andrew guernsey's biology portfolio 2008-2009
DESCRIPTION
This is my completed biology portfolio for Mr. Snyder's Freshman Biology Course at Rhodora J. Donahue Academy of Ave MariaTRANSCRIPT
biology
portfolio dna rna
Andrew
Guernsey
First Quarter
1) Nasonia & Pupae Lab 2) Microscope Activity 1 3) Microscope Activity 2 4) Microscope Activity 3 5) Microscope Activity 4 6) Cork Cell Drawing 7) Animal Cell Drawing 8) Plant Cell Drawing 9) Diffusion & Cell Size
10) Mitosis Drawing
Second Quarter
1) Meiosis Drawing 2) Mendelian Genetics Lab 1 3) Mendelian Genetics Lab 2 4) Mendelian Genetics Lab 3 5) Mendelian Genetics Lab 4 6) DNA Model & Replication Lab 7) RNA Transcription 8) RNA Translation Lab 9) Assessment Questions 10) Classification Lab
11) Concepts of Classification Kit
Third Quarter 1) Natural Selection Lab 2) Phylogenetic Tree Drawing 3) Clam Lab Report 4) Mollusk Coloring 5) Earthworm Lab Report 6) Earthworm Coloring 7) Crayfish Lab Report 8) Starfish Lab Report 9) Starfish Coloring 10) Vertebrate Phylogenetic Tree
11) Phylum Chordata Coloring
Fourth Quarter
1) Perch Lab Report 2) Frog Lab Report 3) Frog Coloring 4) Heart Rate Lab Report 5) Blood Type Lab Report 6) A Day Meal Plan
7) Biology Reflection Essay
s
September 26, 2008
The Nasonia crawled on top of the pupae and attempted to sting them..
I believe the Nasonia are trying to sting the pupae because the pupae would become predators .
Behavior:
Description:
The cocoon is brown; dark and light brown are scattered throughout. It is slightly transparent.
Description:
Some Nasonia are brown, others are yellowish. The wings are retracted and not fully developed. The thorax and wings are of a lighter shade than the head and abdomen..
Pupae Nasonia
Lab Report Sheet
Part A: Observations
Part B: Hypothesis
Part C: Experimental Design
Step 1: Set up two test tubes. One will have Nasionia and pupae in it, and the other will have only pupae.
Step 2: Record activity over the next two weeks.
Part D: Data Collection
Part E: Conclusion
I conclude that the Nasoniae laid eggs in the pupae and that the pupae were then eaten by the Nasoniae larvae.
Analysis
My original hypothesis was incorrect.
Nasonia are called parasites because they attacked the pupae, their hosts, and used them to lay and shelter their eggs in. The eggs hatched within the cocoon and the pupae were a food source.
I think they fly off to find food, a mate, and lay eggs. .find other food sources.
Butterflies are another insect.
They inserted their eggs into the pupae by sticking the stinger-like object on their abdomens into the pupae’s cocoons.
I created a hypothesis, observed, modeled an experiment, collected data and drew a conclusion.
Nasonia begin in eggs, then hatch into larvae. The larvae eat the Sarcophaga pupae and develop into pupae themselves. The Nasonia pupae molt and become adults. The adults mate. The pregnant female then lays her fertilized eggs in living Sarcophaga pupae. Then the life cycle begins again.
The lens looks like
a transparent
dome. In some
ways it also
resembled an eye.
The lens magnifies the text very little. The shadow
made by the index card makes it hard to see.
The objects were magnified only a little. It was hard to
see the large images because of the small size of the lens.
A device that bends light and focuses it to enlarge an
image.
A tool which uses lenses and mirrors to enlarge images
with clarity.
40x
The image is backwards and upside down.
The paper, which looks brownish blue under
the microscope, seems to have many little
holies in it, like some ancient manuscript.
40x
For example: What is the magnification ratio of an
apparent image at the lowest power total magnification
(40X) if 4mm if it measures 4 mm?
Magnification =
40x 100x 400x
1.1 2
1.4
400x
I. Title: Diffusion and Cell Size
II. Purpose: To determine the extent and rate of diffusion into three different-sized
..................agar cubes.
III. Materials: 1) 3 cm x 3 cm x 6 cm agar block
.................... 2) Plastic Knife
.....................3) Plastic Cup
.....................4) Plastic Ruler
.....................5) Diffusion Medium
IV. Procedures: 1) Using a plastic knife, trim a 3 cmx 3 cm x 6 cm agar block into a
.........................cube 3 cm x 3 cm x 3 cm block. Repeat this procedure to make two
.........................more cubes 2 cm3 and 1 cm3
2) Place the three cubes carefully into a plastic cup. Add diffusion medium until the cup is approximately half full. Be sure the cubes are completely submerged. Using a plastic spoon, keep the cubes submerged for 10 minutes, turning them occasionally and being careful not to scratch any surface of the cubes.
3) As the cubes soak, calculate the surface area, volume, and surface area to volume ratio for each cube. Record these values in Data Table 1.
4) After 10 minutes, use a spoon to remove the agar cubes and carefully blot them dry on a paper towel. Then, cut the cubes in half. Note the color change from red or pink to clear that indicates the diffusion of the diffusion medium into the cube.
5) Using a metric ruler, measure the distance in centimeters that the diffusion medium diffused into each cube. Record the data in Data Table 2. Next, record the total time of diffusion. Finally, calculate and record the rate of diffusion for each cube as centimeters per minute.
6) Examine the extent of diffusion for each cube. Visually estimate the percentage of diffusion into the cube. Record your estimate in Data Table 3.
7) Calculate the volume of the portion of each cube that has not changed color. Record your results in Data Table 3.
8) Calculate the extent of actual diffusion into each cube as a percent of the total volume.
V. Data: a. Data Table 1: Agar Cubes:
Cube Size Surface Area (cm2)
Volume (cm3)
Surface to Volume Ratio
3 cm3 54 27 2:1
2 cm3 24 8 3:1
1 cm3 6 1 6:1
b. Data Table 2: Rate of Diffusion:
Cube Size Depth of Diffusion (cm)
Time (min.)
Rate of Diffusion (cm/min.)
3 cm3 0.8 10 0.08
2 cm3 0.8 10 0.08
1 cm3 0.5 10 0.05
c. Data Table 3: Extent of Diffusion:
Cube Size Total Volume of cube (cm3)
Estimated % of cube that has changed
color
Volume of Cube that has not changed
color
% Volume of cube which has changed
color (extent of diffusion)
3 cm3 27 17 22.41 17
2 cm3 8 14 6.88 14
1 cm3 1 40 0.6 40
VI. Analyze and Conclude: 1) The use of a pH indicator allowed me to visualize the .............................................extent of diffusion into the cubes because the diffusion .............................................medium, vinegar, caused the pH indicator to change .............................................from pink to clear as far as diffusion occurred.
2) According to Data Table 2, the diffusion medium diffused the deepest into the 3 cm3 and 2 cm3 cubes.
3) The diffusion medium diffused by the most by volume into the 1 cm3 cube.
4) The rate of diffusion was the same for the 3 cm3 and 2 cm3 cubes, but lower in the 1 cm3 cube. Thus, I make the generalized statement that smaller cells have quicker rates of diffusion than larger cells.
5) As a cell grows larger, surface area and volume increase, but their ratio decreases.
6) If each cube represented a living cell and the diffusion medium a substance needed within the cell, then the largest cell would not receive the substances it need fast enough. It would take too long to travel.
7) Based on my results, I conclude that ideally, cells want to have as large surface area as possible, with the smallest volume as is possible. This allows for diffusion to occur most efficiently within cells.
8) A 0.01 mm human cell would have a surface area of 0.0006 mm2 and a volume of 0.000001 mm3. The surface area to volume ratio would therefore be 600:1 for this cell. As compared to the smallest agar cube, the agar cube would diffuse much faster because of its much larger surface area. However the extent of diffusion would be much greater into much smaller volume of human cell.
9) Diffusion is not the only method in which substances enter and exit a cell. In the simulation, factors such as active transport, facilitated diffusion, and several others are not accounted for.
10) Osmosis Diffusion
Diffusion of water
only
Movement across
cell membrane
Diffusion of any
substance
Movement is
not always
across a cell
membrane
Passive
Transport
Occurs
within body
Mieosis
I
Mieosis
II
Phosphate
Group
Deoxyribose
Sugar
Hydrogen
Bond Nitrogen
Base
10) Osmosis Diffusion
Found in mRNA
Move from the
nucleus to the
cytosol
A group of three
nucleotides
Necessary for protein
synthesis
Contain uracil, not
thymine as a nitrogen
base
Found in tRNA
Found in the
cytosol only
Codons Anticodons
Kingdom Archaebacteria
Cell(s) without a nucleus.
Makes own food from chemicals.
Body form: single cells; rod-shaped; spherical, or irregular in shape
Found only in extreme environments: extremely hot temperatures, extremely salty water, or environments without oxygen.
