animl tissue ppt
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animal tissuesTRANSCRIPT
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Basic Histology and Connective Tissue Chapter 5
Histology, the Study of Tissues
Tissue Types
Connective Tissues
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Histology is the Study of Tissues 200 different types of cells in the human body.
A Tissue consist of two or more types of cells that function together.
Four basic types of tissues:
epithelial tissue
connective tissue
muscular tissue
nervous tissue
An Organ is a structure with discrete boundaries that is composed of 2 or more tissue types.
Example: skin is an organ composed of epidermal tissue and dermal tissue.
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Distinguishing Features of Tissue Types Types of cells (shapes and functions) Arrangement of cells Characteristics of the Extracellular Matrix:
proportion of water types of fibrous proteins composition of the ground substance
ground substance is the gelatinous material between cells in addition to the water and fibrous proteins
ground substance consistency may be liquid (plasma), rubbery (cartilage), stony (bone), elastic (tendon)
Amount of space occupied by cells versus extracellular matrix distinguishes connective tissue from other tissues
cells of connective tissues are widely separated by a large amount of extracellular matrix
very little extracellular matrix between the cells of epithelia, nerve, and muscle tissue
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Embryonic Tissues An embryo begins as a single
cell that divides into many cells that eventually forms 3 Primary Layers:
ectoderm (outer layer)
forms epidermis and nervous system
endoderm (inner layer)
forms digestive glands and the mucous membrane lining digestive tract and respiratory system
mesoderm (middle layer)
Forms muscle, bone, blood and other organs.
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Histotechnology Preparation of specimens for histology:
preserve tissue in a fixative to prevent decay (formalin) dehydrate in solvents like alcohol and xylene embed in wax or plastic slice into very thin sections only 1 or 2 cells thick float slices on water and mount on slides and then add color with
stains
Sectioning an organ or tissue reduces a 3-dimensional structure to a 2-dimensional slice.
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Planes of Section
Longitudinal section
tissue cut along the longest direction of a structure
Cross section
tissue cut perpendicular to the length of a structure
Oblique section
tissue cut at an angle between a cross section and a longitudinal section
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Two Dimensional Sections of Solid Three
Dimensional Objects
Slicing through a boiled egg is similar
to sectioning a cell
and its nucleus.
Slices 1 and 5
miss the yolk.
Yolk appears larger in section 3 than in
sections 2 and 4.
1 5
1 2 3 4 5
2 3 4
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Sections of Complex Hollow Structures
Image A is a cross section of a curved
tubular structure like a
blood vessel or a
section of intestine.
Image B is a longitudinal section of a
spiraling, tubular
structure like a sweat
gland.
Notice what a single slice could look like.
A B
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Epithelial Tissue (Epithelia) One or more layers of closely adhering cells. Forms a flat sheet with an unattached free surface (may be
exposed to the environment or an internal body cavity) and a basal surface attached to the basement membrane made of collagen.
Epithelia are avascular. Epithelial cells depend on diffusion of nutrients from capillaries in the underlying connective tissue or from the free surface.
Epithelia are innervated by sensory neurons. Basement membrane is a is semi-permeable layer of collagen
and adhesive proteins that anchors epithelial cells to underlying connective tissue.
The connective tissue under an epithelium is called the lamina propria.
Free Surface
Lamina Propria
Basal Surface
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Naming Epithelia Epithelia are named for:
the number of layers of cells
simple epithelium = one layer of cells
stratified epithelium = more than one layer of cells
pseudostratified epithelium = simple that looks stratified
the shape of cells at the surface
squamous cuboidal columnar transitional
surface modifications cilia microvilli keratinization
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Simple
Squamous
Epithelium
Single row of squamous (flat)
cells.
Can allow rapid diffusion of
substances or
secretion of fluid.
