And now, And now, ladies and ladies and gentlemengentlemen

, two , two highly highly

intelligent intelligent experts on experts on

political political parties parties will will guide you guide you through through

this this chapter. chapter. And here And here

they are!!!they are!!!

To start, I need a fellow To start, I need a fellow nerd, er, uh, smart person nerd, er, uh, smart person

to tell me to tell me what political what political parties are and what they parties are and what they

dodo..

Zzzzzzz, huh? Uh, oh, Zzzzzzz, huh? Uh, oh, wow! OK, wow! OK, political political

parties are parties are organizations that try organizations that try

to win control of to win control of government by government by

electing people to electing people to office who carry the office who carry the

party labelparty label..

In representative In representative democracies parties recruit democracies parties recruit candidates for public office, candidates for public office,

run their candidates in run their candidates in competitive elections, and competitive elections, and

try to organize and try to organize and coordinate the activities of coordinate the activities of government officials under government officials under

party banners and party banners and programs.programs.

At this time, please form At this time, please form into informal groups. Go into informal groups. Go

over the list of things that over the list of things that political political parties can do to parties can do to make popular sovereignty make popular sovereignty

and political equality and political equality possible possible and come up and come up

with with specific examplesspecific examples for for each.each.

To make popular sovereignty and political To make popular sovereignty and political equality, parties try to:equality, parties try to:

Keep elected officials responsive Keep elected officials responsive Stimulate political interest Stimulate political interest Ensure accountability Ensure accountability

Make government work Make government work But do they?

Help people make sense of Help people make sense of complexity in issues complexity in issues

Miss Becky Nerd, I think Miss Becky Nerd, I think you have a question for you have a question for

the class.the class.

That’s right! Who can That’s right! Who can tell us what the tell us what the

difference is between a difference is between a one-party system and a one-party system and a

two party systemtwo party system??

He is such a He is such a hottie!hottie!

What a total What a total fox!!!fox!!!

Hey, Jay Leno here. I love Hey, Jay Leno here. I love this topic and I know the this topic and I know the answer to your question! answer to your question!

One party: a single One party: a single political party controls the political party controls the government and clearly government and clearly

dominates political dominates political activity, such as China activity, such as China

todaytoday.

And two party And two party is a system, is a system,

like in the US, like in the US, dominated by dominated by two parties.two parties.

So what’s a So what’s a multiparty systemmultiparty system??

Honey, it’sHoney, it’s a political system in a political system in which several parties try to gain which several parties try to gain control of the government. Each control of the government. Each

party’s representation in the party’s representation in the legislature usually is proportionallegislature usually is proportional—it depends on the percentage —it depends on the percentage of votes the party receives in an of votes the party receives in an

election. election.

I wish we looked as I wish we looked as good together as good together as that couple on the that couple on the

first slide.first slide.

That’s right, Monica, and That’s right, Monica, and sometimes the leading sometimes the leading party party gets a gets a pluralityplurality----

much less than 50% of the much less than 50% of the vote, but still the most vote, but still the most

votes--leading tovotes--leading to coalition coalition governmentsgovernments——

governments made up of governments made up of several different parties.several different parties.

And as And as Israel, ItalyIsrael, Italy and and other multiparty other multiparty

countries have found, countries have found, coalition governments coalition governments are rarely successful.are rarely successful.

And in our And in our two party two party system, system, we have we have elections elections that are that are organized on a winner-organized on a winner-take-all, single-member-take-all, single-member-district basis. district basis. That’s why That’s why some political scientists some political scientists use a horseracing use a horseracing analogyanalogy: first past the : first past the post post to describe our to describe our elections.elections.

As the text notes, As the text notes, the two-the two-party outcome of plurality party outcome of plurality elections in single member elections in single member district voting systems is district voting systems is calledcalled Duverger’s LawDuverger’s Law. In . In that type of election, failure that type of election, failure to come in first leaves a to come in first leaves a party with no party with no representation. Thus, it representation. Thus, it discourages minor-party discourages minor-party effortsefforts. Indeed, a vote for a . Indeed, a vote for a candidate from a minor candidate from a minor party is a wasted vote.party is a wasted vote.

And I’m And I’m former former

Senator Senator James James Jeffords, a Jeffords, a

former former Republican, Republican,

from Vermont from Vermont who became who became

an an independentindependent. .

As As independentsindependents, ,

we are we are not not associated associated with any with any

political party.political party.