Reproduces only by asexual means.
Taxonomy Group characteristics
No: 54 Name: Sulfolobus acidocaldarius Group: Thermophile Archaebacteria
Cells irregular in shape; found only in extremely hot, sulfur-rich water; makes its own food from chemicals
No: 26 Name: Methanoccus voltaei Group: Methanogen Archaebacteria
Cells spherical in shape; makes methane gas as a waste product.
Kingdom Eubacteria
Cell(s) without a nucleus
Motile OR non-motile.
Makes its own food OR feeds on others.
Body form: single cells, cells in chains, groups, or slender threads.
Reproduces only by asexual means.
Taxonomy Phylum characteristics Class Characteristics No: 52 Name: Borelia burgdorteri Class: Spirochaete Bacteria Phylum: True Bacteria
Cell has a nucleus visible with a microscope appearing as: spheres, spirals, chains, or small groups; cannot make its own food by photosynthesis.
Spiral-shaped; parasitic
No: 45 Name: Rhizobium leguminosarum Class: Nitrogen-fixing Bacteria Phylum: True Bacteria
Cell has a nucleus visible with a microscope appearing as: spheres, spirals, chains, or small groups; cannot make its own food by photosynthesis.
Makes nitrogen compounds
No: 20 Name: Lactobacillus acidophilus Class: Fermentation Bacteria Phylum: True Bacteria
Cell has a nucleus visible with a microscope appearing as: spheres, spirals, chains, or small groups; cannot make its own food by photosynthesis.
Makes energy molecules by fermentation.
No: 43 Name: Gloeocapsa minuta Class: Sphere cyanobacteria Phylum: Cyanobacteria
Cell without a nucleus, visible only through a microscope; appearing as long hair-like threads or in groups called “colonies.” Cells have blue-green color. Cells make their own food from the sun by photosynthesis.
Cells arranged in groups called “colonies.”
No: 25 Name: Microcystis aeruginosa Class: Sphere cyanobacteria Phylum: Cyanobacteria
Cell without a nucleus, visible only through a microscope; appearing as long hair-like threads or in groups called “colonies.” Cells have blue-green color. Cells make their own food from the sun by photosynthesis.
Cells arranged in groups called “colonies.”
No: 13 Name: Spirdina platensis Class: Thread cyanobacteria Phylum: Cyanobacteria
Cell without a nucleus, visible only through a microscope; appearing as long hair-like threads or in groups called “colonies.” Cells have blue-green color. Cells make their own food from the sun by photosynthesis.
Rectangle or bead-shaped cells arranged one-on-top of another to form a thread.
No: 16 Name: Oscillatoria chalybea Class: Thread cyanobacteria Phylum: Cyanobacteria
Cell without a nucleus, visible only through a microscope; appearing as long hair-like threads or in groups called “colonies.” Cells have blue-green color. Cells make their own food from the sun by photosynthesis.
Rectangle or bead-shaped cells arranged one-on-top of another to form a thread.
No: 50 Name: Anabaena variabilis Class: Thread cyanobacteria Phylum: Cyanobacteria
Cell without a nucleus, visible only through a microscope; appearing as long hair-like threads or in groups called “colonies.” Cells have blue-green color. Cells make their own food from the sun by photosynthesis.
Rectangle or bead-shaped cells arranged one-on-top of another to form a thread.
No: 17 Name: Bacillus subtilis Class: Thread cyanobacteria Phylum: True Bacteria
Cell has a nucleus visible with a microscope appearing as: spheres, spirals, chains, or small groups; cannot make its own food by photosynthesis.
Rectangle or bead-shaped cells arranged one-on-top of another to form a thread.
Methanogen
E. Coli
Kingdom Protista
Cell(s) with a nucleus.
Motile OR non-motile.
Makes its own food OR feeds on others – many switch from one feeding method to the other.
Great variety in body form: single cells, groups of like cells; thread-like chains of cells.
Reproduces by either asexual or sexual means.
Taxonomy Phylum characteristics No: 30 Name: Spirogyra communis Phylum: Thread Protists
Cells arranged end-to-end in a thread.
No: 33 Name: Navicula capitata Phylum: Diatoms
Cells do not move about; have glass-like shells with distinct and delicate patterns.
No: 55 Name: Trypanosoma brucei Phylum: Flaggelates
Cells move using long, hair-like structures called “flagella.”
No: 9 Name: Amoeba proteus Phylum: Amoebas
Cells move using finger-like projections or “psedopods;” some may have shells.
No: 34 Name: Dileptus anser Phylum: Cilates
Cells move using short hair-like structures called “cilia.”
No: 51 Name: Volvox globator Phylum: Colony Protists
Cells not arranged in a thread, but together in a colony.
No: 40 Name: Euglera viridis Phylum: Flagellates
Cells move using long, hair-like structures called “flagella.”
No: 60 Name: Paramecium caudatum Phylum: Ciliates
Cells move using short hair-like structures called “cilia.”
Paramecium
Kingdom Fungi
Body made up of many cells, each having a nucleus.
Non-motile.
Gets food from others by absorbing nutrients found outside its cells.
Body made up of a system of thread-like structures called “hyphae.”
Reproduces by either asexual or sexual means.
Taxonomy Phylum characteristics No: 4 Name: Coprinus comatus Phylum: Mushrooms
Fungus appears spherical, shelf-like, or “mushroom-shaped.”
No: 56 Name: Rhizopus Stolonifer Phylum: Molds
Spore cases look like lollipops or brooms.
No: 24 Name: Lycoperdon genmatum Phylum: Sac Fungi
Spore cases are sac-like fingers with inside spores arranged like peas in a pod.
No: 44 Name: Rhytisma acerinum Phylum: Sac Fungi
Spore cases are sac-like fingers with inside spores arranged like peas in a pod.
No: 49 Name: Ganoderma tsugae Phylum: Mushrooms
Fungus appears spherical, shelf-like, or “mushroom-shaped.”
No:11 Name: Aspergillus niger Phylum: Molds
Spore cases look like lollipops or brooms.
No: 47 Name: Difflugia Oblonga Phylum: Sac Fungi
Spore cases are sac-like fingers with inside spores arranged like peas in a pod.
No: 48 Name: Penicillium chrysogenum Phylum: Molds
Spore cases look like lollipops or brooms.
Panther Cap
Kingdom Plantae
Body structure made up of many cells, each having a nucleus.
Most with fluid-transporting tissues.
Organs present – roots, stems and leaves.
Non-motile.
Makes its own food from the energy in sunlight (photosynthesis).
Reproduces by either asexual or sexual means.
Taxonomy Phylum characteristics Class Characteristics
No: 59 Name: Thalassia testudinum Class: Monocot Phylum: Angiosperm
Plant body leafy and upright. Plant has leaves with parallel veins; plant embryo has single “seed leaf.”
No: 57 Name: Anthoceros punctatus Class: n/a Phylum: Hornworts
Flat “liver-shaped” plant body n/a
No: 2 Name: Helianthus annuus Class: Dicots Phylum: Ferns
Plant has broad, triangular leaves; round spore cases containing spores found on the underside of leaves; root-like stems called “rhizomes” present.
Plant has leaves with net-like veins; plant embryo has two “seed leaves.”
No: 53 Name: Zea mays Class: Monocots Phylum: Angiosperms
Plant with broad shaped leaves; seeds produced within fruit; flowers present.
Plant has leaves with parallel veins; plant embryo has single “seed leaf.”
No: 15 Name: Quercus alba Class: Dicots Phylum: Angiosperms
Plant with broad shaped leaves; seeds produced within fruit; flowers present.
Plant has leaves with net-like veins; plant embryo has two “seed leaves.”
No: 23 Name: Picea pungens Class: n/a Phylum: Conifers
Plant with needle-shaed leaves; seeds produced in cones; no fruits or floweres present.
n/a
No: 19 Name: Lycopodium obscarum Class: n/a Phylum: Club Mosses
Spore cases shaped like cones. n/a
No: 10 Name: Polypodium virginianum Class: n/a Phylum: Ferns
Plant has broad, triangular leaves; round spore cases containing spores found on the underside of leaves; root-like stems called “rhizomes” present.
n/a
No: 37 Name: Polytrichum longissimum Class: n/a Phylum: Mosses
Plant body “leafy” and upright n/a
Saguaro Cactus
Kingdom Animalia (Eumetazoa)
Body structure made up of many cells, each having a nucleus.
Most with tissues and organs.
Most are motile.
Cannot make its own food – all feed on others
Reproduces by either asexual or sexual means.
Taxonomy Phylum characteristics Class Characteristics
No: 21 Name: Homarus americanus Class: Decapods Phylum: Arthropods
Body divided into two or three parts; with jointed appendages and a hard outer covering.
Large in size; has 10 legs.
No: 22 Name: Onychorhynchus mykiss Class: Bony Fishes Phylum: Chordates
Body not within a shell; has an internal stiffening rod or backbone made of cartilage or bone; a nerve or spinal cord; with gill slits sometime during life; most with paired appendages.
