Anthropological Theory Anthropological Theory and Researchand Research

Analyzing Sociocultural SystemsAnalyzing Sociocultural Systems

Two Competing ApproachesTwo Competing Approaches

Scientific: Search for hidden but universal and Scientific: Search for hidden but universal and unchanging principlesunchanging principles

Experiential or Humanities: Experiencing Experiential or Humanities: Experiencing another culture from a personal viewanother culture from a personal view

Can the two complement each other? Can the two complement each other?

Overview of This LectureOverview of This Lecture

Basic methods and techniques in anthropologyBasic methods and techniques in anthropology Basic terms in research and theoryBasic terms in research and theory Basic principles of scienceBasic principles of science A sixfold test for assessing propositionsA sixfold test for assessing propositions Reconciliation between the scientific and the Reconciliation between the scientific and the

experientialexperiential

Anthropological Method I: Anthropological Method I: Fundamental PrinciplesFundamental Principles

Holism:Holism: All aspects of a culture must be All aspects of a culture must be considered, especially their interconnectionsconsidered, especially their interconnections

Cross-Cultural ComparisonCross-Cultural Comparison: Comparison of : Comparison of similar cultural traitssimilar cultural traits

Cultural Relativism: Two InterpretationsCultural Relativism: Two Interpretations Scientific detachment: observe what is out Scientific detachment: observe what is out

there—even cannibalism.there—even cannibalism.

Anthropological Method II: Anthropological Method II: Cultural RelativismCultural Relativism

Cultural Relativism: Cultural Relativism: Acceptance of Acceptance of culture according to own standardsculture according to own standards

Ethnocentrism:Ethnocentrism: Belief in superiority Belief in superiority of one’s own cultureof one’s own culture

(Reflected in this neo-Nazi rally)(Reflected in this neo-Nazi rally) Ethical Relativism:Ethical Relativism: Do we accept all Do we accept all

cultural practices?cultural practices? (Like this Chinese prison camp in the (Like this Chinese prison camp in the

name of “right to development”)name of “right to development”)

Anthropological Method III: Anthropological Method III: Meaning of Cultural RelativismMeaning of Cultural Relativism

Cultural Relativism as Scientific Cultural Relativism as Scientific Detachment: Detachment: To understand To understand people’s behavior people’s behavior

Such as Dani warfare (top photo)Such as Dani warfare (top photo) Cultural Boundedness: Cultural Boundedness: How our How our

mental structure is culturally mental structure is culturally derived, often unconsciouslyderived, often unconsciously

Muslims interpret Burger King’s Muslims interpret Burger King’s lid image of a spinning ice cream lid image of a spinning ice cream cone (left)cone (left)

As an Arabic inscription for Allah As an Arabic inscription for Allah (right) (Source: (right) (Source: The ScotsmanThe Scotsman 9/17/05)9/17/05)

Anthropological Method IV: Anthropological Method IV: UniversalismUniversalism

Definition: Definition: Practices that occur Practices that occur worldwideworldwide

Incest tabu Incest tabu (Egyptian brother-sister (Egyptian brother-sister marriage)marriage)

Etiquette: Etiquette: Acceptable “polite” Acceptable “polite” behaviorbehavior

ReciprocityReciprocity (gift exchange) red (gift exchange) red necklace (suspended) and white necklace (suspended) and white armshells (on floor) in kula ringarmshells (on floor) in kula ring, , Trobriand IslandsTrobriand Islands

Anthropological TechniquesAnthropological Techniques

ObservationObservation Participant Observation Participant Observation (horn (horn

blowing in an African Obo royal blowing in an African Obo royal court)court)

Interviews Interviews (with a market woman in (with a market woman in Ghana)Ghana)

Other techniques according toOther techniques according to:: The topic of researchThe topic of research Audiovisual technologyAudiovisual technology Informant participation or lack Informant participation or lack

thereofthereof

Some Basic Terms of ScienceSome Basic Terms of Science

HypothesisHypothesis: An educated guess explaining some : An educated guess explaining some thing or eventthing or event

Observed in the lab or fieldObserved in the lab or field Theory:Theory: A confirmed hypothesis A confirmed hypothesis Induction: Induction: Building a hypothesis from Building a hypothesis from

observations or lab experimentsobservations or lab experiments Deduction: Deduction: Predicting what should occur based Predicting what should occur based

on confirmed body of facts, principles, or beliefson confirmed body of facts, principles, or beliefs

Some Basic Terms of Research ISome Basic Terms of Research I

SampleSample: Part of a population selected for : Part of a population selected for researchresearch

Random sample:Random sample: One in which everyone has One in which everyone has a chance of being includeda chance of being included

Representative sampleRepresentative sample: One in which all : One in which all groups are included.groups are included.