Hello. I’m Hello. I’m Senator Senator Joe Joe Lieberman, Lieberman, a former a former Democrat, Democrat, now an now an IndependenIndependent from t from ConnecticutConnecticut..

Howdy, I’m Howdy, I’m H. Ross H. Ross Perot Perot from the great from the great

state of Texas.state of Texas. In In 1992 I formed a 3d 1992 I formed a 3d Party, the Reform Party, the Reform

PartyParty. . A third party—A third party—or minor party—is any or minor party—is any political party, besides political party, besides

the two dominant the two dominant ones, that seeks to ones, that seeks to

directly participate in directly participate in the government.the government.

Which one of y’all can tell Which one of y’all can tell me what restrictions there me what restrictions there are on minor parties in the are on minor parties in the

U. S. of A?U. S. of A? Considerable number of signaturesConsiderable number of signatures required to get on ballotrequired to get on ballotRequirements vary state-to-stateRequirements vary state-to-stateNumerous different election laws in each state Numerous different election laws in each state Must get 5% of the popular vote in a general Must get 5% of the popular vote in a general election to be eligible for public funding, which election to be eligible for public funding, which is not provided until after the election.is not provided until after the election.

Your text discusses Your text discusses types of minor parties. types of minor parties. Let’s now go over each. Let’s now go over each.

What’s a What’s a protest protest partyparty? ?

Mr. Leno, I am the late Mr. Leno, I am the late William Jennings Bryan, a William Jennings Bryan, a

member of a protest party, member of a protest party, the Populist Party. We the Populist Party. We grew grew

out of protests out of protests against against railroads, banks, and railroads, banks, and

government policies in the government policies in the 1890s. 1890s.

I’m California Green Party I’m California Green Party leader, Peter Camejo. I leader, Peter Camejo. I represent an ideological represent an ideological party, the Green Party. party, the Green Party. What is an What is an ideological ideological

party?party?

An ideological party is a An ideological party is a party whose basic party whose basic

political views differ political views differ from those of the from those of the

majority of the majority of the population.population.

I’d rather I’d rather be fishingbe fishing

Single-Issue parties are essentially advocacySingle-Issue parties are essentially advocacy groups (Prohibition Party)groups (Prohibition Party)

Bully, I formed a Bully, I formed a splinter splinter partyparty. Who can tell me . Who can tell me

what that is?what that is?Mr. President, Mr. President, you formed you formed

the the Progressive, Progressive,

or Bull or Bull Moose, Party,Moose, Party, when you when you felt felt

the the RepublicanRepublican

Party no Party no longer longer

addressed addressed your your

concerns.concerns.

Mustangs, I’m former Mustangs, I’m former Vice President Al Gore. Vice President Al Gore.

Third parties can Third parties can change the outcome change the outcome

of elections. of elections. For For example, H. Ross example, H. Ross

Perot’s performance Perot’s performance helped me be elected helped me be elected vice president in vice president in 19921992, ,

but Ralph Nader’s but Ralph Nader’s performance in Florida performance in Florida helped George Bush helped George Bush

defeat me for defeat me for president in president in 20002000..

U. S. Political History: The Six Party Systems U. S. Political History: The Six Party Systems Federalists vs. Democratic-RepublicansFederalists vs. Democratic-RepublicansDemocrats vs. Whigs Democrats vs. Whigs

Republicans vs. Democrats, 1861-1896* Republicans vs. Democrats, 1861-1896* Republican Dominance, 1894-1932*Republican Dominance, 1894-1932*New Deal & Democratic Dominance*New Deal & Democratic Dominance*De-Alignment and Divided GovernmentDe-Alignment and Divided GovernmentParties at war (hyperpartisanship)Parties at war (hyperpartisanship)*Realignment period included*Realignment period included

Realignment—a process, or period, when oneRealignment—a process, or period, when one party replaces the other as dominantparty replaces the other as dominant*1860-1868*1860-1868*1894-1900*1894-1900*1932-1936*1932-1936Dealignment—a gradual reduction in the Dealignment—a gradual reduction in the dominance of one party without another partydominance of one party without another party supplanting it supplanting it Divided government: one party—presidency;Divided government: one party—presidency; other party—one or both houses of Congressother party—one or both houses of Congress

The Republican Party The Republican Party

The Democratic PartyThe Democratic PartyThe Reform Party,The Reform Party,formerly led by formerly led by H. Ross Perot H. Ross Perot

The Peace and Freedom Party—The Peace and Freedom Party—very left wing (liberal)very left wing (liberal)

The Green The Green Party Party

The American Independent PartyThe American Independent Party

The Libertarian Party The Libertarian Party Let’s check them all

Let’s look atCalifornia

I say, Mustang seniors, I am I say, Mustang seniors, I am David Cameron, Prime David Cameron, Prime Minister of the United Minister of the United

Kingdom. Kingdom. American parties American parties tend to be structured tend to be structured

differentlydifferently than those in the than those in the UK or other nations. UK or other nations. How How

soso? Jolly!? Jolly!

