anger sequences as a unit of meaning for the investigation of … · 2020-04-01 · actions in the...

© 2008. Pieter BOULOGNE (ed.). Translation and Its Others. Selected Papers of the CETRA Research Seminar in Translation Studies 2007. http://www.kuleuven.be/cetra/papers/papers.html

Anger Sequences as a Unit of Meaning

for the Investigation of Subtitling Strategies and Tactics

Valeria FRANZELLI

Università degli Studi di Brescia

Abstract

This paper is a report on a doctoral project in progress in the field of audiovisual translation (AVT). It deals with the selection and definition of a unit of meaning in films, which should correspond to a micro-context composed of verbal and non-verbal meaning-making signs, in order to investigate subtitling strategies and tactics.

By exploiting a selection of cognitive-emotion theories and a corpus of French and Italian films, this paper aims at defining anger sequences as a unit of meaning. It also discusses some methodological issues for the exploration of this specific micro-context to be used as a possible basis for comparison and generalization.

1. Introduction

In the last ten years much research on AVT has tried to approach the field from various points

of view and for different purposes, showing that audiovisual (AV) products twist some of the

categorisations established in translation studies, in particular, the separation of codes and the

definition of text. In films, for example, oral and written codes cross their own arbitrary

boundaries, starting from the film production process up until the translation result: dialogues

are “written to be spoken as if not written” (Gregory & Carrol in Gambier, 2004: 17), and

then written translated to be spoken in dubbed or voice-overed versions, or to be read in

subtitled versions. Moreover, as outlined by Remael:

In the screenwriting process, dialogue writing constitutes one of the very last stages. The film

theme and the story are first laid down in the synopsis and subsequently expanded in the

treatment. This order of things inevitably shapes dialogue. Dramatic development is the

highest hierarchical norm determining its functions... (Remael 2003: 227)

The linguistic code is thus only one of the codes operating within a film. Dramatic

development rules a multisemiotic document and not a simple (linguistic) text. This document

Valeria FRANZELLI. “Anger Sequences as a Unit of Meaning for the Investigation of Subtitling Strategies and Tactics” 2


is composed of a complex combination of linguistic, visual and aural codes. One cannot

properly explain translators’ choices, their strategies and tactics, without taking into account

this complexity.1 All meaning-making signs (such as voices, noises, gestures, facial

expressions, camera movements, shot angles, etc.) of a filmic document work together in

order to create a message, which is why, as stated by Chaume (2004), “what interests the

translator is knowing the functioning of each of these codes, and the possible incidence of all

signs, linguistic and non-linguistic, within a translation”.

However, it is difficult to present and describe a representative corpus for such

multisemiotic research, given the detailed transcription this requires.2 My PhD project aims at

overcoming this methodological problem by focusing on a unit of meaning common to a

number of films, in order to describe and explain subtitling strategies and tactics in a limited

semiotic context which should in turn, give rise to both comparisons and generalisations.

This paper deals with the selection of anger sequences as a unit of meaning common

to some French and Italian films, to be described in all its parts as accurately as necessary for

investigating translational choices. The unit of meaning or micro-context is seen to encompass

translation units as defined by Delisle (1999)3, except that for us elements are not only verbal

but can also be nonverbal. The term micro-context is used to refer to the different forms

(verbal, visual and auditory signs) of a unit of meaning, which make sense. Macro-context

(Gambier, 2007) designates all factors underlying film production and translation (cultural,

commercial and professional backgrounds, genres, audiences, dramatic development).

