Undergraduate Review Undergraduate Review

Volume 12 Issue 1 Article 3

2000

Another One Bites the Dust Another One Bites the Dust

Chad R. Maxwell '02 Illinois Wesleyan University

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Recommended Citation Maxwell '02, Chad R. (2000) "Another One Bites the Dust," Undergraduate Review: Vol. 12 : Iss. 1 , Article 3. Available at: https://digitalcommons.iwu.edu/rev/vol12/iss1/3

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Another One Bites the Dust By Chad R. Maxwell

H e bit the dust. Most individuals are familiar with this colloquial

phrase, or maybe just Queen's song ''Another One Bites the

Dust." Although commonly connected with death,

this phrase

gains an entirely

new meaning when one thinks about literally "biting the dust." The

practice of biting dust or eating dirt has existed since the days

of homo halibus.

Scientifically speaking,

the practice of eating dirt is called

geophagy. Eating dirt is practiced in almost every country throughout the

entire world and

has

been proven to have some health benefits. In addi­

tion, geophagy has significant meaning and symbolism within each culture.

Considering

these generalizations,

it seems odd that the medical communi­ty terms geophagy as a form of pica. Pica stems from Latin and refers to "a

bird that

eats everything, a

magpie." Today, however, pica is a medical term

that

means "an

abnormal appetite for substances that are not fit to eat" ("Pica" websters). This classification of geophagy is not only odd, but also

incorrect. Through a chemical and biological study of geophagy it will be shown that dirt is not only

edible, but can have health benefits. An exami­

nation of the

practice's historical

and cultural context will reveal that

geophagy is not at all perverse. Thus, in proving geophagy normal and establishing the edibility of dirt, the medical term "pica" will be proven

inaccurate and false.

Geophagy: History

The discovery of a non-indigenous white clay next to the prehistoric

remains of homo halibuJ at Kalambo Falls, Zambia supports the idea that

the practice of eating dirt can first be recorded as far back as 2.5 million

years ago: "Tens of thousands of years before the birth of clay crafts, this

ancient hominid

clearly

had a relationship with clay" (Whole Earth). In

addition

to the fact

that clay craftsmanship had yet to exist, two other rea­

sons point toward homo halibus as a geophagist. First, because the clay is

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I The Undergraduate Review ! not indigenous to the area of Kalambo Falls, it must have been carried

there by an ancient homo halibus. Secondly, it is this very clay which is consumed by modern earth-eaters.

However, historical documentation of the term geophagy did not occur until much later. Aristotle first used the term geophagy in 300 B.C.

(Danford). As early as 40 B.C., the eating of dirt was introduced among the Greeks to fight sickness and disease. The ancient Greeks and Romans,

especially Diocorides, believed that the clay had special medicinal powers. Ancient priests would obtain the clay from caves on the island of Lemnos.

After acquiring the clay, it was mixed with goat's blood, pressed into pellets or

lozenges, and then sealed with the figure of a goat. This product was

called tierra siglata or "sealed earth." The tablets later became very popular in Rome after Galen, a Greek philosopher and physician, visited Lemnos

and returned to Rome with

20,000 of the goat lozenges. After Galen's return, the healing and anti-poison effects of the terra siglata were sought

after for many years to come (Frate).

Geophagy is not limited solely to the Greeks and Romans, though. Around

1000 A.D., earth-eating in Europe was identified as a common

habit among children and was thought abominable. Avicenna, the Arab physician and philosopher, detested geophagists and attempted to whip the

habit out of those who practiced dirt eating. He stated: "they should be abandoned

to the grave" (Frate 1). In the sixth century AD., Aeituse

observed and documented the practice of geophagy among pregnant women in Greece. In the early 1800's, David Livingston noted that

geophagy, also called safUra in African communities, was common among the pregnant women in African tribes. During the mid-1800's when the

slave trade increased, the practice of eating dirt was carried across the sea to Jamaica, the West Indies, and the Americas. Slaves infected with hook­

worm-a parasite that "hooks"

onto the intestinal lining of its host, feed­ing off digested foods as they pass-ate the clay to alleviate gastric pain (Abrahams 66). Most research on geophagy indicates that the practice has

no racial, temporal. or geographical boundaries, suggesting that geophagy is

widespread. In modern human sociery, this practice is most common

among the world's poorer or more tribally oriented people, the greatest portion of whom are pregnant black women (Frate 2).

Geophagy: ChemicalAnalysis

In order to recognize the possible health benefits of consuming clay, it is important

to understand its chemical properties and composition.