Other countries: parties are hierarchically Other countries: parties are hierarchically structured, led by full-time party professionals, structured, led by full-time party professionals, and are traditionally committed to a set of and are traditionally committed to a set of ideological principles. ideological principles. They tend to have They tend to have clearly defined membership requirements,clearly defined membership requirements,centralized control over party nominations and centralized control over party nominations and electoral financing, and disciplinary authority electoral financing, and disciplinary authority over elected party members. Major U. S. over elected party members. Major U. S. parties: none of the aboveparties: none of the above

That is right, President That is right, President Reagan. Reagan. The Democrats The Democrats

and Republicans have both and Republicans have both state and national state and national

organizations, but party organizations, but party leaders cannot issue leaders cannot issue

orders.orders.

All right, now, let’s talk All right, now, let’s talk Republicans and Republicans and

Democrats. Democrats. They tend to They tend to be loose collections of be loose collections of local and state parties, local and state parties, campaign committees, campaign committees, candidates and office candidates and office

holdersholders..

Wow! Did someone Wow! Did someone say party???say party???

Thanks Presidents Reagan Thanks Presidents Reagan and Johnson. While the and Johnson. While the

Democrats and Democrats and Republicans have strong Republicans have strong

national party national party organizations, organizations, many many Americans, although Americans, although

belonging to parties, do belonging to parties, do not strongly identify with not strongly identify with

those parties.those parties.Not that Not that type of type of party, party,

Tommy.Tommy.

In fact, as I told In fact, as I told you once before, you once before, among the public, among the public, many people are many people are swing voters—swing voters—

they change the they change the party they vote party they vote for from election for from election to electionto election. In . In

19921992 this this situation was situation was

called the called the “soccer “soccer mom” vote—mom” vote—

young to middle-young to middle-age women who age women who

voted for Bill voted for Bill Clinton because Clinton because he appealed to he appealed to

them as a person.them as a person.

Right you are, Miss Becky; Right you are, Miss Becky; still still each party has a set of each party has a set of

core supporters—some core supporters—some call them the party base—call them the party base—which the party can count which the party can count

on for votes, campaign on for votes, campaign contributions, and contributions, and

activistsactivists..

Republican supportersRepublican supporters,, like me,like me, are strongest are strongest

among white folks in the among white folks in the South and Rocky South and Rocky Mountain West.Mountain West.

And, Chris, And, Chris, Democratic Democratic supporterssupporters, like me, , like me, are are strongest among African strongest among African

Americans, Jews, non-Cuban Americans, Jews, non-Cuban Hispanics, people with secular Hispanics, people with secular beliefs, the intelligentsia, union beliefs, the intelligentsia, union

households, and, of course, households, and, of course, liberals. We tend to live in the liberals. We tend to live in the

Northeast and on the West Northeast and on the West CoastCoast..

Gotta love those Gotta love those hippie, liberal hippie, liberal Democrats, Democrats,

especially the ones especially the ones who can’t remember who can’t remember the 1960s! Go San the 1960s! Go San

Francisco and Francisco and Haight-Ashbury!!!Haight-Ashbury!!!

Chris, Thomas, and Miss Chris, Thomas, and Miss Becky, increasingly in Becky, increasingly in

recent years, recent years, both major both major parties have tried to win parties have tried to win

elections by first elections by first mobilizing mobilizing youyou core core

supporters—the process is supporters—the process is called “rallying the base”. called “rallying the base”. They focus on issues and They focus on issues and symbolic gestures that symbolic gestures that

bring core supporters to bring core supporters to the polls. Then they try to the polls. Then they try to

win a majority among win a majority among those voters not those voters not

automatically predisposed automatically predisposed to one party or the other to one party or the other in the general election.in the general election.