Example: lining of blood vessels or
lining of lung
alveoli
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Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
Single row of cube-shaped cells
Functions include absorption, secretion, conduction
Example: most kidney tubules
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Simple Columnar Epithelium
Single row of tall, narrow cells
Free Surface may have microvilli or cilia
Layer of microvilli is called the brush border
Functions: absorption, secretion (of mucus)
Example: Lines the intestines
Mucus
Microvilli
Absorptive Cell
Goblet Cell
Nucleus
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Pseudostratified Epithelium
Single row of cells all attached to basement membrane Not all cells reach the free surface
nuclei of basal cells give a stratified appearance Secretes and propels respiratory mucus Example: lining of trachea
Basal
Cells
Goblet
Cells
Cilia
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Mucous Membranes
Consists of a mucous-producing epithelium and underlying layers of connective tissue (lamina propria) and smooth muscle (muscularis mucosae).
Lines passageways that open to the exterior: digestive, respiratory, urinary and reproductive tracts.
Mucous forms a barrier and traps foreign particles or pathogens.
Epithelia of upper respiratory tract and parts of the reproductive tract (oviducts) are ciliated to sweep the mucous out of the body.
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Stratified Epithelia
Composed of more than one layer of cells.
Always named for shape of surface cells.
Deepest cells sit on basement membrane and are the source of replacement cells for the epithelium.
Keratinization:
keratinized epithelium has surface layer of dead cells that contain abundant protein and are surrounded by lipids
nonkeratinized epithelium has living cells with nuclei in all layers
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Nonkeratinized
Stratified
Squamous
Stratified epithelium of living cells forms an
abrasion-resistant,
moist, slippery layer.
Examples: lining of the mouth, esophagus,
vagina
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Keratinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium
Surface layer of dead squamous cells surrounded by lipids and packed with granules of keratin protein.
Dead layer is keratinized or cornified. Retards water loss and prevents penetration of
microorganisms.
Example: skin
dead, keratinized
epithelial cells
living epithelial
cells
connective tissue
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Stratified Cuboidal and Columnar Epithelium
In certain ducts, stratified columnar and cuboidal epithelia can occur. As epithelial types, both are
uncommon. Basal cells are typically cuboidal with
surface cells either columnar or cuboidal.
Example: large ducts of salivary glands
sweat gland duct kidney collecting duct
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Stratified Columnar Epithelium
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Transitional
Epithelium
Stratified epithelium with
rounded (domed)
surface cells.
Stretches to allow storage of urine.
Example: urinary bladder.
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Quiz is on material up to this
point.
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Intercellular Junctions
All cells except blood cells are anchored to each other or to the matrix surrounding them by intercellular junctions.
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Tight Junctions
Tight junctions completely encircle the cell (like a sweat band around a persons head)
Tight Junctions form a zipper-like pattern of complementary grooves and ridges that prevent
substances and bacteria from passing between
cells.
Tight Junctions
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Desmosomes Attachment between cells that holds them
together against mechanical stress (shearing forces).
A mesh of protein filaments connects integral membrane proteins and cytoskeletal proteins.
Abundant in muscle and skin
Hemidesmosomes attach
cells to the basement
membrane.
Desmosome
Hemidesmosome
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Gap Junctions
Also called communicating junctions.
Cluster of tube-shaped transmembrane proteins that make channels between cells.
Small solutes and electrical signals pass directly from cell to cell and can synchronize the activity
of groups of cells.
Found in embryos, cardiac muscle and smooth muscle.
Gap Junction
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Glands Glands secrete substances for elimination or for use
elsewhere in the body
Glands are composed predominantly of epithelial tissue
Exocrine glands maintain connection to the surface through a duct (examples: sweat glands, salivary glands)
Endocrine glands have no ducts but secrete their products (hormones) onto capillaries for absorption directly into bloodstream (pituitary, adrenal) or into interstitial fluid
Mixed organs have both types of glands:
pancreas secretes digestive enzymes into ducts and hormones into blood
gonads release gametes into ducts and secrete hormones into blood
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Types of Glandular Secretions Serous
thin, watery secretions such as sweat, milk, tears and digestive juices.