Body with an internal skeleton made of bone; body covered with flattened scales; breathes through covered gills; with paired fins.
No: 41 Name: Panthera leo Class: Mammals Phylum: Chordates
Body not within a shell; has an internal stiffening rod or backbone made of cartilage or bone; a nerve or spinal cord; with gill slits sometime during life; most with paired appendages.
Body with an internal skeleton made of bone; body covered with hairs; teeth usually with four types; young born alive and feed on milk.
No: 9 Name: Alces alces Class: Mammal Phylum: Chordates
Body not within a shell; has an internal stiffening rod or backbone made of cartilage or bone; a nerve or spinal cord; with gill slits sometime during life; most with paired appendages.
Body with an internal skeleton made of bone; body covered with hairs; teeth usually with four types; young born alive and feed on milk.
No: 38 Name: Alligator mississippiensis Class: Reptiles Phylum: Chordates
Body not within a shell; has an internal stiffening rod or backbone made of cartilage or bone; a nerve or spinal cord; with gill slits sometime during life; most with paired appendages.
Body with an internal skeleton made of bone; body covered in dry, scaly skin; breathes through internal sacs or lungs; has leathery-feeling eggs.
No: 18 Name: Scolopendra polymorpha Class: Centipedes Phylum: Arthropods
Body divided into two or three parts; with joined appendages and a hard outer covering.
Flattened body; one pair of legs per body part.
No: 27 Name: Lycosa carolinesis Class: Spiders Phylum: Arthropods
Body divided into two or three parts; with joined appendages and a hard outer covering.
Lives on land; simple eyes; breathes air through tiny tubes.
No: 46 Name: Hydra fusca Class: n/a Phylum: Cnidarians
Body with stinging tentacles at one end. n/a
Liger
No: 5 Name: Cyclops bicuspidatus Class: Copepods Phylum: Arthropods
Body divided into two or three parts; with joined appendages and a hard outer covering.
Very small in size; one pair of long out-stretched antennae; bowling pin body shape.
No: 28 Name: Daphnia magna Class: Branchipods Phylum: Arthropods
Body divided into two or three parts; with joined appendages and a hard outer covering.
Very small in size; one of the two pairs of antennae very small; bird-like shape; flattened leaf-like legs.
No: 1 Name: Carcharodon carcharias Class: Cartilaginous Fishes Phylum: Chordates
Body not within a shell; has an internal stiffening rod or backbone made of cartilage or bone; a nerve or spinal cord; with gill slits sometime during life; most with paired appendages.
Body with an internal skeleton made of cartilage; with jaws outside gill slits and paired fins.
No: 31 Name: Philodina roseoia Class: n/a Phylum: Rotifer
Body with characteristic “wheel organ” made up of two discs of rotating cilia in the head; either with or without a shell. Smallest of animals.
n/a
No: 29 Name: Dugesia tigrina Class: Turbellarians Phylum: Flatworms
Body worm-like in appearance; flat. Not a parasite; no parts or segments
No: 32 Name: Petromyzon marinus Class: Jawless Fishes Phylum: Chordates
Body not within a shell; has an internal stiffening rod or backbone made of cartilage or bone; a nerve or spinal cord; with gill slits sometime during life; most with paired appendages.
Body with an internal skeleton made of cartilage; without jaws or paired appendages, with outside gill slits.
No: 35 Name: Falco peregrinus Class: Birds Phylum: Chordates
Body not within a shell; has an internal stiffening rod or backbone made of cartilage or bone; a nerve or spinal cord; with gill slits sometime during life; most with paired appendages.
Body with internal skeleton made of bone; body covered with feathers; no teeth; forelimbs modified as wings; hard-shelled eggs.
No: 12 Name: Romalea guttata Class: Insects Phylum: Arthropods
Body divided into two or three parts; with joined appendages and a hard outer covering.
Three pairs of legs on the middle body part; one or two pairs of wings.
No: 6 Name: Spongilla lacustris Class: n/a Phylum: Sponges
Body without organized form; no tissues or organs. n/a
No: 56 Name: Asterias vulagaris Class: Sea Stars Phylum: Echinoderms
Body covered with projecting spines; five projecting arms joined at the base; moves about by tube feet.
Star-shaped; usually with five broad arms joined at the bases.
No: 8 Name: Rana pipiens Class: Amphibians Phylum: Chordates
Body not within a shell; has an internal stiffening rod or backbone made of cartilage or bone; a nerve or spinal cord; with gill slits sometime during life; most with paired appendages.
Body with an internal skeleton made of bone; body covered in smooth skin; breathes through both skin and lungs; eggs laid in clusters; most with two pairs of wings.
No: 30 Name: Euarctos americanus Class: Mammals Phylum: Chordates
Body not within a shell; has an internal stiffening rod or backbone made of cartilage or bone; a nerve or spinal cord; with gill slits sometime during life; most with paired appendages.
Body with an internal skeleton made of bone; body covered with hairs; teeth usually with four types; young born alive and feed on milk.
No: 3 Name: Heterorhabditis morelatus Class: n/a Phylum: Roundworm
Body worm-like, not segmented; transparent with tapered ends; some are parasites.
n/a
No: 14 Name: Lumbricus terrestris Class: n/a Phylum: Annelid
Body divided into many similar sections; no jointed appendages. Body has a soft outer covering; worm-like in appearance.
n/a
No: 39 Name: Argonauta pacifica Class: Octopitsa Tsa id Phylum: Mollusks
Body with either an internal or external shell; some with tentacles.
Internal shell; tentacles on head
No: 42 Name: Helx pomacen Class: Snails and Slugs Phylum: Mollusks
Body with either an internal or external shell; some with tentacles.
Shell, if present, coiled; head distinct
Carolus Linnaeus
I. Title: Natural Selection II. Purpose: To determine how natural selection acts on the color and size of a moth. III. Materials: 1) an environmental tray with a dark interior 2) an environmental tray with a light interior 3) one set of moths with nine varying intensities 4) one set of squares with different sizes IV. Procedures: 1) Select five moths three times, each time using a different-colored tray. 2) Keep a tally. 3) Select five squares, three times, each time using a different-colored tray. 4) Keep a tally. V. Data: A) The Selection of Varying Intensities of Moths
Color White Gray Black
# of Moths Selected
1 3 1 0 3 1 2 0 4
Class Count 25 59 16 14 26 9 7 27
41
B) The Selection of Different Sized Squares
Size ½” ¾”
1” 1 ¼” 1 ½”
1 ¾”
2
# of Each Square Size
Selected
2 0 6 0 0 4 3
Class Count 32 1 100
1 2 53 40
VI. Analyze & Conclude:
1) If the respective rows of colored moths or different sized squares are arranged in single file from white to black or small to large, there is about an equal number of objects on either side of the middle object. 2) Looking at the class data for which colored moths were selected, the class selected out more lighter-colored moths than dark-colored moths. 3) I would explain the class results by the observation that the lighter colored moths stood out against the dark-colored background; not surprisingly, they were picked more frequently
4) Looking at the class data for which different sized squares were selected, the class selected out more smaller-sized squares than larger-sized squares. 5) I would explain the class results by the observation that the smaller squares were easier to pick up, and due to experimental error, smaller squares were more numerous than larger squares. 6) If most of the trees in a forest of over 100 years ago had bark that was light in color, darker-colored moths would be eaten more frequently by birds because they would have stood out against the bark more than lighter-colored moths. 7) If the uneaten moths mated, they would produce more and more lighter-colored offspring over time. 8) If after a number of years, smoke began to settle on the white tree trunks because a nearby city became industrialized, the color of the tree trunks would darken. 9) Whiter-colored moths would now be eaten more frequently by birds because they would stand out against the dark-colored bark, while the darker-colored moths would blend in and survive. 10) If the uneaten moths mated, they would tend to produce more and more dark-colored moths. 11) If the trees became darker and darker and the moths continued to mate as the years continued, I think that in time, nearly the entire population of moths would be composed of darker-colored moths. 12) The change in the color of the bark of the trees (the environment) caused the moths to evolve from one color to another. 13) Any favorable phenotype will increase an organism’s chances for survival. 14) According to Darwin nature was selecting favorable traits. 15) According to Darwin’s theory, the short-necked giraffes died off because they could not eat of the tall trees. However, the long-necked giraffes could eat of them, and therefore they were able to survive and pass on their genes to their offspring. Thus natural selection gave the giraffe its long neck. 16) In summary, according to Darwin, an individual fit for its environment survives. 17) The case of the peppered moth is an example of microevolution because the moth became specialized, but did not radically change into an entirely different organism. Nevertheless, if these changes occur on a small scale such as this, would they not work on a grand scale --- macroevolution?
The Clam
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Mollusca
Class: Bivalvia
Genus: Mya
Species: arenaria
I. Purpose:
The purpose is to examine the clam internally and externally by dissection.