As such, Jay, we have learned that As such, Jay, we have learned that in primary electionsin primary elections, when , when

candidates vie for their party’s candidates vie for their party’s nomination, nomination, Democrats must Democrats must

appeal to the more liberal appeal to the more liberal membersmembers of their party and of their party and

Republicans must appeal to the Republicans must appeal to the more conservativemore conservative members of members of

their party. That’s why I, their party. That’s why I, Richard Richard NixonNixon, used to tell people to , used to tell people to run run as far to the right as possible in as far to the right as possible in

the primaries and then run in the the primaries and then run in the centercenter during the campaign during the campaign for for

the general election.the general election.The NixonThe NixonMaximMaxim

Thanks, President Nixon. Here Thanks, President Nixon. Here are two good are two good charts from our charts from our

textbook that show the textbook that show the organization of political organization of political

partiesparties.. How do these show How do these show that organizations are that organizations are candidate-centered?candidate-centered?

The various elements of both parties are The various elements of both parties are relatively independent from one anotherrelatively independent from one anotherAct based on shared interests, sentiment,Act based on shared interests, sentiment, ideology, and the desire to win electionsideology, and the desire to win electionsOfficial party organizations do not control the Official party organizations do not control the nomination of candidates running under a nomination of candidates running under a party label, or the flow of money that funds party label, or the flow of money that funds campaigns, or the behavior of officeholderscampaigns, or the behavior of officeholders

Another thing Another thing parties parties do is do is hold party hold party

nominating nominating conventionsconventions every 4 every 4

years to formally years to formally nominate candidates nominate candidates for president and vice for president and vice

president. The president. The conventions also conventions also

develop and presentdevelop and present to to the people the people party party

platforms—official platforms—official statements of party statements of party

policypolicy..

That’s true, Governor That’s true, Governor Schwarzenegger, but Schwarzenegger, but remember that remember that party party

platforms are often huge and platforms are often huge and vague documents, and vague documents, and

hardly anyone reads themhardly anyone reads them. . The reason why is The reason why is because because anything specific and short anything specific and short might give people a reason might give people a reason to vote AGAINST the partyto vote AGAINST the party. .

And And nominees do not have to nominees do not have to adhere to the platformsadhere to the platforms—so —so really they are nothing but really they are nothing but

pro forma pro forma documents.documents.

Both American parties have Both American parties have mascots: Republicans use mascots: Republicans use

the elephantthe elephant for their for their mascot and mascot and the Democrats the Democrats

use the donkeyuse the donkey for their for their mascot.mascot.

At the At the national level national level there are party there are party

chairpersonschairpersons. I’m . I’m Reince Priebus, the Reince Priebus, the RepublicanRepublican chairchair, , and that’s and that’s Debbie Debbie

Wasserman SchulzWasserman Schulz, , the Democratic the Democratic

chairchair. .

Reince, asReince, as party chairs party chairs, you , you and I, and I, assisted by assisted by ourour staffs, staffs,

really run the business of really run the business of our respective our respective national national

committees. committees. But you have But you have more power than I do, more power than I do,

because the because the presidentpresident, our , our party’s actual leaderparty’s actual leader, is a , is a

Democrat.Democrat.

The functions of The functions of national party national party organizations:organizations:•Nominate the nationalNominate the national ticketticket•Attempt to unify the Attempt to unify the party’s diverse factionsparty’s diverse factions•Adopt the party platformAdopt the party platform•Showcase past and future party leadersShowcase past and future party leaders•Attack the opposition partyAttack the opposition party•Use the free television time to appeal for mass Use the free television time to appeal for mass support; do the same on the party’s websitesupport; do the same on the party’s website•Raise money for candidatesRaise money for candidates

Students, Congressman Jeff Students, Congressman Jeff Denham, from California’s Denham, from California’s 1919thth District, here. Don’t District, here. Don’t forget that there are forget that there are 4 4

congressional campaign congressional campaign committeescommittees: GOP House, : GOP House, Democratic House, GOP Democratic House, GOP Senate, and Democratic Senate, and Democratic Senate; they are Senate; they are highly highly

organized and well funded. organized and well funded. They do a lot to help They do a lot to help

congressional candidates congressional candidates and incumbents in their and incumbents in their

campaignscampaigns..

Also, don’t forget that the Also, don’t forget that the partiesparties, or candidates , or candidates

from those parties, from those parties, align align with certain interest and with certain interest and

advocacy groupsadvocacy groups——sometimes called sometimes called Super Super PacsPacs. The . The main effect main effect of of

the rise of advocacy the rise of advocacy groups in recent years groups in recent years has been to has been to push the push the

parties and their parties and their candidates into more candidates into more

ideological and partisan ideological and partisan directionsdirections..