In order to describe this basic segment for analysis, using objective parameters, this

paper will first explain the choice of anger sequences and define them from the emotion

theory perspective. Secondly, a temporary corpus will be presented focusing on variables

featuring a translational macro-context. The distribution and function of anger sequences in the

1The terms strategies and tactics refer to the distinction made by Gambier (2007, forthcoming) between global and local actions in the translation process: strategies refer to the general practices involved in translation; tactics, or local strategies, are specific actions linked to cognitive, linguistic and behavioural aspects of translating. Both strategies and tactics give rise to solutions in the translation result.2 In the past few years, an important attempt to achieve this has been made in Italy by multimodal transcription scholars and by the University of Bologna: multimodal transcription scholars including primarily A. Baldry and P. Thibault (University of Pavia) and C. Taylor (University of Trieste) created the Multimodal Concordancing Authoring system (MCA); the University of Bologna’s Department of Interdisciplinary Studies in Translation, Languages and Culture developed the “Forlixt 1” multimedia corpus. Both research groups take into account not only linguistic features of AV documents, but also some specific meaning-making nonverbal signs, which allow AV material to be investigated in relation to any of the categorized elements. As a consequence, AV documents become part of an extensive surfable hypertext useful for teaching and research purposes. For further information about multimodal transcription see: Thibault 2000, Taylor 2003, 2004, Baldry and Thibault 2006. See Valentini 2006, 2007 and 2008, and Heiss & Soffritti 2008 for more details about “Forlixt 1” multimedia corpus.

3 A translation unit is “a single element in the source text or a group of elements that are linked by semantic or formal features and which translators interpret as a single entity in association with their situational knowledge” (Delisle, 1999 :91).



whole corpus will be analysed, providing some examples of their categorization according to

cognitive-emotion research on anger appraisals. Finally a model of description for verbal and

nonverbal relevant signs composing the anger micro-context will also be discussed.

2. Why anger?

The reasons why anger sequences were selected for this research project are primarily

subjective. By watching films I simply became interested in anger performances and

discovered that anger was frequently represented regardless of film genre: characters may

become angry in a drama, a comedy, cartoons and so on and so forth. Love is also represented

in films, but its presence is normally developed in the whole film story.

By investigating emotion theories, it became clear that anger is considered to be a

basic and a fullblown emotion, a fully developed form of an emotion, which is a delimited

episode, typically intense, and triggered by clearly identifiable events.4 This is not the case for

love, for example, which could be endless (maternal love) and due to mysterious factors.

Evolutionary theorists, following the Darwinian perspective, were the first to classify anger as

a basic emotion: a natural reaction to events, selected for surviving during the evolution of

human beings. This kind of emotion should be common to human beings and animals, as

proved by research on facial expressions of emotions.5 Thanks to these early studies, even if

the evolutionary perspective is not shared by all theorists, anger is included in a limited list of

specific emotions by all research approaches. Indeed, in the emotion studies field, scholars

widely agree on the concept of anger as a fullblown emotion: “a multi-faceted syndrome

which incorporates most or all of the aspects or facets considered relevant for the emotion

syndrome” (Schröder, 2003:10). These facets seem to be common to anger, sadness, disgust,

fear and happiness, and should be at least:

• appraisal of a stimulus situation or event, i.e. the evaluation of the meaning of the stimulus

for the individual, including a valence;

4 Cf. Schröder, 2003. This definition is based on an overview of some major traditions in emotion theory. It is worthwhile to outline that there are a certain number of research traditions focussing on different aspects of the complex emotion phenomenon: “emotions may be seen as being organized on a variety of levels. Neurophysiologists are interested—almost by definition—in the neural organization of emotion, Darwinians are interested in the evolutionary organization of emotion, Jamesians are interested in the bodily organization of emotion (for want of a better term), cognitive-emotion theorists are interested in the psychological organization of emotion, and social constructivists are interested in the social-psychological and sociological organization of emotion.” (Cornelius, quoted by Schröder, 2003:14)5 See Ekman’s elaboration of the Darwinian theory (Ekman, 1993).