II. Materials: 1) Dissection Tray
2) Clam
3) Scalpel
4) Dissecting Needle
5) Scissor
6) Forceps
7) Dissecting Probe
III. Methods:
A. External
Upon examining the external anatomy of the shell, the dissector first noticed the
smooth ridges of the shell and the crack near its uttermost edges on the ventral side.
Another attribute the dissector noticed on the exterior of the clam was the concentric
growth lines which resembled the rings of growth on tree trunks. The dissector
observed a color gradient of whiteness near the umbo which gradually became brown
nearing the ventral side. Next the dissector examined the thin hinge ligaments which
held together the two valves.
B. Internal
Before being able to examine the internal anatomy of the clam, the dissector, with a
firm but delicate thrust, pried open the clam’s two valves, tearing through the
posterior and anterior adductor muscles to reveal the mantle’s thin, pink tissue. The
dissector next proceeded to remove the mantle, followed by the thin, lined gills. The
dissector could now see clearly the intricately composed visceral mass and protruding
foot. The dissector removed the entire visceral mass from its attached valve for
further dissection; a thin, transparent, and membranous tissue became immediately
visible on the interior of the valve. The dissector continued, and opened the visceral
mass to reveal green digestive glands, tan and mushy gonads, and an abundance of
tubular structures. Finally, the dissector observed the tubular, circularly-lined
incurrent and excurrent siphons which allow for the exchange of materials into and
out of the clam.
IV. Observations:
A. External Anatomy of a Clam
B. Internal Anatomy of a Clam
V. Conclusions:
1) Why are clams called bivalves?
Clams are called bivalves because they have two valves.
2) What is the function of the mantle?
The function of the mantle is to cover the internal organs of the visceral mass, to
line the interior of the shell, and to secrete the nacre (which makes the shell).
3) Describe the path of water through a clam.
First, cilia on the gills, mantle and visceral mass push water through the incurrent
siphon into the mantle cavity. Water (carrying food and other materials to be
filtered) passes through small openings called ostia on the lamellae of the gills
into the gill chambers. From there, water moves upwards by tubes to the cloacal
chamber. Finally the water is expelled through the excurrent siphon.
4) Describe the filter-feeding process of a clam.
As water, having entered the clam via the incurrent siphon, passes through the
gills, food particles and other materials become trapped in the mucus that lines the
surface of the gills. Food-containing mucus is moved to the labial palps. Here,
indigestible material is separated from digestible material. Food into the mouth,
while rejected material is transported to the mantle edge for expulsion.
5) Identify and describe the role of digestive organs in a clam.
The role of digestive organs in a clam is to efficiently extract nutrients from
obtained food to produce energy for the clam.
6) Describe how clams reproduce.
Some clams are hermaphrodites, while others have distinct sexes. Regardless,
gonad(s) are embedded in the upper portion of the foot. Eggs are lodged in the
gills and sperm is released into the surrounding waters via the excurrent siphon.
Water carrying sperm passes through the gills and fertilizes the eggs. The
embryos develop in the gills until they are able to survive on their own.
7) Describe the nervous system of the clam
The central nervous system of the clam is the ganglia, each pair of which is a
source of nerve fibers which lead to adjacent organs. Statocysts, pairs of small
sense organs, detect changes in equilibrium, and are located posterior to the pedal
ganglions.
8) Describe how a clam uses its foot to move.
In response to its environment the foot extends, expands, and contracts to move
the clam.
9) Describe the development of a freshwater clam.
The fertilized egg of a freshwater clam first develops within the gills of its mother
and enters a larval stage, during which it is known as a glochidium. When the
glochidium reaches a particular size it is expelled by the parent into the
surrounding waters. Here the glochidium either sinks to the bottom or becomes
suspended in water. Glochidia in either case attach by clamping their valves to
superficial tissue on a passing-by fish. If the glochidium does not attach to a host
within a few days of leaving their parents, it dies. Tissues of the fish it attaches to
grow around the glochidium, and during this encystment the glochidium
undergoes marked changes and the adult organs are formed. After 10 to 30 days
the young clam breaks free of its host, falls to the bottom and begins the juvenile
phase. This phase lasts for one to eight years until the clam becomes sexually
mature.
10) Summarize your dissection experience of the clam.
The experience of dissecting an organism was not a first for the dissector;
however, the clam was not a specimen dissected previously. Despite its repugnant
smell and small size, dissecting the clam proved to be a delightful experience. The
dissector furthermore achieved a more well-rounded understanding of mollusks,
particularly clams; this is a feat which could not have been achieved without this
dissection. The dissector enjoyed looking at the simple yet complex design of the
gills underneath a microscope. The initial opening of the clam also brought much
delight. All in all, this dissection experience has proven to be a more than
beneficial exploration of the world of mollusks.
The Earthworm
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Annelida
Class: Oligochaeta
Genus: Lumbricus
Species: terrestris
I. Purpose:
The purpose is to examine the earthworm internally and externally by
……...dissection.
II. Materials: 1) Dissection Tray
2) Earthworm
3) Dissecting Needle
4) Dissecting Probe
5) Scissors
6) Pins
7) Forceps
8) Scalpel
III. Methods:
C. External Anatomy
With a plastic ruler, the dissector first measured the earthworm to be 28.5 cm. Upon
examining the external anatomy of the earthworm, the dissector first noticed the
repeating segments which were about 150 in number. Each segment had a smooth
texture individually; however, the overall feel of the earthworm was bumpy, due to
the linking of these many segments. The dissector further observed that the segments
gradually both became lighter in color as they progressed from the anterior to the
posterior end, and also were lighter on the ventral side than on the dorsal side. On the
ventral surface, the dissector felt the bristly setae and distinguished the small sperm
ducts in the anterior portion of the earthworm. On the dorsal surface, despite finding
no setae, the dissector distinguished the dorsal blood vessel running along the length
of the earthworm. Next, the dissector inserted his dissecting probe into the mouth to
see the protruding upper lip, and conducted similar procedures to view the anus. The
pinkish, smooth band termed the clitellum was conspicuous to the dissector, closer to
the anterior end of the earthworm than the posterior. From segments near the
clitellum, he peeled away portions of smooth, membranous cuticle, which lined the
uttermost surface of the earthworm. Having done these things, the dissector
proceeded to pin the worm down at both ends, dorsal side up, in order to begin a
dissection of the worm.
D. Internal Anatomy
In order to examine the internal anatomy of the earthworm, the dissector made a
shallow, dorsal cut 3 segments posterior to the clitellum, towards the head, pulling
apart the resistant septae, which anchored the internal organs to the skin. The
dissector then pinned the skin on both sides to the dissection tray to expose the
internal organs. Beginning his observations at the utmost anterior end and moving
posterior, the dissector first observed the cerebral ganglion. He then proceeded to see
the fleshy pharynx which led to the esophagus. The dissector next observed the large
white seminal vesicles and tiny seminal receptacles which were beside the esophagus.
Immediately, he then caught notice of the five aortic arches on the ventral side of the
worm which resembled black sausages. The dissector further observed that the
esophagus led to the soft-felt crop, and from there to the firm, hard gizzard. He
noticed that the gizzard was smaller in size than the crop, thus hypothesizing that this
was a result of the function of the crop to store food. Following the gizzard, the
dissector took notice of the stomach, leading into the intestine, which spanned the
length of the worm. Cutting open the intestine, the dissector discovered organic
material, namely dirt. As a concluding internal observation of the earthworm, the
dissector found the white ventral nerve cord and the ventral blood vessel running
underneath the internal organs and intestine.
IV. Observations:
C. External Anatomy of an Earthworm
D. Internal Anatomy of an Earthworm
V. Conclusions:
1) List the characteristics shared by all annelids.
Characteristics shared by all annelids are a body divided into segments or
metameres know as somites, well developed cephalization (sense organs
concentrated at the anterior or “head” end), an elongate body, and a closed
circulatory system with hemoglobin and amebocytes.
2) What is the function of the setae?
The function of the setae is to provide traction for locomotion.
3) What is another name for the body segments of an earthworm?
Another name for the body segments of an earthworm is “metameres.”
4) What is the function of the clitellum?
The clitellum functions as the attachment location for the exchange of
sperm in sexual reproduction, it produces mucus for copulation, and it also
secretes the cocoon into which eggs are deposited.
5) How many hearts does an earthworm have?
An earthworm has five pairs of “hearts” or aortic arches.
6) Describe the process of digestion in an earthworm.
First, food is sucked into the mouth. After proceeding down the pharynx,
the food then passes through a tube called the esophagus, and is deposited
into the crop, the temporary storage area. From the crop the food passes on
to the gizzard where it is ground and mashed, releasing and breaking up
organic matter. The food then proceeds to the lengthy intestine, where the
digested nutrients are absorbed by the blood. Typhlosole, an infolding of
the intestinal wall, aids in this process of absorption by making more
surface area available. The undigested material is expelled from the
earthworm’s body through the anus.
