry• Divorce very common

Households• Basic unit of society• Included paterfamilias, his wife

“materfamilias”, children, and slaves (if family owned any)

• Every home had household god, usually with shrine

Men• Dominated family life• “Paterfamilias” (father of the family), the

oldest living male, was head of family– Only one to own property– Tended to family's business affairs and

property and could perform religious rites on their behalf

– Absolute rule (“patria potestas”) over household and children

• Paterfamilias had all power– Power to decide whether or not to keep

newborn baby– Legal rights over children

Women

• Defined by the men in their lives• Regarded mainly as mothers and wives• Not equal under law• Received only basic education• Subject to the authority of man at any time

– Before marriage: father– After: authority of husband

• Could not vote or stand for office• Degree of freedom depended on wealth

and social status

Children

• High infant mortality rate• As a result, Roman state gave legal

rewards to women who successfully gave birth

• After 3 live babies, women recognized as legally independent

• Sons were important- placed lots of value on continuing the family name

Foods, Festivals, and Holidays in Ancient

Rome

Roman Cuisine• Changed

throughout their ancient civilization

• Influenced by Greek culture, political changes, and the expansion

• 3 meals:•Lentaculum, or breakfast, in the morning•Small lunch at noon•Main meal of the day, the cena, in the evening

Roman Festivals and Holidays

• Purpose was to celebrate and worship a certain god or mythical occurrence through various religious practices, festival traditions, and feasts.

• Four most important:– the Saturnalia– the Consualia– the Lupercalia– The Rites of the Bona

Dea

Saturnalia: Rites of Bona Dea:– December 17th – Feast in honor of

Saturn, the god of agriculture and harvest

– Public festival in which sacrifices were made

– School holiday, making and giving of small presents, and a special market

– Slaves celebrated and were free from duties & punishment

– December 4th

– Goddess of fertility, healing, virginity, and women

– Held in the home of a prominent Roman magistrate

– Only included women– Conducted annually

by senior magistrate’s wife

– Little is known about the ceremony; worship may be agricultural in origin

The Consualia– August 21– In honor of Consus, the god of counsel and

protector of the harvest – Harvest grains, which were in storage in

underground vaults all year long, were uncovered for this day only

– Chariot races– Romulus allowed men to forcibly take Sabine

women as wives in order to increase the population of Rome

– Women treated fairly even though taken against their will & eventually became submissive wives

Lupercalia February 15th

• Ancient pastoral festival meant to avert evil spirits and purify the city to release health and fertility

• Sacrificed two male goats and a dog

• Two young male patricians anointed with the blood.

• Sacrificial feast• Patricians cut thongs from

the skins of the sacrifices, dressed themselves in the goat’s skin, and ran around the walls of the city striking people

• Women and girls would line up to be whipped – Believed to prevent

sterility, ensure fertility, and ease childbirth.

Recreation

Gladiators • Professional fighters who fought other gladiators, slaves, and/or

wild animals.

• Comes from Latin word “gladius” - a short sword used by legionnaires.

• The gladiatorial games were actually adopted from the Etruscan culture for entertainment

• Initially set up by rich individuals for public popularity

• Emperors eventually controlled all recreation, including gladiator games• Usually did not fight more than three times per year

• Fought one versus one or in groups based on request

• Usually did not fight to the death, but were accidentally killed or maimed

Gladiators• Were usually slaves, but were also criminals and were expected to

die within a year or earn their freedom three years if they survived– Given a wooden sword as a memento of surviving

• Crowd decided on fate of the gladiators not emperors• Gladiators seen in an ambivalent light

– Lower than slaves (owned by the rich)– Pop icons/sex symbols

• Some taught the legionnaires in single combat • Some joined the games as a last resort to poverty• Emperors participated in the rigged gladiatorial games • One of the most famous gladiators: Spartacus, who led a revolt in

73 BC.• Gladiatorial games outlawed in 325, and the last known

gladiatorial game – Rome, January 1st, 404

Roman Theatre• The Roman theater

– semicircular in shape– orchestra pit in front of it

• These theaters were built outside, due to lighting and sound issues

• Had a high back wall, so the audience could not see over– Nooks and tunnels were carved into wall for usage

• Sound problem was solved by extravagant visuals:– Brown masks = men, white masks = women– A purple gown = affluence, striped toga = boy, short cloak =

soldier, red toga = poor man, and a short tunic = slave, etc. – Audience paid more attention to actor than acting, so actors

used costumes to win over audience• Women were not allowed to perform, men or boys took their

roles • An actor spoke lines, a second actor mimed the lines to some

background music• Some gestures were known to represent certain things

Roman Theatre• The Romans were bloodthirsty

– For plays they actually killed a person instead of acting it out

• Most play did not have stage direction– Most translations with directions are inferred