Back to us. So which one Back to us. So which one of you is going to of you is going to define define

the term ideologythe term ideology??

As governor I can say it is a As governor I can say it is a coherently coherently organized set of beliefs about the organized set of beliefs about the

fundamental nature of good society and fundamental nature of good society and the role government ought to play in the role government ought to play in

achieving it.achieving it.

Ok, I understand ideology. Ok, I understand ideology. But But why have our country’s why have our country’s two major parties tended to two major parties tended to

tone down matters of tone down matters of ideology over the yearsideology over the years??

Mr. Leno, sir, it’s because Mr. Leno, sir, it’s because with the winner-take-all, with the winner-take-all, single-member-district single-member-district

system, you have to tone system, you have to tone down ideology and rhetoric down ideology and rhetoric to attract the large numbers to attract the large numbers

of people in the political of people in the political center—the Nixon maximcenter—the Nixon maxim..

Now, who out there in the Now, who out there in the class can tell me what class can tell me what each party traditionally each party traditionally

stands for?stands for?

Hey Hottie!!! Let’s do Hey Hottie!!! Let’s do some brainstorming some brainstorming with the students.with the students.

I can’t wait for tonight’s I can’t wait for tonight’s date—we’re going to date—we’re going to

study chemistry, study chemistry, calculus and physics!! calculus and physics!!

What fun!!!What fun!!!

Ohhh Kay!! Let’s list some Ohhh Kay!! Let’s list some of the ideas behind the of the ideas behind the

Democratic Party. Democratic Party.

Democrats stress Democrats stress opportunity, responsibility, freedom, peace and opportunity, responsibility, freedom, peace and communitycommunity. They are committed to improving . They are committed to improving education, guaranteeing economic security for education, guaranteeing economic security for families, fighting crime and strengthening families, fighting crime and strengthening national security. Many are national security. Many are on theon the liberal liberal side side of the political spectrum, meaning they areof the political spectrum, meaning they are pro-choice, and for environmental protection,pro-choice, and for environmental protection,big government, higher taxes & social programs.big government, higher taxes & social programs.

Let’s now list some of Let’s now list some of the ideas behind the the ideas behind the

Republican Party.Republican Party.

RepublicansRepublicans tend to tend to be on the be on the right side of the right side of the political spectrumpolitical spectrum. Many . Many are are pro-life, againstpro-life, againstunlimited affirmative action,unlimited affirmative action,pro-business, against same pro-business, against same gender marriages, and gender marriages, and believe in smaller govern-believe in smaller govern-ment, crime prevention through punishment,ment, crime prevention through punishment,and having a strong militaryand having a strong military..

Remember, Remember, Democrats, as Democrats, as a rule, are ideologically a rule, are ideologically

more diversemore diverse than than Republicans. But Republicans. But both both

parties accommodate all parties accommodate all kinds of peoplekinds of people. There are . There are conservative Democrats conservative Democrats and liberal Republicansand liberal Republicans. .

There are rich Democrats There are rich Democrats and poor Republicans; and poor Republicans;

African-Americans, Jews, African-Americans, Jews, Catholics, and Hispanics Catholics, and Hispanics are represented in both are represented in both

partiesparties..

Also, and I’m a good Also, and I’m a good example of this point, example of this point,

both both the Democratic and the Democratic and Republican Republican parties are parties are really moderate in their really moderate in their policies and leadershippolicies and leadership. . Conservative and liberal Conservative and liberal extremists tend to be in extremists tend to be in other splinter parties. other splinter parties.

Each party also employs Each party also employs professional political professional political strategists whose job it is strategists whose job it is to plan strategies to win to plan strategies to win electionselections. Two of the . Two of the more more famous strategists are famous strategists are married to each other: married to each other: Mary Mary MatilinMatilin is a major is a major RepublicanRepublican PartyParty strategist and strategist and James James CarvilleCarville is a major is a major Democratic PartyDemocratic Party strategist.strategist.

The The parties are parties are also strong in also strong in CongressCongress. .

MembersMembers, such as, such as Senator Diane Senator Diane Feinstein (D, CA)Feinstein (D, CA) and John Warnerand John Warner

(R, VA) (R, VA) usually usually vote with their party on most issuesvote with their party on most issues. . All All key leaders are members of the majority key leaders are members of the majority party—the party that has won the most party—the party that has won the most seats.seats.