7) What is the function of the typhlosole?
The function of the typhlosole is to increase surface area of the intestine
available for the digestion and absorption of food, which thus increases the
efficiency of the processes.
8) What is the term given for the slowing down of an earthworm’s body
......functions?
The term given for the slowing down of an earthworm’s body functions is
diapause.
9) Describe between the different families of class Oligochaeta.
Oligochaetes of the family “Aeolosomatidae” are microscopic, live
exclusively in fresh water, reproduce asexually, and feed on algae. The
members of the family “Tubificidae” contain the tubifex worms (or
“bloodworms”) which live on the muddy bottoms of freshwater ponds or
in streams, occur in large clumps, and have cranial ends which they wave
back and forth to collect floating detritus. The family “Enchytraeidae”
includes both aquatic and terrestrial species. They are whitish in
appearance and are up to 25 millimeters long.
10) Summarize your dissection experiences (in one paragraph).
Although the dissector’s experience of dissecting an earthworm was not a
new one, this second time doing it proved to be much more beneficial than
the first due to an increased understanding of the internal processes of the
earthworm. The earthworm was in many ways relatively simple. However
this simplicity gives it extraordinary beauty. The slimy skin proved to be a
familiar feel to the dissector’s vivid memories of bug hunting in early
childhood. The dissector also appreciated that the earthworm did not smell
so pungently as the previously dissected clam. Nevertheless, dissection is
always a pleasure to the dissector because it brings the abstract concepts of
the internal workings of biology, in particular regarding the earthworm,
into a concrete flesh and blood (though dead) experience, thus
distinguishing biology from the other theoretical sciences.
The Crayfish
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Crustacea
Genus: Cambarus
Species: sp.
V. Purpose:
The purpose is to examine the crayfish internally and externally by
……...dissection.
VI. Materials: 1) Dissection Tray
2) Crayfish
3) Scissors
4) Dissecting Probe
5) Dissecting Needle
6) Forceps
VII. Methods:
E. External
To begin the examination of the external anatomy of the crayfish, the dissector
identified the specimen to be male, indicated by the large pair of uttermost anterior
swimmerets found in on the dorsal side of the crayfish. The specimen measured 12
centimeters from the rostrum to the uropod, and displayed impressive 10 centimeter
chelipeds. In color, the crayfish was red-violet at its cephalothorax; the dissector also
found this color present in the claws and jointed legs, which were attached to the
body segments. The dissector observed that the first pair of walking legs, on which
were found sensory hairs, formed small claws, which he pried open with no
significant difficulty. On the ventral side, the dissector noted the ventral blood vessel,
running along the length of the crayfish. On the dorsal side, moving posterior to
anterior, the dissector located the telson on the 7th abdominal segment with the
uropods attached to both sides of it. Seven segments towards the anterior of the
specimen, the dissector encountered the bumpy carapace, noting the line of fusion
between the head and the thorax known as the cervical groove. By slightly prying
open the carapace, the dissector was able to catch a dorsal view of the feathery gills,
connected to the legs. Using his forceps, the dissector removed the swimmerets,
walking legs, and clawed chelipeds, the latter two of which emerged from segments
underneath the carapace. Furhermore, he organized the appendages into piles. Having
reached the head, the dissector removed the glossy pair of compound eyes, followed
by the long antennae and shorter antennules. The dissector then proceeded to remove
the many-haired, claw-looking, first pair of maxillipeds on the dorsal side. He also
removed both pairs of feathery maxillae. With difficulty and wiggling, the dissector at
last uprooted the mandibles which were orangish in color.
F. Internal
In order to begin to examine the internal anatomy of the crayfish, the dissector
inserted the scissors, making a shallow, window cut around the entire dorsal side of
the crayfish, from the head to the anus. Having completed this task, the dissector
pulled out the cut exoskeleton with the forceps. An immediate glance into the newly
unveiled interior of the specimen found the black cardiac stomach, in the area under
the carapace, as its target. Next to it, the digestive glands spilled out yellow matter
upon being cut. The dissector further identified, the mushy gonads, which contained
the testes. Upon removing the gills, the dissector found the anteriorly-located green
glands, preceded by the ear-looking bladder in location to the immediately dorsal
brain, which was connected to the ventral nerve cord by strings of nerves. By
removing these internal organs, the dissector was able to identify the ventral blood
vessel, which spanned the body length of the crayfish. In the abdominal region, the
crayfish’s innards were composed mainly of powerful muscles, in the middle of
which ran the intestine, leading from the digestive gland to the anus. At this point, the
dissector realized that the heart was nowhere to be found in the interior. A quick look
through the removed segments and carapace revealed that it was most likely attached
to the carapace during removal. The heart was later identified by the dissector from
among the other organs strewn about the dissecting tray.
VIII. Observations:
E. External Anatomy of a Crayfish
F. Internal Anatomy of a Crayfish
V. Conclusions:
2) Identify at least four animals that belong to subphylum Crustacea.
Four animals that belong to subphylum Crustacea are crabs, crayfish,
lobsters, and shrimp.
3) Identify at least three distinguishing characteristics of subphylum Crustacea.
Distinguishing characteristics of crustaceans include two pairs of branched
antennae, a pair of maxillae and mandibles, gills, and a body covered by a
chitinous exoskeleton strengthened with calcium salts.
4) What characteristics do annelids share with arthropods?
Both annelids and arthropods are metameric (segmented bodies), exhibit
protostome development, and have a brain located cranially and dorsally
followed by a ventral nerve cord with a ganglionic swelling in each
segment. Also, primitive arthropods show paired appendages for each
segment which can be compared with the paired parapodia (or setae in the
earthworm) of each metamere in the annelids.
5) What distinguishing characteristics do crustaceans have from annelids?
Distinguishing characteristics in crustaceans which are not shared by
annelids include hard protective body coverings called exoskeletons.
Crustaceans also have a complex series of specialized muscles to control
the limbs and tail in contrast to the simple body musculature of annelids.
The circulatory system also is a point of dissimilarity as a crustacean’s is
open while an annelid’s is closed. Additionally, annelids have five hearts,
while arthropods have evolved theirs into a single distinct dorsal heart.
6) Identify and describe the functions of all the mouthparts found in a crayfish.
The mouthparts found in the crayfish are multiple, but critical for sense
and feeding. The two pairs of maxillae originate from the head, and
manipulate food and draw water currents over gills. The mandibles also
originate from the head, and are used for chewing food. The three sets of
maxillipeds, which arise from the thorax in the region nearest the mouth,
function in touch, taste, and the manipulation of food.
6) Identify the five major arteries found in a crayfish. What organs are
......supplied by these arteries?
The five major arteries are the Ophthalmic artery which supplies the head
and esophagus, the Antennary artery which supplies the green gland, the
Dorsal Abdominal artery which supplies the intestine and tail muscles, the
Hepatic artery which supplies the hepatopancreas, and the Sternal artery
which supplies the leg and tail muscles.
7) Identify the habitats of crayfish.
Some habitats of crayfish are freshwater ponds, lakes, and streams around
the world. They typically burrow in stream banks; the burrows often have
entrances that open to the ground surface.
8) Identify the four genera of crayfish.
The four genera of crayfish are Procambus, Orconectes, Cambarus, and
Astacus.
9) What do crayfish eat?
The crayfish’s diet consists of snails, tadpoles, insects, aquatic and
terrestrial plants, and decaying organic matter.
10) Describe your dissection experience (in one paragraph).
Like the earthworm, the crayfish was not a new specimen for the dissector.
The dissector again however learned more the second time then the first.
The crayfish allowed for useful experience in the art of dissecting.
Because of the delicate nature of the crayfish’s exoskeleton and in order to
find the dorsal heart, the dissector had to take care not to exert too much
pressure when pulling out the mandibles and removing the exoskeleton.
This careful handling is good preparation for the cadaver we will dissect
next quarter. Utmost care must be taken when dissecting the human brain.
Setting aside the humerus for the moment (no pun intended), the dissector
truly did enjoy dissecting the crayfish as a learning experience with regard
to arthropods---both inside and out. Despite rumors of their notorious
smell, the dissector looks forward to dissecting an echinoderm in the near
future.
The Starfish
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Echinodermata
Class: Asteroidea
Genus: Asterias
Species: sp.
IX. Purpose:
The purpose is to examine the starfish internally and externally by
……...dissection.
X. Materials: 1) Dissection Tray
2) Starfish
3) Scissors
4) Dissecting Probe
5) Dissecting Needle
6) Forceps
XI. Observations:
G. Anatomy of a Starfish
V. Conclusions:
7) In what way are starfish unique to the other invertebrates that you have
studied so far?
Star fish are unique due to the fact that they exhibit deuterostome
development unlike the past invertebrates that we have studied which all
displayed protostome development.
8) What are the major differences between protostomes and deuterostomes?