• physiological adjustments, such as increased heart beat rate and muscle tension;

• action tendencies such as attack or flight patterns;

• subjective feeling;

• and expressive behaviour such as facial expression, bodily expression, and speech including

verbal and non-verbal, suprasegmental aspects. (Schröder, 2003: 10)

It is convenient to emphasize that for cognitive-emotion theories, it is natural to

describe emotions in terms of the appraisals involved. The same event could be evaluated by

different individuals in various ways, thus causing different emotional reactions. As outlined

by Schröder, “anger is triggered when something is perceived as an important, unfair

obstruction to one’s goals, about which one is able to do something”6. As films are mostly a

simulation of spontaneous behaviours, simplified to be understood by the audience in a short

span of time, it should not be so hard to identify characters’ expressive behaviour,

psychology, needs and specific appraisals (see § 4) of events.

The duration parameter and the possibility of recognising anger phenomenon facets

allow anger sequences in films to be defined and exploited as a semiotic unit of comparison.

The fact that anger sequences are quite common in films, also signals that they have a specific

function in dramatic development. This will be explored further after presenting the research

corpus.

3. Research corpus

The translator is often alone to face translation material, but (s)he is nevertheless part of an

historic, geographic and professional context which influences his/her practice, sometimes in

an indirect way. His/her actions are in fact linked to planning, made on the basis of a macro-

context (as defined above). The presentation of the corpus of research, will take into account

some of the elements of this macro-context which enable the common variables of the

selected anger sequences to be defined.

Seven Italian and five French films were chosen for study. They were produced and

distributed in DVD (Digital Versatile Disc) format in France and Italy between 1996 and

2005 (see Table 1). During this period, these traditionally dubbing countries were exposed to

the development of subtitling, due to the introduction of DVD support in 1996. French and

6 Schröder, 2003:25.



Italian audiences could now choose between a dubbed and a subtitled version of a foreign

film. In these countries, it used to be seldom possible to watch a film in its original version,

except in certain cinemas or during film festivals. The target audience of subtitled films was a

restricted educated elite, which is no longer the case for films distributed on DVD and

watched at home.

Italy Original film title Film directorYear of

productionLVB La vita è bella Benigni, Roberto 1997

LMG La meglio gioventù Giordana, Marco Tullio 2002

APR Aprile Moretti, Gianni 1998

LUB L’ultimo bacio Muccino, Gabriele 2001

RCR Romanzo criminale Placido, Michele 2005

GDR Gente di Roma Scola, Ettore 2003

PET Pane e tulipani Soldini, Silvio 2000

France Original film title Film directorYear of

production

SML Sur mes lèvres Audiard, Jacques 2001

LAE L’auberge espagnole Klapisch, Cédric 2002

CAC Caché Haneke, Michael 2005

LDFUn long dimanche de fiançailles

Jeunet, J.-Pierre 2003

CDE Conte d’été Rohmer, Eric 1996

Table 1. Research corpus

In Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS) research, it is important but not that easy to

identify target audiences, which largely influence translator choices. In the AVT field this

task is even harder because audience tastes are not easily associable to film genres.

Furthermore, it is often difficult to distinguish between genres. There are quite significant

differences between film genre classifications according to countries: for instance there are

twenty-six genres and eleven sub-genres in Italy, as opposed to thirty-three film genres in

France. Nevertheless, as the exchange between these countries is quite limited in terms of

genre, the corpus is rather homogeneous, consisting of dramas and comedies.7 For linguistic

and thematic reasons, films distributed for general audiences were selected, labelled “Tous

publics” in France and “Film per tutti” in Italy. There seem to be a number of discrepancies

7 See statistics proposed by Observatoire Européen de l’audiovisuel : http//lumiere.obs.coe.int.



between French and Italian film ratings8 and also DVD distribution9 where sales ratings are

less restrictive than those applied for renting. Thus the label on DVD boxes of the target

country were examined, where dialogues, themes and AV contents were not considered as

violent nor obscene nor racist.

These remarks on the translational macro-context will be explained further through the

analysis of anger sequences in the whole corpus and by considering their narrative functions.

First, the unit of meaning must be defined.

