Antarctica

1: Introduction to a continent

AntarcticaArea = USA + MexicoHighest continentDriest ContinentWindiest continentColdest ContinentLast inhabited continentDark 50% of the year

Fabian Gottlieb von BellingshausenJanuary 28, 1820

Nathaniel B. PalmerNovember 17, 1820

Edward BransfieldJanuary 30, 1820

James Clark Ross 1839-1843 Antarctic

Expedition HMS Erebus HMS Terror

Sailed as far south as Ross Island, Ross Ice Shelf in the Ross Sea…

First Antarctic winterCape Adare 1899

Carstens Borchgrevink1864-1934

The Heroic Era(1900-1920)

Pre-1957 Richard E. Byrd

Admiral, US Navy Private and US-funded

expeditions Meteorological research First flight to South Pole Commanded post-war

Operation High Jump and Operation Deep Freeze

International Geophysical Year 1957/58Largely Meteorology and

Atmospheric physicsSaw the US, NZ, UK, Australia

etc etc. establish permanent bases, including at the South Pole

International Polar Year 2007/08

History of Antarctica

Antarctic glaciationFirst full-scale ice sheet ~ 34 MaReached maximum ~15 MaSome fluctuations since then

e.g. at LGM Ross Ice shelf covered approx. 3x current area

Extinctions Almost all terrestrial flora and

fauna

The Antarctic Treaty in effect June 23 1961Governs activities in AntarcticaSubsidiary treaties govern flora

& Fauna, Seals, Marine Living resources the Environment

The Antarctic Treaty Article 1 – Peaceful purposes only

Military personnel and equipment allowed, but only for peaceful purposes

Article 2 - freedom of scientific investigation and cooperation

Article 3 - free exchange of information and personnel

Article 4 - does not recognize, dispute, or establish territorial claims, prevents new claims.

Article 5 - No nuclear explosions or radioactive waste;

Article 6 - all land and ice shelves south of 60 degrees

Article 9 - frequent consultative meetings take place

Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic treaty In force 1998Article 7:“Any activity relating to mineral

resources, other than scientific research, shall be prohibited.”

Antarctic BiologyA long history

the first marine samples collected by Cook (18th C)

the first terrestrial samples collected in late 19th C

Biology was a major goal of many of the heroic era expeditions

Habitats in AntarcticaTerrestrial

Nunataks Coastal areas Oases and Dry Valleys

Habitats in Antarctica Marine

‘Normal’ range of marine Benthic Pelagic (Some) intertidal

Special habitats Beneath ice shelves and sea ice Associated with platelet ice

Freshwater Streams Lakes Ponds

Major issues in Antarctic BiologySurvival of environmental

extremesResponses to climate changeOrigin of the flora and faunaSustainable use of marine

resources