Protostomes have complete segmentation, determinate embryonic
cleavage, brains above their guts with nerve cords below their guts, no
mesodermal skeletons, and their blastopores become mouths. In contrast,
deuterostomes have incomplete segmentation, indeterminate embryonic
cleavage, both their brains and nerve cords above their guts, mesodermal
skeletons often present, and their blastopores become anuses.
9) Where do all Echinoderms live?
All Echinoderms live in saltwater.
10) Identify five classes of Echinoderms.
Five classes of Echinoderms are Crinoidea, Ophiuroidea, Echinoidea,
Holothuroidea, and Asteroidea.
11) How many species of starfish are there?
There are about 1,700 species of starfish.
12) Identify at least four external features of a starfish.
Four external features of a starfish are a large button-like madreporite, an
inconspicuous anus, numberous tube feet, and a small eyespot which is
located at the end of each arm.
13) Describe the process of water movement through a starfish’s water vascular
system.
First, water enters the system through the madreporite on the aboral
surface. Next, it passes down the stone canal and then into the ring canal
which encircles the mouth. On the inner edge of the radial canal there are
nine sacs called Tiedemann’s bodies. These sacs produce the amoeboid
cells that are found in the fluid of the water vascular system. From the ring
canal, water passes into radial canals which extend into each arm.
Ampullae are linked to the radial canals, which then contract to force
water into the tube feet, extending and enabling it to attach to the
substratum with its sucker. Muscles in the tube feet contract to force water
back into the ampulla, thus shortening the foot. Eventually, water is
excreted via the tube feet, skin gills, or anus, to be replaced by fresh water
from the ocean.
14) Identify and describe the digestive organs of a starfish.
The cardiac stomach is ejected through the mouth to engulf and digest its
prey. The cardiac stomach, containing partially digested food is then
brought back inside the body where food is moved to pyloric stomach.
The pyloric stomach breaks down food with enzymes it receives from the
large paired hepatic ceca (or digestive glands) though the hepatic duct.
The hepatic ceca function as secretory glands to aid digestion. Further
digestion occurs in the intestine.
15) Describe the skeleton of a starfish.
The skeleton of the starfish is an endoskeleton composed of a network of
ossicles. The largest ossicles, ambulacral ossicles, support the ambulacral
groove and provide attachment for the tube feet. The skeleton is hard, but
flexible, and facilitates the feeding process of starfish.
16) Summarize your dissection experience (in one paragraph)
The dissector enjoyed the dissection of a starfish perhaps the most out of
the previous ones because he did not have to compose a methods portion
of the lab. The smell that emitted from the starfish was particularly putrid,
but well worth plugging one’s nose to observe. The dissector found the
intricate interweaving of the endoskeleton quite beautiful, as well as the
orderly symmetry displayed in each ray of the starfish. The dissector had a
hard time initially finding the gonads as they were pulled out together with
the digestive glands, but he found them eventually. A point of highlight in
the dissection was distinguishing the gender of the starfish by observing
the gonads under a microscope. A flagellum indicated the starfish was
male. In the opinion of the dissector, the starfish was overall very
worthwhile and quite worthy of the time invested in its exploration. The
dissector now looks forward to moving up the animal kingdom and
dissecting vertebrates in the near future.
Analysis: 1) All vertebrates are characterized by vertebrae that form a vertebral column, a cranium, and an endoskeleton of bone or cartilage. 2) Unlike members of class Chrondrichthyes, members of class Osteichthyes have skeletons of bone, swim bladders, opercula, and most reproduce externally. Unlike members of class Osteichthyes, members of class Chrondrichthyes have skeletons of cartilage, gill slits, placoid scales, and all have internal fertilization 3) The adaptations of hair, endothermy, nursing their young, specialized teeth, and a completely divided heart led to the success and divergence of mammals.
4) Reptiles and Birds share the most recent common ancestor.
The Perch
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Subphylum: Vertebrata
Class: Osteichthyes
Genus: Perca
Species: flavescens
I. Purpose:
The purpose is to examine the perch internally and externally by
……...dissection.
II. Materials: 1) Dissection Tray
2) Perch
3) Scissors
4) Dissecting Probe
5) Dissecting Needle
6) Forceps
III. Methods:
A. External Anatomy
Beginning observation of the external anatomy of the perch, the dissector first
measured the specimen to be 18 centimeters of length. Next observing the color of the
perch, the dissector noticed that the ventral side was lighter, and the dorsal side
darker. The head region in particular, the dissector noted to be of a very dark shade.
Proceeding to feel the surface of the perch, the dissector felt the scales of the fish,
which felt smooth when stroking towards the posterior end and bristly when stroking
towards the anterior end. These scales covered virtually all of the perch’s exterior like
shingles on a roof. The dissector removed one of these scales and observed it under a
microscope. The observed scale had many rings on it and retained a shape similar to a
baseball mitt. Next, the dissector observed the mouth region of the fish, prying open
its mouth closed shut by the maxilla (upper jaw) and mandible (lower jaw). In the
mouth, the dissector observed the tongue and felt its tiny teeth. Then, the dissector
took note of the nostrils which he poked with his dissecting probe. Turning the perch
180 degrees to ventral surface, the dissector located the isthmus, the fleshy throat
region of the perch which separates the two gill chambers. The dissector next located
the operculum, the flappy outer gill covering on the side of the perch near the eyes.
Turning to the fins, the dissector observed the unpaired, spiny, dark anterior dorsal fin
composed of hard spine and the smaller also unpaired posterior dorsal fin made up of
soft rays. Slightly beneath these fins, the dissector located the lateral line which ran
the length of the fish. The dissector next observed the large unpaired caudal fin
composed of soft rays, and located at the utmost posterior end of the perch. On
ventral surface of the perch, the dissector observed the unpaired anal fin composed of
both hard spines and soft rays, and situated just posterior to the anus. Also on the
ventral surface, the dissector observed the paired pelvic fin located anterior to the
anus, and composed of both hard spines and soft rays. Dorsal to the pelvic fins and
just posterior to the opercula, the dissector observed the paired pectoral fins,
composed of soft rays. To conclude the external anatomy of the perch, the dissector
observed the flappy anus situated on the ventral side of the fish anterior to the anal
fin.
B. Internal Anatomy
In order to examine the internal anatomy of the perch, the dissector made a shallow,
ventral cut through the anus towards the head and a ventral cut along the lateral line
also towards the head to make a window cut. The dissector encountered some
resistance cutting through the muscle near the lateral line. After removing the
window-cut portion, the dissector noticed he had popped the buoyancy-controlling
swim bladder near the backbone. Even closer to the backbone, the dissector observed
the kidney, an excretory organ. The dissector next took note of the large, soft liver
which was to the left and a little below the soggy stomach which contained a dark
paste of digested foods. The intestine, the dissector noted, was below the stomach and
was also of a soggy texture. Above the stomach, the dissector observed the smooth,
elongated gonads which he concluded to be testes because of their lesser size than the
typical ovary. Anterior to the liver, the dissector pulled away the feathery gills,
(including the gill arches and gill filaments) to reveal the small heart. Of the heart, the
dissector distinguished the atrium which lay atop the ventricle. Moving dorsal from
the heart, the dissector observed the brain by carefully made another window cut
using his forceps between the eyes. The exposed brain presented five major sectors:
the olfactory lobes comprised the most anterior part of the brain, followed by the
cerebrum, optic tectum, cerebellum, and the medulla oblongata. Thus the dissector
concluded the internal anatomy of the perch.
IV. Observations:
A. External Anatomy of a Perch
B. External Anatomy of a Perch
V. Conclusions:
1) Describe the teeth of the fish and explain how their structure is adaptive to
their diet.
The perch has tiny, backward-slanting teeth lining the interior of its jaws.
They also lack large canines. Thus, their teeth are adapted to diet of small
aquatic organisms, which typically shift from plankton to benthic
invertebrates as they grow in size.
2) Describe the location of the nostrils and explain where they lead.
The nostrils of the perch were located just anterior to the eye, in the head
region. The nostrils lead to the olfactory bulbs at the brain, which intake
the sense of smell.
3) Into what structure does the esophagus lead?
The esophagus leads into the stomach.
4) Suggest a function of the spiny anterior dorsal fin.
The spiny anterior dorsal fin helps keep the fish upright and moving in a
straight line.
5) List all the fins and describe their location on the fish. Which are paired?
Which fins contain spines?
The fins on the perch are the anterior dorsal fin, which has spines, is
unpaired, and is located on the utmost dorsal side; the posterior dorsal fin
which has rays, is unpaired, and is located just posterior to the anterior
dorsal fin; the caudal fin which has rays, is unpaired, and is located at
utmost posterior end; the anal fin which has both spines and rays, is
unpaired, and is located just posterior to the anus; the pelvic fins which
have both spines and rays, are paired, and are located anterior to anus; the
pectoral fins which have rays, are unpaired, and are located dorsal to the
pelvic fin and just posterior to the operculum.
6) Describe the scales on your fish.
