ANTH 331: Culture and the IndividualKimberly Porter Martin, Ph.D.

Theory

Theory: A Definition

• A set of related hypotheses that provide a better explanation than any single hypothesis.

• A grounded theory is one that is based on empirically testable hypotheses that have been supported by evidence.

Theoretical Dimensions

• Genetics (Nature) vs Culture (nurture)

• Absolutist – Universalist – Relativist

• Cultural Psychology

• Action Theory

• Sociocultural Theory

• Indigenous Psychologies

• Culture Comparative Research

The Nature/Nurture Controversy

• Early debate during the first half of the twentieth century

• Nature perspective partly rooted in racial determinism linked to colonial and post colonial attitudes

• Racial determinism and environmental determinism were combined to predict both cultural factors and personality qualities.

• Based on limited knowledge about how genetics and environment interact.

Absolutism, Universalism & Relativism

• Restatement of the old Nature/Nurture controversy with a middle ground position added.

Absolutism

• Biologically/genetically based

• Limited influence of environment

• Identifying species-wide traits

• Imposed etic assumptions

• Concepts defined in modern Western cultural terms

• Straightforward comparison

Universalism

• Interaction of biological and cultural factors• Culture has a substantial impact• Examining variations in species-wide

processes• Derived etic methodology with attention to

how Modern Western methods can be adapted in other cultures

• Modern Western concepts with adjustment for cultural differences

Relativism

• Culturally based

• Culture is the primary causal factor in developing behavior and personality.

• Emic methodology

• Comparison is difficult

• Context specific definitions for concepts

• Local measurement units and instruments are used.

Confidence in Labeling Universal Traits

• Conceptual Universals – highly abstract with no empirical measurement possible (national character)

• Weak Universals – concepts for which there is empirical support for measurement in a variety of individual cultures.

• Strong Universals – measured with the same metric across cultures but with a different origin.

• Strict Universals – measured with same origin AND a common origin across cultures.

Cultural Psychology• Culture and behavior are inseparable.• Culture is in the minds of individual and does not

exist outside of individual minds.• Behavior is part of a world view based on history

within the society.• There will be an internal consistency that unites

behaviors that may look unrelated.• Behaviors will be linked by systems of meaning,

even if unconsciously.• Culture is governed by its own rules and does

not depend on individuals to adapt and change.

Action Theory (Eckensberger) Behavior is always goal directed.

•There is always a set of choices for each action that a person takes.

•Humans are aware of their actions and the consequences of their actions.

•Humans accept the consequences for their actions.

•Centers around the Reflexive Human Being

•Humans follow, reflect on and shape culture and none of these can be left out.

•Culture is the mediating factor between the person and the environment.

SocioCultural School (Vigotsky)

• Higher mental processes are the focus• Specific processes must be present in society in

order for humans to acquire them.• Cole adds • that specific activity settings must be present in

order to transmit cultural information.• That mental processes are acquired in stages

with biological/developmental prerequisites.

Indigenous Psychologies

• The movement to create (recognize?) multiple theory sets about what human psychological traits are like.

• Leads to culture specific methodology

• Makes cultural comparison difficult

• May be a necessary step toward developing a universal, cross-culturally valid psychology.

Culture Comparative Research

• Culture is a set of conditions or variables• Culture is treated as an independent variable• Culture may be too general a concept to use as an

independent variable; it needs to be broken down into smaller aspects or factors.

• Culture may be a mediating or bridging factor that links variables together, rather than a variable in its own right.

• Conventions (traditions or normal behavior sets) can be analyzed as reflecting behavior that will be shown by all normal members of a society without needing to study actual participants.