Also, the Also, the staffs of staffs of Members of Congress are Members of Congress are

very partisanvery partisan; they ; they generally have to be loyal generally have to be loyal

members of the members of the Representative’s or Representative’s or

Senator’s party to get a Senator’s party to get a job on that person’s staff.job on that person’s staff.

Also, the Also, the staffs of all staffs of all congressional committees are congressional committees are

very partisanvery partisan—there is a —there is a Republican staff and a Republican staff and a

Democratic staff for each Democratic staff for each committee.committee.

What do Greenberg and What do Greenberg and Page say about Page say about divisions divisions

within partieswithin parties??

Despite apparent party cohesion Despite apparent party cohesion today, there still are important today, there still are important disagreements within parties. There disagreements within parties. There is NOT perfect unity.is NOT perfect unity.

Democrats: liberal wing and a centrist wingDemocrats: liberal wing and a centrist wingRepublicans: centrist wing and conservative wing,Republicans: centrist wing and conservative wing, not best personified in the Tea Party not best personified in the Tea Party

Lieutenant Governor Gavin Lieutenant Governor Gavin Newsome here. Newsome here. What What

conditions have been in conditions have been in place when the place when the

U. S. has had unified U. S. has had unified governmentgovernment? How about ? How about

gridlockgridlock??

Lt. Governor Lt. Governor Newsome, I’d love to Newsome, I’d love to

have have unified unified government government right nowright now

—it means that —it means that one one partyparty, in my case the , in my case the

Democrats, would Democrats, would control both houses of control both houses of

Congress and the Congress and the presidencypresidency. My . My

predecessor was the predecessor was the last president to have last president to have that. What we have that. What we have

now is now is gridlock—gridlock—nothing seems to get nothing seems to get

donedone..

Miss Becky Nerd, this has Miss Becky Nerd, this has been such an interesting been such an interesting discussion. Do you have discussion. Do you have

another question for these another question for these students.students.

I sure do, Pete Nerd. I sure do, Pete Nerd. Who can tell us the Who can tell us the

definition of the term definition of the term electorateelectorate??

He is such a He is such a hottie!hottie!

What a total What a total fox!!!fox!!!

ElementaryElementary, you , you

beautiful beautiful woman, woman,

you.you. Electorate: Electorate: the body of the body of

people people entitled to entitled to

vote.vote.

That’s That’s great, great,

honey. honey. Who can Who can

tell me the tell me the key points key points

our our authors authors make make

about the about the electorateelectorate

? ?

Parties provide mental cues or images in the Parties provide mental cues or images in the minds of voters, creating party identificationminds of voters, creating party identificationPolitical ID helps determine people’s politicalPolitical ID helps determine people’s political attitudes on a wide range of issues.attitudes on a wide range of issues.Party identity is a powerful shaper of one’s Party identity is a powerful shaper of one’s political identitypolitical identityParty labels help organize the way people Party labels help organize the way people think about issues and guide them in votingthink about issues and guide them in votingThis thinking plays a large role in which party This thinking plays a large role in which party controls the presidencycontrols the presidency

I’m an I’m an active partisan—I active partisan—I vote and I am engaged in vote and I am engaged in

other party, candidate, and other party, candidate, and party-support activities. I party-support activities. I contribute to campaigns, contribute to campaigns,

attend campaign meetings, attend campaign meetings, put bumper stickers on my put bumper stickers on my carcar, and do other stuff like , and do other stuff like

that.that.Yeah, Chris. But, I’m a Yeah, Chris. But, I’m a leaner—an leaner—an

independent who leans slightly independent who leans slightly toward one partytoward one party. For me, it’s the . For me, it’s the Democrats (or any candidate that Democrats (or any candidate that likes the Giants.) You know, likes the Giants.) You know, the the

number of people who say they are number of people who say they are independents, including leaners, independents, including leaners,

has rapidly increasedhas rapidly increased..

Mr. President, Mr. President, that was a that was a quick tutorial quick tutorial on U. S. on U. S. political political parties. parties. Anything Anything you’d like to you’d like to add?add?

Only, Jay, that I hope the Only, Jay, that I hope the text’s authors are wrong text’s authors are wrong about this being the 7about this being the 7thth party eraparty era——if the parties if the parties are indeed at war, are indeed at war, gridlock may continue and gridlock may continue and that is never good.that is never good.