Mucus
the sticky secretion called mucus is a glycoprotein, mucin, that absorbs water
Mixed Glands secrete both serous fluid and mucus
Note: Mucus is a noun. Mucous is an adjective. Mucus is secreted by mucous glands.
Cellular mechanisms of glandular secretion include:
1) merocrine
2) apocrine
3) holocrine
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Merocrine Secretion
Cells of Merocrine Glands release their product by exocytosis.
Clusters of secretroy cells are called acini.
Products include tears, sweat, milk, pancreatic enzymes, gastric enzymes and acid
Duct
Acinus
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1) Merocrine secretion is the most common type of glandular
secretion. Secretory cells produce secretory granules from the
Golgi. Secretory granules gather at the apical region of the
cell. Then, the granules membrane fuses with the apical membrane of the cell and the contents of the granule are
opened and released by the process of exocytosis.
Cellular Mechanisms of Glandular Secretion
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2) Apocrine Secretion is a rare type of secretion dependent on
the action of sex hormones on glands. Granules in the
cytoplasm of secretory cells gather at the apical region of the
cell. Then, a part of the plasma membrane of the cell pinches
off a portion of the cytoplasm containing a granule. The vesicle
breaks down in the duct of the gland. Apocrine glands are
associated with hair follicles and become functional at puberty.
They respond to emotional or sensory stimuli (not to heat).
Examples of apocrine glands include the sweat glands in the
pubic and axillary regions.
Cellular Mechanisms of Glandular Secretion
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3) Holocrine Secretion results from the breakdown and
discharge of entire secretory cells. This form of secretion is
unique to the sebaceous glands of the skin associated with
hair follicles.
Cellular Mechanisms of Glandular Secretion
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Holocrine Secretion
Secretory cells proliferate at the base of the gland and move towards the duct as they mature. Once the cells are mature, they die and disintegrate. The cellular debris are released as the oily product of the cell.
Example: sebaceous glands are the oil-producing glands associated with hair follicles.
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http://www.lab.anhb.uwa.edu.au/mb140/CorePages/Epithelia/Epithel.htm
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Connective Tissue Connective Tissues consist of widely spaced cells
suspended in an abundant extracellular matrix. The volume of the extracellular matrix is greater than the
volume of the cells.
Functions of Connective Tissues connects organs to each other divides body regions into compartments provides support, leverage and protection (physical and
immune)
covers and surrounds articular surfaces stores nutrients thermally insulates absorbs shock transports materials (water, nutrients, gases, waste,
hormones)
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A Classification
Scheme for
Connective
Tissues
Embryonic Connective Tissue Mucoid Mesenchymal Tissue
Connective Tissue Proper Loose (areolar) Dense
Dense Regular Dense Irregular
Reticular Elastic
Specialized Connective Tissue Adipose
Yellow and White Brown
Hematopoietic
Supporting Connective Tissue Cartilage
Hyaline Cartilage Elastic Cartilage Fibrocartilage
Bone
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Cells of Connective Tissues
All connective tissue cells are derived from mesoderm that developes in to mesenchymal cells as embryos develop.
Fibroblasts are the most abundant CT cell and they produce fibers and ground substance.
Adipocytes (fat cells) store triglycerides
Chondroblasts develop into chondrocytes as they produce cartilage
Osteoblasts develop into osteocytes as they produce bone
Hematopoietic Cells differentiate into blood cells Macrophages and Mast Cells can leave the blood and
enter the interstitial fluid between cells
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Cells of Connective Tissues
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Extracellular Matrix of Connective Tissue
The Extracellular Matrix is composed of:
Extracellular Tissue Fluid (mostly water, similar to blood plasma)
Protein Fibers
Ground Substance
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Protein Fibers of the ECM Collagen Fibers
over a dozen distinct types of protein fibers
tough, flexible collagen fibers are abundant in tendons, ligaments, dermis of the skin, teeth, cartilage, bone
Reticular Fibers
thin, branched fibers that form a loose, interconnected network that hold cells, tissue fluid and ground substance
Located in distensible or spongy tissues (walls of blood vessels, dermis, lymph nodes, spleen, liver). Stain darkly with silver.