4. Anger sequences as a unit of meaning

Salway and Graham (2003) propose a method to extract information about characters'

emotions in films. It is suggested that this information can help describe the relationship

between emotions performances and narrative structures. Their method extracts information

from audio description that is provided for the visually-impaired in an increasing number of

films. The method is based on a cognitive theory of emotions that links a character's

emotional states to the events in their environment. As they show, emotions are related to the

narrative structure of films. Some cognitive-emotion research on anger appraisals distinguish

four main patterns of appraisals linked to the anger experience: frustration or goal blocking,

other accountability (this refers to somebody else being considered as the cause of what

happened), unfairness and threat to self-esteem.10 Inspired by this research, anger sequences

in the corpus were classified, analysing their distribution (see Figure 1) and narrative

function.

By observing the anger sequence distribution in Figure 1, it appears that they are

concentrated in three main moments of a film: between the 10th and the 30th minutes (ten

films out of twelve); between the 40th and the 60th minutes (eight films out of twelve); and

between the 70th and the 90th minutes (ten films out of twelve). After this, anger sequences

8 Until July 2007, Italy distinguished films between three categories: forbidden under the age of 14, forbidden under the age of 18 and not at all forbidden. Government then decided to add a new rating for people younger then 10. Distributors must now classify films according to these parameters carrying out a kind of self-certification by judging film themes, AV contents and language. This certification could be verified by a special commission protecting minors’ rights, the Commissione di classificazione dei film per la tutela dei minori at the Ministero per i Beni e le Attività Culturali. Fake certifications are punished (see Il Sole 24 ore, 2007).France has another distinction in film classification. Restrictions concern minors of the age of 12, 16 and 18 (See the web page of the Commission de classification des œuvres cinématographiques du Centre National de la Cinématographie : http://www.cnc.fr).9 In France, for example, the Italian film « Romanzo criminale » distributed by Warner Bros, may not be rented out by people under 12, but it is sold without any restriction, under the label « Tous publics ».10 See Kuppens, Van Mechelen, Smits, De Boeck, Ceulemans, 2007.



disappear, except in films based on social tensions, such as “Romanzo criminale” or “La

meglio gioventù”. In these films which are also longer than the others, anger is like a

character itself, appearing throughout the film rather than at specific points for concentrated

periods of time.

0' - 10' 11' - 20' 21' - 30' 31' - 40' 41' - 50' 51' - 60' 61' - 70' 71' - 80' 81' - 90' 91' - 100' 101' - 110' 111' - 120' 121' - 180'

PETRCRGDRAPRLMG2LMG1LVBLUBCACCDELDFLAESML

Figure 1. Anger distribution in the whole corpus

In the whole corpus, anger seems to have specific narrative functions, from the

development of the characters’ psychology and relations – interactional function – to

narrative manipulation, by giving factual information necessary to dramatic development,

supporting a crescendo of tension until the climax – narrative-informative function. These

distinctions are borrowed from Remael (2003: 233) who classifies film dialogue contents

only. For the purposes of my research, the narrative functions of all the signs making a film

sequence are considered, where audiovisual signs are not always linked to dialogue but can

give different interactional or narrative-informative details (see § 5). In analysing the corpus,

it was discovered that in the first 30 minutes of all the films, sequences have mostly an

interactional function; in the second sequence group (40th-60th minutes), their function is

mainly interactional, supporting the rise of tension until the climax which is generally

Film running time



positioned in the third group of sequences (70th-90th minutes) having a narrative-informative

function.11

Anger sequences can thus be defined as a unit of meaning according to the four

possible appraisals of an identifiable stimulus by characters and to their narrative function.

These remarks also complete the range of macro-context variables in the corpus. Anger

sequences can now be explored as a micro-context featured by specific meaning-making

resources which should be described and analysed before investigating subtitling strategies

and tactics.

5. Searching for a model of description

A pilot study based on two films from the corpus, “Caché” (Haneke, 2005) and “L’ultimo

bacio” (Muccino, 2001), raise certain questions about anger micro-context description,

especially when focusing on anger performance and other signs composing anger sequences.