The tiny, thin, round scales on my fish overlapped like shingles on a roof.
They all pointed toward the tail to minimize friction while the perch
swims. Under a microscope at 100x magnification, circular rings were
visible on the scales, resembling the rings on the trunk of a chopped-down
tree. Individually, the scales looked the shape of tiny baseball mitts.
7) What takes place in the gills?
Respiration is the primary event that takes place in the gills. During this
process, water is taken into the mouth and pumped over the gills, where it
flows across the gill filaments before exiting behind the operculum.
Oxygen diffuses from the water into the bloodstream. The gills also serve
as the site at which ammonia generated by metabolism diffuses from the
blood into the water passing over the gills to be removed from the body.
Lastly, the gills regulate the concentration of ions in the body.
8) What is the function of the gill filaments?
The function of the gill filaments is to provide the organism with a large
surface area for gas exchange to occur efficiently.
9) Describe how circulation takes place in a fish.
Circulation begins in a fish as deoxygenated blood flows from the body
via veins into the sinus venosus, the first chamber of the heart. From there
blood moves into the larger atrium. Contraction of the atrium speeds up
the blood into the muscular ventricle, which in turn, contracts to give the
blood the force that drives it through the circulatory system. The final
chamber of the heart, the conus arteriosus, receives blood from the
ventricle, and smoothes the flow of blood out of the heart into the arteries.
Blood then passes through capillaries in the gills to receive oxygen and
excrete ammonia. From there, blood circulates through the rest of the
fish’s body, until it returns in a loop back to the heart, via the veins. Then
the process repeats
10) Summarize your dissection experience in one paragraph.
The dissector found the yellow perch to be a delightful dissection for
manifold reasons. Firstly, the perch displayed a level of complexity unlike
our previous dissections. This was indicated by the presence of many
organs similar to us humans, such as a complex brain, a liver, pancreas,
and a gall bladder. The dissector further enjoyed this dissection because it
revealed the truth of what we are actually eating when we savor a
mouthwatering fish filet. Despite the many positive elements of the
dissection, the one negative was that many of the internal organs were
hard to locate because of their near-uniform coloration. All in all, the
dissection of yellow perch was nearly as enjoyable as its consumption.
The dissector now looks forward to dissecting the fish’s relative, the frog.
The Frog
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Subphylum: Vertebrata
Class: Amphibia
Order: Anura
Genus: Rana
Species: pipiens
I. Purpose:
The purpose is to examine the frog internally and externally by
……...dissection.
II. Materials: 1) Dissecting Tray
2) Frog
3) Scalpel
4) Scissors
5) Forceps
6) Dissecting Needle
7) Dissecting Probe
III. Methods:
A. External Anatomy
To begin the examination of the external anatomy of the frog, the dissector observed
light coloration on the ventral surface, contrasted with darker coloration on the dorsal
surface. The frog was spotted, green, and had smooth, wrinkled skin. Moving
posteriorly from the anterior end, the dissector inserted his dissecting probe into the
external nares, caudal to the lip. Just caudal to the external nares, the dissector located
the specimen’s two tough, glassy, membranous eyes composed of the movable upper
eyelid, the immovable lower eyelid, and the nictitating membrane. Proximal to both
eyelids, the dissector identified the two tympanic membranes, used for hearing. The
two laterally-located, unwebbed, forelimbs had four digits each. At the posterior end
of the frog, the dissector examined the muscular hind limbs. The dissector estimated
them to be three times as large as the forelimbs and slightly longer than the body. The
hind limbs were further characterized by the webbing in between each of the five
digits of unequal length. Just caudal to the attachment area of both hind limbs, the
dissector identified the cloacal opening. Due to the presence of internal organs, the
sides of the frog were squishy to the touch around the middle, but more firm near the
anterior and far posterior end. Having concluded the observation of the immediately
visible external features, the dissector broke the jaw of the frog, to reveal the fleshy
tongue attached at the front of the mouth. Caudal to the tongue, the dissector
identified the glottis, leading to the lungs, posterior to which was located the
esophagus, leading to the stomach. Running his finger along the upper jaw, the
dissector felt the tiny maxillary teeth, complemented by the pair of larger vomerine
teeth in the upper middle portion of the jaw. On either side of the vomerine teeth were
found the internal nares. Posterior to the vomerine teeth, the dissector identified the
two retractor bulbi, which support the eyes during the movements of respiration.
Since the specimen was female, no vocal sac openings could be found in the mouth of
the frog. Thus, the dissector completed the external examination of the frog.
B. Internal Anatomy
In order to examine the internal anatomy of the frog, the dissector made a medial cut
from the vent to the jaw, followed by various window cuts. This done, the dissector
peeled away as much skin as possible, to show the muscles surrounding the entire
frog. Next, the dissector made another medial cut through muscles on the ventral side,
followed by window cuts, to expose the internal organs. The prominently large three-
lobed liver drew the dissector’s attention first. Upon removing the liver, the dissector
turned his eyes to the anteriorly-located heart. Of it, the dark-colored left and right
atria were visible, followed by the light-colored single ventricle. On either side of the
heart, the large, red and blue, flappy lungs were positioned, jam-packed with
capillaries. Turning now to digestive organs, the dissector identified the conspicuous
J-shaped stomach, the gall bladder green with bile, the long small intestine, lined with
mesentery, and the shorter large intestine, which led to the cloaca for excretion out of
the vent. By the large intestine, the dissector located the dark-colored spleen and the
kidneys
IV. Observations:
A. External Anatomy of a Frog
B. External Anatomy of a Frog
V. Conclusions:
1) Name two different functions of the skin.
Two functions of the skin are respiration and protection from
environmental influences.
2) Name a function of the mucous glands.
A function of the mucous glands is the secreting of mucus to keep the skin
moist.
3) How many eyelids does a frog have?
Frogs have three eyelids.
4) What is an adaptive value of the nictitating membrane?
The adaptive value of the nictitating membrane is the frog’s ability to keep
its eyes moist and protected while retaining its ability to see.
5) Name four structures that empty their discharges into the cloaca.
Four structures that empty their discharges into the cloaca are the large
intestine, kidney, ovary, and testes.
6) Name two ways that a frog’s forelimbs differ from their hindlimbs.
The forelimbs and hindlimbs differ in a frog firstly by the fact that the
forelimbs attach to the pectoral girdle and the hindlimbs to the pelvic
girdle, and secondly, by the fact that the hindlimbs are much larger and
more powerful than the forelimbs.
7) How is the tongue of a frog attached to its mouth?
A frogs tongue is attached to its upper lip.
8) Where does the opening of the glottis lead?
The opening of the glottis leads to the esophagus.
9) How many chambers are there in a frog’s heart? Name them.
There are three chambers in the heart of a frog: the left atrium, the right
atrium, and the ventricle.
10) Name the three arteries that branch from the truncus arteriosus. Where do they
lead?
Three arteries which branch from the truncus arteriosus are: the carotid
arteries which lead to the brain, the aortic arteries which lead to the body,
and the Pulmocutaneous arteries which lead to the lungs.
11) How many lobes make up the liver of a frog?
Three lobes make up the liver of the frog.
12) Why is the gall bladder green? What is its main function?
The gall bladder is green because of the green bile which it contains. Its
main function is to store bile secreted by the liver when it is not needed.
13) What is the main function of mesentery?
The main function of the mesentery is to hold the small intestine in place.
14) What system does the kidney belong to? What is its main function?
The kidney belongs to the excretory system. Its main function is the
filtration of blood from harmful toxins especially ammonia.
15) Describe your dissection experience (in two paragraphs)
Although the dissection of a frog was not the dissector’s favorite
dissection (the fish was the favorite) but it was by far the easiest one in
which to observe the internal organs. Breaking the jaw of the frog was not
a pleasant experience, nor feeling the digestive juices of the frog on one’s
forehead, yet the dissection was perhaps the most profitable because of the
conspicuity of the internal organs. The only organ the dissector was not
able to locate with precision was the testes. All in all, the dissector
thoroughly enjoyed this dissection as he did previous dissections and is
disappointed yet relieved (lab-report wise) that this is our last dissection.
Not unlike the previous dissector, the other dissector was greatly
impressed by the frog dissection, and greatly enjoyed it. He found the
frog’s body plan unmistakably similar to the human body, both in terms of
type of organs, and their placement. The frog thus serves as a well-suited
precursor to the human body this quarter. This dissector found the brain
somewhat difficult to uncover in his specimen. However, he did get a clear
picture of the brain from another frog, to identify the parts. Dissection is a
very great privilege, for which the dissector is most grateful, especially
when the latex gloves are used in the dissection. He hopes that this
reeking, yet captivating dissection of the frog will prove beneficial in the
upcoming study of the human body.
I. Title: What’s Your Pulse?
II. Purpose: To determine how body positioning and physical activity affect your heart rate
III. Materials: 1) body 2) pulse 3) stopwatch
IV. Procedure: 1) Find the pulse in your wrist and count heart beats for 15 seconds. Multiply .........................this number by 4 to calculate your heart rate in beats/minute. Record your data.