Through understanding

geophagy chemically to eat." Clays are formed

by the gradual degr most commonly connected with sedimentary

marine sediments in addition to various soils. boundaries. Where there is soil, there usually

clay are dependent upon the environment in Depending on

the weather conditions, such;

sure, etc. and the composition, made from d from the surrounding environment, clays will

fering structural compositions and properties

Major clay groupings include kaolin, mont a1lophane. The structure of clay is based on tv

talline shape-resulting from the organization drons in hexagonal networks, giving clay alar

ry to bind and exchange metals because of the yl

ions and oxygen in the tetrahedron struCrul

Frate discovered ten elements that were consis rate samples: silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium ganese, copper, cobalt, and chromium. Spositc

sium, iron, and silicon to be essential element element needed by the body. Thus, if iron is i

could be an important source of famine food. found in clay include vanadium and trace am,

soils, however, concentrations of all elements I

and calcium were relatively low (Aufreiter). TI clays is created by two of its common e1emem

to the silica-aluminum ration, which also take structure of clays, clays may absorb water and called the colloidal properry of clay (Sposito Lj

"Kaolinitic and montmorillonitic clays are­sumed

by humans" (Wiley 532). The former

aluminum and silicon,

and it can only absor~ external surface. Conversely, montmorilloniti water, and organic molecules into the inner I

tion and structural properties of clay are the ­benefits of geophagy.

Geophagy: Biological Analysis

As proven through the aforementioned stt 2

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Maxwell

Kalambo Falls, it must have been carried bus.

Secondly, it is this very clay which is

aters.

entation of the term geophagy did not occur ;t

used the term geophagy in 300 B.C.

:., the eating of dirt was introduced among rld

disease. The ancient Greeks and Romans,

:i that the clay had special medicinal powers.

the clay from caves on the island

of Lemnos. s mixed with goat's blood, pressed into pellets

iVith the figure

of a goat. This product was earth." The tablets later became very popular

~ philosopher and physician, visited Lemnos

:0,000 of the goat lozenges. After Galen's

lOison effects

of the terra siglata were sought

(Frate).

Jlely to the Greeks and Romans, though. jng in Europe was identified as a common

lS thought abominable. Avicenna, the Arab

~tested geophagists

and attempted to whip the ,ced

dirt eating. He stated: "they should be

.te 1). In the sixth century A.D., Aeituse .e

practice of geophagy among pregnant

Iy 1800's, David Livingston noted

that 11

African communities, was common among

:an tribes.

During the mid-1800's when the ctice of eating dirt was carried across the sea to

i the Americas. Slaves infected with hook­;5" onto

the intestinal lining of its host, feed­

r pass-ate the clay to alleviate gastric pain h on geophagy indicates that the practice has

aphical boundaries, suggesting that geophagy man society, this practice is most common

more tribally oriented people, the greatest rlt

black women (Frate 2). sis

possible health benefits

of consuming clay, it is

chemical properties and composition.

Through

understanding geophagy chemically,

one will realize that it is "fit to eat." Clays are formed by the gradual degradation of rock; this process is

most commonly connected with sedimentary shales, mudstones, and marine sediments in addition to various soils. Clays have no geographic boundaries. Where there is soil, there usually exists clay. The properties of

clay are dependent upon the environment in which they are found. Depending on

the weather conditions, such as temperature, location, pres­

sure, etc. and the composition, made from elements found within the clay from the surrounding environment, clays will be produced which have dif­fering structural compositions and properties.

Major clay groupings include kaolin, montmorillonite, halloysite, and allophane. The structure of clay is based 0:1 two fundamentals: their crys­

talline shape-resulting from the organization of silicon-oxygen tetrahe­drons in hexagonal networks, giving clay a large surface area-and the abili­

ty to bind and exchange metals because of the dense localization of hydrox­yl

ions and oxygen in the tetrahedron structures (Sposito 43). In 1964,

Frate discovered ten elements that were consistently present in three sepa­rate samples: silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium, titanium, potassium, man­ganese, copper, cobalt, and chromium. Sposito's research also found magne­

sium, iron, and silicon to be essential elements in clays. Iron is an important element needed by the body. Thus, if iron is in chemical form, then clay

could be an important source of famine food. Other nutrient elements found in clay include vanadium and trace amounts of strontium. In testing

soils, however, concentrations of all elements except iron, aluminum, silicon and

calcium were relatively low (Aufreiter). The most important property of

clays is created by two of its common elements, aluminum and silicon. Due to the silica-aluminum ration, which also takes part in determining the

structure of clays, clays may absorb water and organic compounds. This is called the colloidal property of clay (Sposito 43).