Elastic Fibers
also called yellow fibers because of their color in life
thin, straight fibers made of the protein elastin
stretch 150% resting length and recoil like a rubber band
give skin, lungs and arteries ability to stretch and recoil
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Ground Substance of ECM Ground substance is a gelatinous or rubbery material mixed with CT fibers
and found in between CT cells.
Molecules have a negative charge that attracts Na+ which holds water. the water and salt help regulate electrolyte balance in tissues and help resist
tissue compression.
Ground substance consists of 3 classes of large molecules:
glycosaminoglycans (GAGs)
polymers of repeating disaccharides
important GAGs include chondroitin sulfate, glucosamine, hyaluronic acid, heparin
GAGs are especially abundant in cartilage, bone, tendon, joints, skin
proteoglycans
proteoglycans are GAGs linked to a protein core which form bottlebrush-shaped molecules (see structure on next slide)
adhesive glycoproteins
protein-carbohydrate complexes that stick cells to ECM
mark pathways for cell migration during development and healing
important glycoproteins include laminin and fibronectin
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GAGs, Proteoglycans and Proteoglycan Aggregates
a proteoglycan
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Proteoglycan Aggregate
The proteoglycan aggregate from cartilage, shown in the electron
micrograph on the left, is formed from a hyaluronate backbone attached to
proteoglycans. The middle diagram is of a small portion of the proteoglycan
aggregate showing core proteins of proteoglycans attached to a long
hyaluronate molecule. Chondroitin sulfate and keratan sulfate GAGs are
linked to core proteins forming many different proteoglycans. GAGs have a
repeating disaccharide structure.
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Embryonic Connective Tissue
The Mucoid Mesenchymal Tissue of Embryonic Connective Tissue is semifluid with thin reticular fibers and relatively abundant mesenchymal cells and blood vessels. Whartons jelly of the umbilical cord is an example.
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Wharton's Jelly Cyst in an Umbilical Cord
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Connective Tissue Proper
Loose Connective Tissue (Areolar Tissue)
Dense Connective Tissue
Dense Connective Tissues
Dense Regular Connective Tissue
Dense Irregular Connective Tissue
Reticular Connective Tissue
Elastic Connective Tissue
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Loose (Areolar)
Connective
Tissue Scattered cells include
thin fibroblasts, macrophages and mast cells.
Loose arrangement of thick, wavy collagen fibers (C) and thin dark-staining elastic fibers (EF).
Found under some types of epithelia including the mesentary of the digestive tract.
Contains nerves and blood vessels.
C
EF
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Dense Regular Connective Tissue
Densely, packed, parallel collagen fibers
Fibroblasts sandwiched between fibers
Forms the strong, resilient tissue of tendons and ligaments
blood
vessel
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Dense Irregular Connective Tissue
Densely woven collagen fibers with little open space and few cells
Withstands stresses applied in different directions
Forms the dermis of the skin and forms capsules around organs
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Reticular Tissue
Loose network of thin, branched reticular fibers.
Supports cells in vascular, filtering organs like the liver lymph nodes, spleen, thymus and bone marrow.
Fibers are stained very dark with silver.
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Elastic
Tissue Cross section of
the aorta shows
alternating layers
of muscle,
collagen fibers and
thinner, darker
staining elastic
fibers.
Special stains containing
solutions of metals
like silver are
needed to
visualize elastic
fibers.
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People with Ehlers-Danlos
Syndrome usually have
hyperelasticity of the skin as shown
in these pictures. The unusually
elastic skin can be stretched much
further than normal skin because of
defective collagen synthesis in
connective tissues. This condition
also causes skin to be easily
bruised, heal poorly, and joints that
are unusually flexible (hyperflexible,
hypermobile).