• Emperors participated in theater• Original reason for theater unknown

– Performances linked with special celebrations– Later become more common

Other Recreations• Roman games (Track and Field) were played on Campus, an old drill

grounds for soldiers • Activities on the Campus are: Archery, Foot racing, Jumping,

Wrestling, Boxing, Riding, Fencing, Throwing, And Swimming. Among others

• After exercise, the men would jump into the Tiber River which was next to the Campus

• Men also hunted, fished, played ball games of throwing and catching• Many types of ball games invented by the Romans: Handball

(Expulsim Ludere), early form of Soccer, Field Hockey, and even Dodge Ball. Some pictures show a ball that resembles modern day soccer ball

• Women were not allowed to participate in these games or activities• Romans also played board games:

– Knucklebones (Tali & Tropa)– Dice (Tesserae) – Roman Chess (Latrunculi)– Roman Checkers (Calculi) – Tic-Tac-Toe (Terni Lapilli) – Roman Backgammon (Tabula)

Ancient Roman Religion

Roman Mythology

Pagan Religion• Roman religion polytheistic

with many gods• Main job of people was to

please gods• Early Roman religion rooted

in everything having a spirit– Pleased spirits by worship

and sacrifice• Adopted many gods from

the Greeks but changed their names– Roman gods more formal

and less personal than Greek gods

• gods extremely important to daily life of Romans

• gods were the center of Roman religion

• They control every aspect of the Romans’ lives

The gods• Jupiter—king of Gods• Juno—goddess of sky, women,

childbirth• Mars—god of war• Mercury—the messenger god• Neptune—god of the sea• Janus—god of the doorway• Diana—goddess of hunting

• Ceres—goddess of agriculture• Vesta—goddess of the hearth• Minvera—goddess of healing, wisdom• Saturn—god of wine• Pluto—god of the underworld, wealth• Venus—goddess of love

Temples

• Each god had a temple and all Roman temples followed the same pattern…– Triangle roof supported by pillars– Main doorway was reached by steps– Each god had a temple and a statue of the

god in it– Alters were in the temples for the priests to

sacrifice animals to the gods– Augurs were people who predicted the

future through the dead animals

Festivals of the Gods• A specific day was set aside for each god

as a celebration day• Romans visited the temple of whichever

god was being celebrated that day • Priests offered sacrificed animals to the

god that was being celebrated on that specific day

• Certain priests wereresponsible for “takingcare” of each specificgod and worshippinghim or her

Sacrifices• Most sacrifices were

animals but on occasion, the Romans sacrificed people

• Slaves and prisoners of war were buried alive by the Romans

• During the Republic of Rome, sacrifice of humans was less common

Vestal Virgins

• Guarded temple of Vesta• Priestesses of the temple• Made sacrifices to Vesta • Had to keep the alter fire in

the temple burning constantly because Vesta was goddess of the hearth

• Had to remain virgins and if they did not keep their vow, they were buried alive

Home Life and Religion• Each home had a

shrine and alter for the gods

• Lares = household gods and spirits– Worshipped everyday– Statues of these gods

in each home– Prayed to daily by

head of house– Even family slaves

were included in worship

– More important to please lares than the public gods like Jupiter

Religious Tolerance• Under most the

emperors of the Roman Empire, religious tolerance was widely accepted as long as the religions did not interfere with Roman religion

• However, Diocletian launched the worst persecution of Christians during his reign

• Constantine brought about the end of paganism

• Ended the persecution of Christians with the Edict of Milan (313) – gave religious freedom

• Council of Nicaea (325) – established Christianity as the main religion

Roman Art and Architecture

Column of Trajan,

Rome

Propaganda

• Idea of pleasing the people was important

• Commemorating victorious battles, showing the Roman value of “might is right”

The Colosseum

• Largest amphitheater built in Rome

•Supervised by various emperors, with each making adjustments and modifications

• Could flood the building to hold naval battling games

Column of Trajan

• Built by Senate in honor of Trajan’s victory in the Dacian Wars (101-102, 105-106 AD)

• Towers over Trajan’s Forum, making sure all can see the structure

• Figures grow larger as the tower winds further up towards the top

Colosseum, Rome

Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius, Rome

Augustus of Primaporta

Propaganda

• Emperors often appear as though giving a speech

• Frequently associated with nobility or the gods

• Appear commanding and dominant over the viewer, often raised on pedestal to give this affect

Augustus of Primaporta

• Breastplate speaks to the military

• Wears Senatorial robes, raising hand to acknowledge people

• Divine association with Venus (Cupid, dolphin)

Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius

• Wears Senatorial robes, raising hand to acknowledge people

• Nobility is represented by portrayal on a horse

Average Citizens in Art

• Usually art was made for royalty, but those who could afford it had works commissioned for themselves