"Kaolinitic and montmorillonitic clays are those most frequently con­sumed

by humans" (Wiley 532). The former clay is made up of mostly

aluminum and silicon,

and it can only absorb organic compounds to their external surface. Conversely, montmorillonitic clays may absorb cations,

water, and organic molecules into the inner layers of the clay. The absorp­tion and structural properties of clay are the catalysts for the biological

benefits of geophagy.

Geophagy: BiologicalAnalysis

As proven through the aforementioned structural and chemical analysis,

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the most important properties of clay are its colloidal properties-the absorption of water, organic materials, and the exchange of cations. Several

health benefits are based on these properties. First, clay may be used as an anti-diarrhea medication. Diarrhea occurs when food substances and liq­uids travel roo quickly through the intestine. This quick progression does not allow the body adequate time to absorb the water from the digested foods. When kaolin clay is eaten, its colloidal properties enable it to absorb

the excess water found in the body, food, and intestines, thus curing the diarrhea. In fact, kaolin clay is a primary ingredient in many modern anti­

diarrhea medicines, such as Turns, Maalox, and Rolaids-hence the name Kaopectate (Ashenbach 87). Furthermore, clays can cure diarrhea by slow­ing the digestion progress, which gives the body more time to absorb water from the digested substances. This process again relieves diarrhea.

A second health benefit of geophagy is that clays can supply minerals and ions that the body requires to sustain its electrochemical balance. Just

as clay reduces transit time in the intestines allowing more water to be

absorbed, the clay also allows for more minerals and vitamins to be

absorbed by the body as well. This may be why many resort to eating clay during periods of starvation. Proteins and liver glycogen reserves are used

up during starvation, and most bodies become chemically out of balance. Geophagy can preserve this delicate electrolyte balance (Aufreiter). Furthermore, the cation-exchange properties of clay will allow for the

unnecessary minerals in the body to be absorbed by the clay, while the clay can also potentially give up the minerals and ions the body needs. For example, clay can supply the body with calcium while absorbing zinc or iron. Similarly, it can absorb iron while giving the body aluminum, a non­

nutritive element; the converse is also rrue. Thus, the net effect of clay ingestion on mineral status depends on what other foods or nutrients are

present in the gut. Clearly, clays do have the ability and potential to aid the body's nutritional status.

Other

biological benehts exist from eating clay

as well. As the Greeks and Romans knew, clays have the ability to trap organic and non-organic toxins in their structure. For example, mercury atoms can be trapped in clay

through an io!) ,- h[i~:." \\I£h potassium, magnesium, or calcium. While the clay traps poisonous and possibly deadly substances, it gives the body ele­

ments it can use, such as potassium-a requirement for every muscle con­traction. Clays have also been proven to absorb and thus prevent the absorp­tion of aflatoxins, mold toxins, lethal plant toxins, such as digoxin (a cardiac

glycoside), drugs such as chloroquine, and some bacteria (Wiley 536). After

these toxins are absorbed into the body, they ~ body, rendering them harmless. Thus, eating ( one's mineral nutrition depending on the cure

the body and stomach; be used as an effective reduce or eliminate secondary compounds or, absorbed by the mucosal cells lining the intest

One of

the most interesting biological

aspl pregnant female. Katz and Wiley proposed, "

out the course

of pregnancy confers multiple course of pregnancy" (Wiley 537). Clay may or third trimesters. When eaten in the first tr

ins that are tartogenic, or catalysts of abnorm same time, clay suppresses the common symI nausea and vomiting. In the second trimester clay can supply essential nutrients to the mot

One of the most important

of these nutrient! for the development of strong fetal skeletons.

um supplementation through clay may

also r, induced hypertension. Clay eating during pr~

toxins; and thus, prevents the developing chil addition, it may increase appetite and nutrier above. Furthermore, in pregnant women whc to toxins from cravings, as well as non-pregn: protecrive coating within the digestive tract rI

from damage by toxins (Wiley 540).

Wiley and Katz support the calcium-suppl analysis of non-dairying tribes in Africa versu

of geophagy

among pregnant women. They ~

Geophagy during pregnancy should be that do not practice dairying or do not

abundance or lack of d~iry products in in different populations is likely to mall

in calcium consumption. In addition, p based almost exclusively on plant foods ulations) may profit from other qualitie

to adsorb toxic secondary plant compo'

Although they found that the times, such as and

versus death, at which tribes ate clay we

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; of clay are its colloidal properties-the rlaterials, and the exchange of cations. Several lese properties. First, clay may be used as an

rrhea occurs when food substances and liq­h the intestine. This quick progression does

:ime to absorb the water from the digested

ten, its colloidal properties enable it to absorb body, food, and intestines, thus curing the s

a primary ingredient in mariy modern anti­lms, Maalox, and Rolaids-hence the name

urthermore, clays can cure diarrhea by slow­lich gives the body more time to absorb water This process again relieves diarrhea.

f geophagy is that clays can supply minerals es to

sustain its electrochemical balance. Just the intestines allowing more water to be for more minerals and vitamins to be

This may be why many resort to eating clay Proteins and liver glycogen reserves are used

,st bodies become chemically

out of balance. elicate electrolyte balance (Aufreiter). ange properties of clay will allow for the

,ody to be absorbed by the clay, while the clay le

minerals and ions the body needs. For

body with calcium while absorbing zinc or iron while giving the body aluminum, a non­

se is also true.