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Specialized Connective Tissue
Adipose Tissues
Unilocular (Yellow or White Fat)
Multilocular (Brown Fat)
Hematopoietic Tissue
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Unilocular Adipose Tissue
White or yellow adipose cells are called unilocular adipocytes.
Unilocular adipocytes are large, empty-looking cells with the nucleus pressed against cell membrane (arrowhead). This shape is sometimes described as a signet ring.
Unilocular adipose is found beneath skin and surrounding organs. It is used for energy storage, insulation and for cushioning other tissues.
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Multilocular Adipose Tissue
Brown Adipose cells are called multilocular adipocytes.
Multilocular adipose is found in human babies and in hibernating animals.
Cells have many mitochondria and many small droplets of fat. Multilocular adipocytes produce heat by breaking down stored fat. Heat is transferred to the blood through abundant capillaries.
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Multilocular Adipose Tissue Distribution
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Hematopoietic Connective Tissue (Blood)
Formed Elements are the blood cells classified as erythrocytes, leukocytes and platelets.
Non-formed Elements are the components of the blood plasma
erythrocyte
leukocytes
platelets
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Supporting Connective Tissue
Cartilage
Hyaline Cartilage
Elastic Cartilage
Fibrocartilage
Bone
Compact Bone
Spongy Bone
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Cartilage
Supportive connective tissue with a rubbery matrix
Cartilage is an avascular tissue (no blood vessels in the matrix) so cells rely on diffusion from a surrounding vascular membrane, the perichondrium, to deliver nutrients and remove wastes. (injured cartilage heals slowly if at all)
3 types of cartilage distinguished by the fibers of the extracellular matrix:
hyaline elastic fibrocartilage
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Hyaline Cartilage
Fibrous, vascular capsule called the perichondrium covers a clear, non-fibrous matrix.
Chondrocytes produce the cartilage matrix. Each cell is in a pit called a lacuna.
Hyaline cartilage covers the ends of bones at all movable joints plus the sternal ends of ribs and is the supportive material in nose, larynx, trachea, bronchi.
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Elastic Cartilage
Fibrous, vascular perichondrium
covers elastic
cartilage
The cartilage matrix has a
weblike mesh of
elastic fibers
among the
lacunae
Provides flexible, resilient, support
for the external
ear and epiglottis
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Fibrocartilage
Chondrocytes in isolated clusters or rows in a matrix containing coarse, wavy collagen fibers.
Resists compression and absorbs shock Found in the pubic symphysis of the pelvis and the
intervertebral discs.
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Bone
Bone matrix stores the minerals calcium and phosphorus.
Compact bone provides physical support for leverage during muscle contraction.
Spongy bone, also called trabecular or cancellous, fills the ends of long bones and supports the bone marrow.
Compact bone always covers spongy bone.
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Compact Bone
Spongy Bone
Compact Bone and Spongy Bone
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Muscle Tissue
Cells that respond to stimuli by contracting
Function is to exert physical force on other tissues
move bones
moves blood through vessels
expel urine and feces
3 types of muscle tissue: skeletal
cardiac
smooth
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Skeletal Muscle
Long, cylindrical, unbranched cells with striations and multiple peripheral nuclei.
Function in movement, posture, breathing, speech, swallowing.
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Cardiac Muscle
Short, striated cells connected to each other with intercalated discs.
Usually one central nucleus per cell. Sometimes cells are branched Found in heart and functions to pump blood.
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Smooth Muscle
Short, fusiform cells; nonstriated with only one central nucleus.
Functions to control the diameter of openings in the gastrointestinal tract, respiratory tract, cardiovascular system
and parts of the reproductive system.
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Neurons
Neurons may have long cell processes are usually surrounded by much smaller glial cells.
Neurons communicate with electrochemical signals at the tips of the axonal and dendritic processes.
Found in brain, spinal cord, nerves and ganglia.