Table 2 presents selected macro- and micro-contextual devices about two sequences analysed

below. 12

As mentioned above (§ 1), AV documents are composed of verbal, auditory and visual

signs. In order to describe them, a coherent model of description is needed for anger

sequences. The distinction proposed until now, as in Gambier (2006), differentiates four main

sets of signs:

1. the verbal auditory signs, including mainly dialogue and background voices, with their

intonation, prosody, delivery, etc.

2. the non-verbal auditory signs, comprising natural sounds, laughs, sound effects, music

3. the verbal visual signs, made up of the subtitles and different kinds of captions: shop and

road signs, street names, newspaper headlines, letters, menus, placards, posters, etc.

4. the non-verbal visual signs, including composition of the image, takes with different camera

positions and movements, types of shots, lighting, editing (overall rhythm), use of colours,

clothing, body language, gestures, facial expressions, proxemics, etc.

11 These functions are not clearly separated, but considered as the main feature of a sequence. An interactional sequence often gives factual information.12 The table is partially inspired by the “fiche signalétique” used by the DELIC (Description Linguistique Informatisée sur Corpus) research group of the Université de Provence. It serves to give some information about transcriptions collected in the Corpus de référence du français parlé (see : http://sites.univ-provence.fr/delic/corpus/index.html). Note that “title” and “summary” are completed according to my own perspective.



FILMSFilm Title L’ultimo bacio

(LUB) Caché (CAC)

Target Version Juste un baiser Niente da nascondere

Film Director Gabriele Muccino Michael HanekeFilm Length 110’ 114’Year 2001 2005Year of Distribution

2002 2005

Distributor Gaumont Buena Vista Int

BIM

SEQUENCESSequence Starting Time

49th minute 41st minute

Narrative Function Interactional Interactional

M

A

C

R

O

Appraisal Goal blocking Threat to self-esteem

Title Couple in a state of crisis

The secret

Situation Int.day. Emilio’s consulting room

Int.evening. Georges’ home

Summary Anna wants to divorce

Georges has a secret, Anne wants to know it

Speakers 3 – Anna, Emilio & Emilio’s secretary

2 – Anne & Georges

Angry Speakers 2 – Anna & Emilio 1 – Anne

C

O

N

T

E

X

T

S

M

I

C

R

O

Sequence Length 00 :02 :41 00 :02 :34Table 2. Sequences contextual details

From the pilot study carried out, I learnt that it was useful to make a further distinction

in sets (2) and (4), according to what cognitive-emotion theories call “expressive behaviour”

(see § 2) and separating speaking characters from non speaking characters. Thus I use

dialogical features, for all verbal, visual and auditory signs linked to characters who are

talking; and filmic features for all verbal, visual and auditory signs not directly linked to

dialogue (speaking and non-speaking characters; non-human background, e.g. streets, rooms,

restaurants…), as shown in Table 3.

Dialogical features Filmic features (FF) Vocal expression (pitch, intensity,

tempo, noises, laugh…) Visual expression (facial

expressions, gestures, body language, proxemics…)

Verbal expression (dialogue)

Non speaking characters’ gestures, facial expressions, body language...

Camera positions and movements

Type of shots (close-up, shot reverse shot …)

Sound effects (music, noises, their intensity, laugh...)

…Table 3. Anger sequences features



The concept of dialogical features is linked to orality. As outlined by research on

conversation, oral expression is composed not only of specific verbal elements (register

variation, interjections, hesitations…), but also of aural (acoustics indexes of verbal and vocal

signs, i.e. words, cries, laugh…) and visual signs (intentional and non-intentional gestures and

facial expressions; proxemics). In France a first attempt at describing conversation signs was

made by Cosnier and Kerbrat-Orecchioni (1987), in an ethologic and linguistic approach.

Nevertheless they did admit the difficulty in transcribing all the meaning-making signs of a

spontaneous conversation. This is far from being solved nowadays. In film performances,

dialogical features represent a choice: as they are created for an audience, they actually work

on the “vertical level”13 of communication, which takes place between the film’s apparatus

(verbal and non verbal devices) and viewers, while the “horizontal level” of communication

takes place between characters on the screen. Thus dialogical features do not really have an

interactional function for speakers but for the audience. Moreover, the audience and translator

perceive them according to filmic feature choices which are also relevant to the translation

process.