Thus, the net effect of clay epends on what other foods or nutrients are

ays do have the ability

and potential to aid

xist

from eating clay

as well. As the Greeks and ability to trap organic and non-organic toxins

e, mercury atoms can be trapped in clay 1 potassium, magnesium, or calcium. While the

:ibly deadly substances, it gives the body ele­ lSsium-a

requirement for every muscle con­, proven to absorb and thus prevent the absorp­s,

lethal plant toxins, such as digoxin (a cardiac

roquine, and some bacteria (Wiley 536). After

these toxins are absorbed into the body, they are simply excreted from the body, rendering them harmless. Thus, eating dirt can significanrly affect

one's mineral nutrition depending on the current quantities of minerals in the body and stomach; be used as an effective diarrhea medication; and

reduce or eliminate secondary compounds or other toxins that may be absorbed by the mucosal cells lining the intestines.

One of

the most interesting biological aspects

of geophagy affects the pregnant female. Katz and Wiley proposed, "Clay consumption through­

out the course

of pregnancy confers multiple benefits throughout the course of pregnancy" (Wiley 537). Clay may be eaten in the first, second,

or third trimesters.

When eaten in the first trimester, clay traps dietary tox­ins that are tartogenic, or catalysts of abnormalities, for the embryo. At the

same time, clay suppresses the common symptoms of pregnancy such as nausea and vomiting. In the second trimester, as pregnancy nausea ends,

clay can supply essential nutrients to the mother and the developing ferus. One of

the most important of these nutrients is calcium, which is critical

for the development of strong fetal skeletons. In the third trimester, calci­um supplementation

through clay may also reduce the risk of pregnancy­

induced hypertension. Clay eating during pregnancy also absorbs harmful toxins; and thus, prevents the developing child from being harmed. In

addition, it may increase appetite and nutrient absorption as explained above. Furthermore, in pregnant women who are particularly susceptible

to toxins from cravings, as well as non-pregnant women, clay can form a protective coating within the digestive tract that then protects mucus cells

from damage by toxins (Wiley 540).

Wiley and Katz support the calcium-supplementation argument in their analysis of non-dairying tribes in Africa versus dairying tribes and the rates

of geophagy

among pregnant women. They hypothesized:

Geophagy during pregnancy should be most common in populations that do not practice dairying or do not consume dairy products. The

abundance or lack of d~iry products in the diets of pregnant women in different populations is likely to manifest itself in marked variation

in calcium consumption. In addition, populations subsisting on a diet based almost exclusively on plant foods (e.g., many non-dairying pop­

ulations) may profit from other qualities of clay, including its ability to adsorb toxic secondary plant compounds. (Wiley & Katz 536)

Alrhough they found that the times, such as pregnancy, versus weddings, and

versus death, at which tribes ate clay were highly different, they did

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discover that 60% of the dairying populations scored "very few or no preg­nant women practicing" while 76% of the non-dairying populations of

pregnant women reported "regular and consistent earth eating." This implies that clay is a source of nutrients during pregnancy due to the limit­

ed exposure of non-dairying populations to calcium-rich foods.

Although geophagy has many proven health benefits, it can also have negative health consequences. Parasitic infections can occasionally occur depending

on the regions from which the dirt is extracted. Geophagists in America, who are in the delta regions of the Mississippi, as Frate has

pointed out, seem

to have higher levels of these infections (Frate "Holmes County"). Most problems with earth eating, however, stem from a gener­

al abuse

of the practice. To illustrate, when one consumes an unorthodox amount of

clay it can impact or block the colon, which, if not quickly

treated, can lead to death. Additionally, a fierce consumption of dirt may lead to a disruption in the balance of potassium (Whole Earth 41). Severe

disruption in potassium levels, called hypocalcaemia, may lead to heart failure and eventually death. In 1964, Mengel identified that geophagy

"may cause sluggishness, mental insensibility, profound muscular weak­ness, and lassitude" (471). Yet, the negative consequences of geophagy are

irrelevant when one puts them in perspective with any other food prod­uct. Of course, eating 3 pounds of dirt will be harmful to the body just

as eating 3 pounds

of candy will make one sick, but people still eat candy.