2) Repeat Step 1 while standing and lying down.
3) Repeat Step 1 after a variety of physical activities.
V. Data:
VI. Conclusions:
1) Standing up had the fastest heart rate. This is because standing up involves more muscles that require more blood to maintain balance and resist gravity. For me, sitting had the lowest heart rate. This is perhaps due to the fact that the seated heart rate was taken after little to no movement. The reading for lying down, which would seem to cause the lowest hear rate from least muscle activity, was taken after movement.
2) The heart rate was fastest after running. This is because running at full speed involves many muscles working hard, requiring the heart to pump blood extra quickly. Interestingly, the heart rate taken after playing 3 on 3 was the slowest. This is perhaps due to the fact that I did not take the heart rate immediately after the exercise, but a minute or so after. Presumably walking would tend to be the slowest.
Body Positioning Heart Rate per Minute
Seated 68
Standing Up 96
Lying Down 76
Physical Activity Right After After 1 Minute
Walk 92 88
Jog 94 104
Run 136 80
Knockout 80 76
3 on 3 84 132
MEAL FOOD NUTRIENTS
Breakfast
Orange Juice
Egg
Toast
Bacon
Vitamin C, Water, Carbohydrate Sugars , Thiamin, Potassium
Vitamins A, B, and D, Protein, Saturated Fat, Cholesterol
Carbohydrates, Proteins, Iron, Nictitate, Sodium
Saturated Fat and other Lipids, Protein, Sodium,
Lunch
Skim Milk
PB&J Sandwich
Apple
Oreo Cookie
Water, Calcium, Lipids, Sodium, Potassium, Carbohydrates, Vitamin D
Lipids, Sodium, Carbohydrates, Protein, Fiber, Vitamin B3
Carbohydrates, Sugars, Vitamin C
Lipids, Sodium, Carbohydrates, Protein, Iron
Dinner
Hamburger
Lemonade
French Fries
Caesar Salad
Protein, Lipids, Sodium, Iron, Calcium, Selenium, Vitamin B12, Zinc
Water, Carbohydrates, Vitamin C
Lipids, Sodium, Carbohydrates, Protein, Calcium
Lipids, Cholesterol, Sodium, Carbohydrates, Protein, Vitamin B3
Andrew Guernsey
Mr. Snyder
Biology I
May 22, 2009
A Year in Biology
Biology is the zenith of scientific study. No other field of science but biology studies
life’s origins, characteristics, and evolution. From the complexities of the cell to the majesty of
the animal kingdom, all biology leaves one in awe of the grandeur of creation and its
providential Creator. Furthermore, the diversities of life encountered in this biology course even
allow for a glimpse into the Trinitarian life. Beginning in the first quarter with cells, continuing
in the second quarter with evolution and genetics, progressing in the third quarter through the
animal kingdom, and lastly culminating with the human body, this year in biology has set me on
a course to pursue future studies in the discipline. Most importantly, however, this biology
course taught me all things necessary for an authentic, Catholic understanding of the life in the
cosmos.
Not unlike our own universe, the first quarter of biology began with a “big bang,” diving
straight into an intercellular metropolis on the microscopic level. Herein, I learned what
qualifications constitute life, and then how cells function. Studies of such structures as
ribosomes, nuclei, cilia, and flagella, and such byzantine processes as mitosis and meiosis reveal
more complexity in both plant and animal cells than I ever might have ever imagined. I also
discovered how cells maintain equilibrium by such processes as osmosis, active transport, and
passive transport. Despite all their complexity, cells are on a macroscopic level remarkably
simple; they are the building blocks of all life. This showed me how the intricacies of the cell in
all their simplicity are microcosmic of all biology, and the cosmos as a whole, in which simple
structures compose larger bodies.
The second quarter of biology travelled through the genetic discoveries of Gregor Mendel
and Charles Darwin’s revolutionary theory of evolution. The discoveries of Gregor Mendel
revealed how genotypes are passed on from parent to offspring with predictable probabilities for
different phenotypes. Darwin’s theory of evolution complemented Mendel with its law that only
the fittest organisms survive to pass on their genotypes. The discussion that ensued from
Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection I found to be the most enthralling topic of the
year. The theory of evolution, which in many ways constitutes the heart of biology, also raised
questions concerning our understanding of God interaction with creation. The “challenges” to the
theory of evolution proposed by Creationist and Intelligent Design advocates proved to be
nothing more than God of the Gaps fallacies that substitute in God whenever they feel science
cannot presently explain a phenomenon. The realization of this was the result of much
philosophical argumentation that flowed through into an essay, and continued even into the
fourth quarter. Thus Darwin’s theory of evolution led me to embrace a greater Catholic
understanding of how God loves, participates, and sustains the cosmos, but does not intervene to
bridge gaps. However, the quarter was not limited to genetics and evolution. It also involved
studies in RNA and DNA synthesis, and how mRNA from the nucleus directs the processes of
protein transcription and translation. The quarter ended with a study of taxonomy, or
classification, of animals. After identifying dozens of critter cards with animals, I will never
again forget that “Kings Play Chess On Fine Green Silk.”
The third quarter was by all means a most exciting experience. In particular, the
dissection of various animals provided a most uncommon occasion to engage in the flesh what is
normally learned on pages of textbooks. Moving up the phylogenetic tree from simple to
complex, the quarter began with the dissection of the clam. I had only but realized it when we
had advanced from the clam to the earthworm, crayfish, starfish, perch, and finally the frog. The
frog proved to be the perfect precursor to the human body, for its similar body plan and internal
organs included the brain, heart, liver, gall bladder, and kidneys. Aside from dissection, I also
learned how members of the animal kingdom are organized by evolutionary relationships on the
phylogenetic tree. We continued this study into the early fourth quarter by discovering
similarities and differences within each of the orders of Class Mammalia, the class containing
human beings.
Like the biology itself, this year culminated in a fourth quarter study of the human body.
The human body can be summarized in one word: “wonderful.” A human body is no mere mass
of cells, but a collection of complex systems interdependently organized such that processes like
breathing, circulation, and digestion can occur. The muscular system, for example, cannot
function without energy from digestion, oxygen from breathing and circulation, and nervous
impulses from the brain to stimulate movement. So also the circulatory system cannot move
blood from the heart to the entire body without the muscular system to pump, the nervous system
to stimulate the pumping, the veins and arteries to carry blood, the digestive system to supply
energy, or the lungs to receive oxygen from. Most fascinatingly, the fourth quarter’s study of
human biology has provided me with understanding of how my own internal mechanisms work
to carry out the complex functions that we often take for granted. Such knowledge of how the
body works is essential to becoming a more complete human being. In fact, the human body is so
important that Leonardo da Vinci once described it as a microcosm of the entire cosmos:
By the ancients man has been called the world in miniature; and certainly this name is
well bestowed, because, inasmuch as man is composed of earth, water, air and fire, his
body resembles that of the earth; and as man has in him bones the supports and
framework of his flesh, the world has its rocks the supports of the earth; as man has in
him a pool of blood in which the lungs rise and fall in breathing, so the body of the earth
has its ocean tide which likewise rises and falls every six hours, as if the world breathed;
as in that pool of blood veins have their origin, which ramify all over the human body, so
likewise the ocean sea fills the body of the earth with infinite springs of water. The body
of the earth lacks sinews and this is, because the sinews are made expressly for
movements and, the world being perpetually stable, no movement takes place, and no
movement taking place, muscles are not necessary.–But in all other points they are much
alike.1
To his own benefit, Leonardo da Vinci was wrong about the world lacking movement; this
further completes his analogy with the muscular system. Indeed, every body structure from the
eye to hand, to the nose, to the tongue, contributes to the fullness of the human person. Being
made in imago Dei, the human body most truly reflects the goodness, love, and transcendence of
the Creator God.
My freshman year of biology has taught me more than I might have ever expected.
Topics such as evolution, genetics, and the human body have all contributed to my understanding
of life in the cosmos, and where the human person fits into the picture. A classical study of
biology overlaps into lofty philosophical concepts because of life’s dependence upon
metaphysical concepts like the soul, and God’s distinct, yet intimate relationship with all creation
to account for the life that we see today. On a personal level, this year’s studies have even made
me to consider a possible career in evolutionary biology. All things considered, this year’s course
in biology has been an indispensable time of scientific, philosophical, and theological growth
that has resulted in progressive advancement in the liberal arts, all in accordance with the
Donahue Academy’s mission “to produce well-rounded individuals rooted in the truths of the
Catholic faith and the educational scholarship needed to prosper in the worldwide community.”2
1 Leonardo da Vinci, from the Codex Leicester in: The Notebooks of Leonardo Da Vinci, vol. ii, p. 179
2 Rhodora J. Donahue Academy Mission Statement at http://donahueacademy.org/mission/