• Since these were not famous people, their names were lost over time

Roman Patrician with Busts of his Ancestors

• Man’s features have not been airbrushed: he is not made to look younger as many emperors were

• Most likely kept in the home to remind the family of their ancestors and noble standing (wears Senatorial robes)

Young Woman with a Stylus

• Women were not equal to men, thus rarely portrayed in art

• Probably commissioned by a rich family as decoration for a room women often met in

Roman Patrician with Busts of his Ancestors

Young Woman with a Stylus

Bacchus and the Four Seasons

Pantheon, Rome

Religion

• Many sculptures of the gods and goddesses give a personification to the Roman beliefs

• Gods and goddesses were depicted as average citizens in order to relate to the Roman people

• Gives us a visual insight to Roman religion

The Pantheon

• Was the first religious structure of this type, using an oculus to allow light into the building

• Light circles around to show the different gods and goddesses at different times during the day

Bacchus and the Four Seasons

• Use of the nude was very common, showing a Roman confidence in the body

• Bacchus blends in with the procession of Romans on the sarcophagus

The Laestrygonians Bombard Odysseus’ Ships

Mythology

• Artistic portrayal of Roman myth helps historians and literary experts put together the missing links in lost myths

• Gives a look into passionate subjects that the Romans greatly valued: myth and literature

The Laestrygonians Bombard Odysseus’ Ships

• Taken from Homer’s Odyssey, showing one of the many struggles Odysseus went through after the Trojan War

• Painting is framed by painted columns, to give a look into another world by using depth

Healing of the Wounded Aeneas

• Taken from Virgil’s Aeneid, showing Aeneas after he is wounded in a battle

• Aeneas is considered a father of Rome, so this picture gave Romans a sense of national pride

Iapyx’s Healing of the Wounded Aeneas

Why is Rome an Agrarian Society?

Agrarian Societies

Def: Societies, the first being Mesopotamia and Egypt, that subsisted through agriculture centered on the use of the plow.

- When the plow first replaced the horticultural practice of hoeing, the plow was drawn by man. Early in the emergence of the Simple Agrarian societies, oxen were trained to draw the plow. The plow killed weeds and struck further into the soil, turning over more vital nutrients to growing crops.

- This advancement in subsistence technology led to a dramatic spike in population (from 10,000 to 50,000 in Mesopotamian Uruk by 3,000 B.C.)

- As land could produce more, it became increasingly more valuable, facilitating the desire for a ruling class to conduct warfare and conquest.

- As land area increased, trading became more complicated and more difficult. Metals in the form of money were used to replace formerly tradable goods such as food or material.

Oxen Drawn Plow

Advanced Agrarian SocietiesDef: Advanced Agrarian Societies still subsisted on the plow, but had now discovered iron smelting. They used iron in war, construction, and farming.

- Advancements in technology and the expansion of empirical forces caused another population increase. (Ex. Ancient Egypt had less than 15 million members, while the Roman Empire had at least 70 million members and possible 120 million members at its height)

- A large increase in population and territory led to dividing labor not only between individual specialties (e.g. Carpenter & Soldier) but between cities and towns as well (e.g. The Romans identified North African and Spain as producers of figs and olive oil while Egypt produced salted meats and grain).

- Food production was the economic center of Rome, and conquest was its industry. Prisoners were made into slaves, which at one point constituted ~20% of the population of the Roman Empire.

- Roman currency, in this case Denarii (silver), took the form of round coins. Initially, coins were decorative, and traded in bulk amounts by their physical weight. During the empire, the coins began to represent greater amounts to make trading easier.

Rome as an Advanced Agrarian Society

- The Romans conducted trade across the world, extending all the way to China, as well as their own provinces. The main exports from Rome and Italy were grapes and olive oil. Mining and Quarrying were also practiced, mostly for construction of buildings, roads and aqueducts throughout the Empire. Ultimately the complex economic system rivaled 17th and 18th century market economies such as England and the Netherlands

Rome as an Advanced Agrarian Society

Rome as an Advanced Agrarian Society

- The class structure of Rome mirrored its predecessors in Egypt and Ancient Greece. Upper classes emerged that held disproportionate share of land, and therefore of wealth.

-The Social Classes:

-Senatores or Senatorial Class

-Equites or Equestrians

-Three more property-owning classes

-Proletarii

- Like most other Agrarian societies, Rome functioned as a Monarchy (753-509 BC), then later as an Republic(509-31 BC) and finally as an Empire (31BC-476AD)

- Rex, Senatores/Consul/Praefectus/Pontifex Maximus, imperator Caesar

Rome in 117 A.D., Emperor Trajan

~2,300,000 mi2