Furthermore, by principles of osmosis, clay can rob iron and other nutrients from the body and disrupt equilibrium. Thus, if the clay has

lower iron levels than the stomach and body in which it is digested, then it will take up iron and replace it vi:l ion exchange with another mineral, pos­

sibly a non-nutritive element. This iron deficiency may lead to anemia.

The absorptive effects

of clay can also be dangerous. When eaten, the clay can absorb water from the body and expand giving a false sense of "being

full." Although this is an excellent benefit to fight the early stresses of star­vation, continued abuse may lead to dehydration or possibly malnutrition.

Anorexics will sometimes use the "false sense of being full" property of clay to

the point where geophagy becomes an addiction. This abuse of

geophagy leads to dehydration, malnutrition and possibly a form of anorexic suicide (Whole Earth 42). Again, one must remember that eating

anything may have unavoidable consequences, such as cavities, heart fail­ure, and scurvy. Thus, the consequences of geophagy must be taken "with

a grain of sa!t."

Geophagy & Culture

Now that clay has been proven fit to eat, practice is not abnormal. An analysis of why

dirt can show why geophagy is not so extrao "Geophagy is not developed individually thrl

is learned" (7). For a habit

to be taught then behind the lesson. Among several possibilitie major motivations or reasons as to why peop

One of

the most common reasons for

geo tures believe that to eat the earth is to transfc

of the earth

to their body. They consider cla) almost a sort of edible prayer. In Eweland, G

clay is called "the eye" and is prepared in the bolizes longevity, good health, and well beinl

The egg enters the body and blesses the

WOIT

and fertile

as the earth. In Guatemala, the he show another combination of religion and g(

been formed from the springs and quarries SI shrine since before the arrival of Christ. "No

making, buying, blessing, or eating the holy, faith" (Whole Earth 41). A similar type clay i:

Central America. These cakes are white and; clay items are obviously symbolically chosen whiteness symbolizing purity that cleanses th eaten and celebrated in connection with the 174). Geophagy makes its debut at wedding~

clay figurines are given as bridal gifts. As in I broken and eaten during pregnancy (Aschen'

Perhaps, too, the religious significance of­one reflects upon Christian beliefs. When CI

of his blood was shed onto the ground. Alth

ago, the symbolic value of being a part ofCI

eating the clay upon which His blood once I Furthermore, clay is connected to Christiani.

. himself-"and the Lord God formed man 0: breathed into his nostrils the breath oflife.. eating dust or clay, that from which he was •

with God and the life-living elements which

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ring populations scored "very few or no preg­= 76% of the non-dairying populations of gular

and consistent earth eating." This Fnutrients during pregnancy due to the limit­>opulations to calcium-rich foods.

any proven health benefits, it can also have . Parasitic infections can occasionally occur m which the dirt is extracted. Geophagists

elta regions of the Mississippi, as Frate has gher levels of these infections (Frate "Holmes

th earth eating, however, stem from a gener­lustrate, when one consumes an unorthodox : or block the colon, which, if not quickly

fditionally, a fierce consumption of dirt may dance of potassium (Whole Earth 41). Severe

Is, called hypocalcaemia, may lead to heart

In 1964, Mengel identified that geophagy

ual insensibility, profound muscular weak­:t, the negative consequences of geophagy are

m in perspective with any other food prod­nds of

dirt will be harmful to the body just

will make one sick,

but people still eat

s of osmosis, clay can rob iron and other disrupt equilibrium. Thus, if the clay has mach and body in which it is digested, then it

it vi;). ion exchange with another mineral, pos­. This iron deficiency may lead to anemia.

, can also be dangerous. When eaten, the clay )dy and expand giving a false sense of "being

ellent benefit to fight the early stresses of star-lead to dehydration or possibly malnutrition.

= the "false sense of being full" property of clay becomes an addiction. This abuse of

m, malnutrition

and possibly a form of h42). Again, one must remember that eating hie consequences, such as cavities, heart fail­

msequences of geophagy must be taken "with

Geophagy & Culture

Now that clay has been proven fit to eat, it is necessary to prove that the practice is not abnormal. An analysis of why cultures and individuals eat

dirt can show why geophagy

is not so extraordinary. Frate declares, "Geophagy is not developed individually through biological processes but

is learned" (7). For a habit to be taught there has to exist a motivation

behind the lesson. Among several possibilities, there are primarily seven major motivations or reasons

as to why people eat dirt.

One of

the most

common reasons for geophagy is religion. Many cul­tures believe that to eat the earth is to transfer the ferrility and fruitfulness

of the earth to their body.