Dial. A.: In tutto questo tempo mi hai fatto sentire così sola così sola [interrupt]

E.: Non alzare la voce A.: E’ per questo che ti ho tradito [interrupt] E.: Non lo voglio sapere

FF+Sub

Avec toije me suis toujours sentie seule !

Ne crie pas! - Je t’ai trompé pour ça.- Arrête !

[Shot changes subtitles stay]Figure 2. “L’ultimo bacio”

13 Vanoye quoted by Remael 2003: 227.



This appears obvious when comparing the combination of dialogical and filmic

features in the three subtitled sequences presented above (see Figures 2 and 3). In both

sequences, verbal resources seem to have a purely expressive function: interruptions,

repetitions (LUB “così sola così sola”; CAC “des des”), vulgar expressions (CAC “t’aurais

fermé ta gueule”) characterise a simple interaction or non thematic conversation. In LUB due

to a specific shot angle which pictures both characters, and the effect created by the camera

following character movements (external point of view), dialogical features are all

perceivable. However, the characters move so quickly that it is difficult to create subtitles

which respect shot changes. The micro-context conveys the characters’ anger. Nevertheless in

CAC dialogical features of anger cannot be viewed completely. A high angle shot shows

Georges but not Anne’s face (out of shot) as she talks to Georges; the audience can hear her

while looking at Georges’ bothered face and gestures. Thus we can not only feel Anne’s

dominance but also sense Georges’ embarrassment. Meaning-making resources in this

sequence do not simply convey anger. Moreover, subtitles become the visual presence of

Anne on the screen.

Dial. G.: Anne je t'en prie si j'avais su que ça [interrupt.]A.: Eh ben qu'est-ce que t'aurais fait

A.: T'aurais fermé ta gueule c'est çaG.: S'il te plait

A.: Mais tu te rends compte des des conneries que tu débites

FF+Sub.

- Ti prego, se avessi saputo…- Che avresti fatto?

- Staresti zitto!Non è vero ?- Ti prego…

Ti rendi contocome mi stai trattando?

Figure 3. “Caché”

Verbal resources maintain a mainly expressive function in the original version of both

sequences, but if visual expressions are in or out of shot, the anger sequence micro-context is

differently perceived, so that this could influence translation strategies and tactics – further

research will show to what extent and in which way this is the case. When creating a model of

description for this micro-context, it is methodologically useful to start with the arrangement

of dialogical features of anger to investigate translational choices.



6. Conclusions

This paper has dealt with the definition of a unit of meaning: anger sequences in French and

Italian films. We have been looking for a coherent descriptive model for the anger micro-

context. Many issues about the analysis of this micro-context have not been raised, especially

concerning the vocal expression of anger. Although the data presented does not constitute

evidence for a clear description and analysis of all signs composing the anger micro-context,

they represent a first step towards establishing the empirical foundation for my research

project, and should prove useful for studying the relationship between the meaning-making

resources of an AV document and subtitling strategies.

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About the author

Valeria FRANZELLI is a PhD student in French Linguistics at the University of Brescia (Italy). Her research interests focus on verbal and non-verbal aspects of subtitling strategies in French and Italian films. After graduating in Foreign Languages and Literatures at the University of Bergamo, she worked as a lecturer of Italian language and culture at the University of Haute-Alsace (Mulhouse, France). Since 2007 she has been teaching French at the Faculty of Economics of the University of Brescia. She also co-operated as a researcher in audiovisual translation with the Faculties of Foreign Languages and Literatures of the Universities of Turin, Milan and Trieste.

Address: Università degli Studi di Brescia, Facoltà di Economia Aziendale, Ufficio dottorandi – Centro Linguistico Interfacoltà, C.da S. Chiara 50, 25122 Brescia, Italy

E-mail: [email protected]

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