They consider clay a blessing from within­almost a sort of edible prayer. In Eweland, Ghana, for example, kaolinic

clay is called "the eye" and is prepared in the shape of an egg, which sym­bolizes longevity, good health, and well being in Ewe culture (Vermeer 57).

The egg enters the body

and blesses the woman, making her as bountiful and

fertile as the earth. In Guatemala, the holy clay tablets of Esquipulas

show another combination of religion and geophagy. These tablets have been formed from the springs and quarries surrounding the Esquipula

shrine since before the arrival of Christ. "No stage of the process--mining, making, buying, blessing, or eating the holy clay tablets-is unattended by faith" (Whole Earth 41). A similar type clay is sold in another part of

Central America. These cakes are white and are called tierra santa. These clay items are obviously symbolically chosen and named by color-the

whiteness symbolizing purity that cleanses the soul. The tierra santa is then eaten and celebrated in connection with the Black Christ Festival (Hunter

174). Geophagy makes its debut at weddings as well. In India, detailed clay figurines are given as bridal gifts. As in Ewe culture, these figurines are

broken and eaten during pregnancy (Aschenbach H6).

Perhaps, too, the religious significance of earing dirt may be seen when one reflects upon Christian beliefs. When Christ died on the cross, some

of his blood was shed

onto the ground. Although this happened centuries ago, the symbolic value of being a part of Christ and his sufferings through

eating the clay upon which His blood once flowed may still exist. Furthermore, clay is connected to Christianity through the creation of man

himself-"and the Lord

God formed man of the dust of the ground. And breathed into his nostrils the breath of life... " (Gen.2.7). Hence, through

eating dust or clay, that from which he was created, man is able to connect with God and the life-living elements which produced him.

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Cultures may also use clay for its medicinal properties, just as the Greeks and Romans did. The first pharmaceutical value of clay stems from

its structure. The crystalline composition of clays can trap poisonous parti­cles

or deadly bacteria and parasites. African people recently brought ro

America through the slave trade made use of this trapping property to cure hookworm and prevent infection and typhoid that may stem from the par­asite (Laufer). Still other cultures harness clay's ion-exchange properties to

cure metal poisoning, such as that from mercury. Clays are also a well­known anti-diarrhea medication and can relieve gastrointestinal discomfort and pain (Hunter 182). More recently, however, "day j~ eaten in Uganda

as a perceived cure for AIDS" (Abrahams 68).

Geophagy is culturally valuable and normal in other ways beyond those

connected with religion and medicine. For example, clay is commonly used as a remedy for nostalgia. Frate describes how it is common for a

black woman of the South to send the daughter, who has moved away from her birth city, clay from her original home. This reminds the daugh­

ter of her family and the place where she grew up, relieving her possible anxieties about being away from the places and people she loves. Clay is a

communication medium in this case. The use of days as relief from nostal­gia may also be found in Siberian tribes. The Siberian people once carried

small balls of earth on their nomadic journeys. They ate them along the way;

the taste reminded them of home (Whole Earth 42). African slaves

were geophagists for a similar reason. They ate clay to become part of the earth, so that when they died, they would return to their homeland. This

form of nostalgic relief is very similar to the theories proposed in Sidney Mintz's book, Ttzsting Food, Tasting Freedom. In the case of slaves, eating

dirt may have been a way to become freer or ro live in the liberation of memory and death, rather than the per~ecution and oppression of their current time.

Other

reasons for soil consumption are

of nutritional or physiological value. Soils are chosen by cultures based on location, color, flavor, softness,

and plasticity. The soils are said to have a variety of flavor from sour and sweet ro salty and chalky (Abrahams 66). After being chosen, the soil is

prepared in a number of ways. Some cultures eat it raw; others bake it and eat it with salt and vinegar. Some even smoke the flavor from the clay. Clay

has some nutritional benefits as a famine food, including its potential as a source for calcium and iron. The Ainu people of Japan recognized this

potential and had a special recipe for clay-lump soup (Whole Earth 41). Clay may also be seen as a food substitute. For example, in 19th century

Sweden, soils were mixed with flour to pm used fine kaolinic clays as a butter substitUi

Clay is most commonly used in conjun or as a food additive. Through the structur,

clay, certain foods that would normally

be edible. The Aymara of Peru harness these d

they create a "neutralizing clay dip for feral poisonous night shade family" (43). Those

of acorns also incorporate the use

of clay al consumers use clay to neutralize normally i within the nut, thus creating a nutritional,

clay. Within the last century, soil still funct

bread to create a longer sensation of fullne!

Many cultures believe that clay not only increases beauty. Just as the mud mask is n

ofWestern society in rejuvenating their

ski when digested, the beauty and the fruits of

exterior of the body. Dirt also provides bea Paralleling today's American society, thinne desirable and beautiful body shape amongs

They ate soil, known

as ampo, in order to thin stemmed from the false feeling of fuliJ

looking thin and frail was at this time high

Conclusions

To review, geophagy has been proven to supply vital minerals such as iron, calcium:

consumer or to a developing fetus. Clay is it can rid the body of harmful heavy met

can protect the body from bacterial and p rhea, relieve gastrointestinal pain, and det Furthermore, clay eating is not at all abno

from the United States, India, and Mexi practice geophagy; its boundaries are non­

to which clay consumption is practiced re The

cultural significance behind geoph of its ordinary nature.

Without a doubt, 0

dietary, medicinal, cosmetic, psychologic symbolism behind this ancient practice.

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Maxwell

for its medicinal properties, just as the first pharmaceutical value of clay stems from

:omposition of clays can trap poisonous parti­Jasites. African people recently brought to

ide made

use of this trapping property to cure tion and typhoid that may stem from the par­lres harness clay's ion-exchange properties to

•that from mercury. Clays are also a well-ion and can relieve gastrointestinal discomfort

~ recently, however, "clay

i:i eaten in Uganda , (Abrahams 68).

luable and normal in other ways beyond those medicine. For example, clay

is commonly a.

Frate describes how it is common for a

send the daughter, who has moved away · her original home. This reminds the daugh­

:e where she grew up, relieving her possible om

the places and people she loves. Clay is a

hiscase. The useof clays as relief from nostal­~rian

tribes. The Siberian people once carried

lOmadic journeys. They ate them along the 1 of home (Whole Earth 42). African slaves

r reason. They ate clay to become part of the I,

they would return to their homeland. This y similar to the theories proposed in Sidney rasting Freedom.

In the case of slaves, eating

become freer or to live in the liberation of Ian

the penecurion and oppression of their

sumption are of nutritional or physiological ltures

based on location, color, flavor, softness, lid

to have a variety of flavor from sour and lrmams 66). After being chosen, the soil is

'so Some cultures eat it

raw; others bake it and :ome

even smoke the flavor from the clay. Clay

•as a famine food, including its potential as a The Ainu people of Japan recognized this.

:cipe for clay-lump soup (Whole Earth 41). ,od

substitute. For example, in 19th century

Sweden, soils were mixed with flour to produce bread. German workers used fine kaolinic clays

as a butter substitute (Aufreiter 296).

Clay is most commonly used in conjunction with other food products or as a food additive. Through the sttucture and chemical composition of

clay, certain foods that would normally be poisonous or unbearable become

edible. The Aymara of Peru harness these detoxification properties of soil; they create a "neutralizing clay dip for feral potatoes which belong to the poisonous night shade family" (43). Those cultures that eat large quantities

of acorns

also incorporate the use of clay as a food additive. These acorn consumers use clay to neutralize normally indigestible tannic acids found within the nut, thus creating a nutritional, non-toxic food source through

clay. Within the last century, soil still functioned

as an additive in Sweden's bread to create a longer sensation of fullness (Hunter 190).

Many cultures believe that clay not only increases fertility, bur also increases beauty. Just as the mud mask is now popular among the women

of Western society in rejuvenating their skin, some cultures believe that

when digested, the beauty and the fruits of the earth will appear on the

exterior of the body. Dirt also provides beauty in another way-thinness. Paralleling today's American society, thinness was considered the most desirable and beautiful body shape amongst the Javanese women of 1895.

They ate soil, known as ampo, in order to grow thin; in this case, feeling thin stemmed from the false feeling of fullness. In the Javanese culture, looking thin and frail was at this time highly regarded (Abrahams 73).

Conclusions

To review, geophagy has been proven to have health benefits. Soil can supply vital minerals such as iron, calcium, and potassium to a primary

consumer or to a developing fetus. Clay is also a natural detoxifying agent; it can rid the body of harmful heavy metals and poisons. In addition, it can protect the body from bacterial and parasitical infections, cure diar­rhea, relieve gastrointestinal pain, and deter nausea due to pregnancy.

Furthermore, clay eating is not at all abnormal. Cultures allover the world from the United States, India, and Mexico, to Africa, Europe, and Japan

practice geophagy; its boundaries are non-existent. Thus, the sheer extent to which clay consumption is practiced reserves its place in normal society.

The cultural significance behind geophagy

is at least as convincing it terms of

its ordinary nature. Without a doubt, one cannot deny the religious,

dietary, medicinal, cosmetic, psychological, and physiological value and symbolism behind this ancient practice,

-------------_........._------------------_.....'_.-""-'

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12

The Undergraduate Review

So, if

another one bites the dust, then

is it correct to say that he is suf­fering from Pica? As stated, pica is defined as "an abnormal appetite for

substances that are not fit to eat." With the proven benefits of geophagy, dirt is definitely fit to eat. In addition, geophagy has been shown to be

normal through the exploration of its limitless practice and the plethora of cultural importance that it holds. Thus, geophagy is not to be considered a

form of pica, but rather a deep-rooted, global culinary tradition, with infi­nite cultural meaning and significance.

WORKS CITED

Abrahams, Peter Wand Julia A. Parsons. "Geophagy in the Tropics." The

GeographicalJournal.

Mar. 1996. v162.

nl. 63-73.

Ashenbach, Joy. "Eating Earth is Normal-At Times." The TOronto Star.

National Geographic News Service. 23 Aug. 1987, sec. Ed.: H6.

Aufreiter, S.; R.G.V Hancock; WC Mahoney; A. StamboIIic-Robb; K.

Sanmugadas. "Geochemistry and Mineralogy of Soils Eaten by

Humans." InternationalJournal 0/Food Sciences and Nutrition.

Sept. 1997. v48. n5. 293-306.

Danford, D.E. "Pica and Nutrition." Annual Rev. Nutrition. 305-320.

Frate, Dennis A. "Last of the Earth Eaters." The Sciences. Dec. 1984.

-. Geophagy: A Dietary Practice in Holmes County, Mississippi.

Holy Bible. New International Version. Grand Rapids, Zondervan

Publishing House. 1984.

Hunter, JM. Geophagy in Africa and in the United States: A Culture

Nutrition Hypothesis. Georgr. Rev. 63. 170-195.

Laufer, Berthold. Geophagy. Chicago: Field museum of Natural History,

1930.

Mengel, C.E.; WA. Carter; and E.S. Horton. "Geophagia with Iron

Deficiency and Hypokalemia. "Arch. International Medicine. 1964.

465-474.

Mintz, Sidney. Timing Food, Tizsting Freedom

websters American Dictionary "Pica." College

Whole Earth.

"Eating Earth." Spring 1999.

~

Wiley, Andrea S. and Solomon H. Katz. "Ge

Hypothesis. " Current Anthropology. J

546.

Sposito, G. The Chemistry o/Soils. New Yor1

1989.43-68.

Vermeer, D.E. "Geophagy Among the

Ewe (

10

Undergraduate Review, Vol. 12, Iss. 1 [2000], Art. 3

https://digitalcommons.iwu.edu/rev/vol12/iss1/3

Maxwell

dust, then is it correct to say that he is suf­ca is

defined as "an abnormal appetite for

:at." With the proven benefits

of geophagy, lddition, geophagy has been shown to be

In of its limitless practice and the plethora

of Ids.

Thus, geophagy is not to be considered a

p-rooted, global culinary tradition, with infi­lificance.

A Parsons. "Geophagy in the Tropics." The

Mar.

1996. v162.

nl. 63-73.

1 is Normal-At Times." The TOronto Star.

News

Service. 23 Aug. 1987,

sec. Ed.: H6.

; W:C Mahoney; A. Stambollic-Robb; K.

.emistry and Mineralogy of Soils Eaten by

'lalJournal ofFood Sciences and Nutrition.

293-306.

:rition." Annual Rev. Nutrition. 305-320.

Earth Eaters." The Sciences. Dec. 1984.

~tice in Holmes County, Mississippi.

IVersion. Grand Rapids, Zondervan

)84. ica and in the United States: A Culture

Georgr. Rev. 63. 170-195.

:hicago: Field museum of Natural History,

nd E.S. Horton. "Geophagia with Iron

lkalemia. "Arch. International Medicine. 1964.

~-----

Mintz, Sidney. Tasting Food, Tasting Freedom. Boston: Beacon Press, 1996.

websters American Dictionary "Pica." College ed. 1997.

Whole Earth.

"Eating Earth." Spring 1999. 41-42.

Wiley, Andrea

S. and Solomon H. Katz. "Geophagy in Pregnancy: A Test

Hypothesis. "Current Anthropology. Aug-Oct. 1998. v39. n4. 532­

546.

Sposito, G. The Chemistry ofSoils. New York: Oxford University Press,

1989.43-68.

Vermeer, D.E. "Geophagy Among the

Ewe of Ghana." Ethnology. 55-70.

13""' --"'-k.••._.".......­

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Maxwell '02: Another One Bites the Dust

Published by Digital Commons @ IWU, 2000