Universe:Universe: Total population from which Total population from which sample is drawnsample is drawn

Some Basic Terms of Research IISome Basic Terms of Research II

Bias:Bias: Use of any technique that fails to elicit a Use of any technique that fails to elicit a random/representative samplerandom/representative sample

Techniques: Techniques: Instruments used to gather Instruments used to gather information (observations, interviews, video, information (observations, interviews, video, tape recording, etc.)tape recording, etc.)

Method:Method: Justification for selection of a Justification for selection of a techniquetechnique

Methodology: Methodology: Overall plan that forms a Overall plan that forms a coherent relation among the methodscoherent relation among the methods

How to Develop a Hypothesis: How to Develop a Hypothesis: Induction and DeductionInduction and Deduction

How to Test a HypothesisHow to Test a Hypothesis

The Phases of Scientific MethodThe Phases of Scientific Method

Phase 1: Observe Things/Events in FieldPhase 1: Observe Things/Events in Field Phase 2: Develop an explanation (hypothesis)Phase 2: Develop an explanation (hypothesis) Phase 3: Gather relevant dataPhase 3: Gather relevant data Phase 4: Evaluate hypothesis with data.Phase 4: Evaluate hypothesis with data. Phase 5: Repeat procedurePhase 5: Repeat procedure Accept confirmed hypotheses orAccept confirmed hypotheses or Reject or modify disconfirmed hypothesesReject or modify disconfirmed hypotheses

Scientific Method as ProbabilisticScientific Method as Probabilistic

Any theory can be tossed as new information Any theory can be tossed as new information come income in

Therefore, all theories are probabilistic and Therefore, all theories are probabilistic and none can be stated with finalitynone can be stated with finality

Today’s theory can be in tomorrow’s dustbinToday’s theory can be in tomorrow’s dustbin

A Six-Way Test A Six-Way Test

Background: James Lett, CSICOP (Committee Background: James Lett, CSICOP (Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal) and anthropologist.the Paranormal) and anthropologist.

The six-way test goes by the acronym The six-way test goes by the acronym FiLCHeRS, orFiLCHeRS, or

Falsifiability; Logic, Comprehensiveness, Falsifiability; Logic, Comprehensiveness, Honesty, Replication, and SufficiencyHonesty, Replication, and Sufficiency

FalsifiabilityFalsifiability

Does not mean to cook or fudge the dataDoes not mean to cook or fudge the data The hypothesis must be so stated that if The hypothesis must be so stated that if

unsupported it is rejected (or falsified)unsupported it is rejected (or falsified) Thus, it must specify the conditions under Thus, it must specify the conditions under

which it is rejected.which it is rejected. Opposite 1: Broadly stated propositionsOpposite 1: Broadly stated propositions Opposite 2: Use of the multiple out, or what do Opposite 2: Use of the multiple out, or what do

you say to the Instant Creator?you say to the Instant Creator?

LogicLogic

There are two basic kinds of logic: inductive There are two basic kinds of logic: inductive and deductiveand deductive

Inductive: gathering enough facts to lead to a Inductive: gathering enough facts to lead to a conclusion. conclusion.

Deductive: Starting at a major premise and Deductive: Starting at a major premise and reasoning down to a minor premise then a reasoning down to a minor premise then a conclusion. conclusion.

Lett argues from the deductive.Lett argues from the deductive.

Logic (Continued)Logic (Continued)

Basic statement: Any argument offered as Basic statement: Any argument offered as evidence in support of any claim must be both:evidence in support of any claim must be both:

Valid:Valid: follows from accepted proposition follows from accepted proposition Of assumptions (e.g. “God exists” in theology)Of assumptions (e.g. “God exists” in theology) Of math: e.g. straight line postulateOf math: e.g. straight line postulate Of scientific law: E=mcOf scientific law: E=mc22

Sound:Sound: that is, be true that is, be true

ComprehensivenessComprehensiveness

Evidence offered in support of any claim must Evidence offered in support of any claim must be exhaustivebe exhaustive

All relevant evidence must be consideredAll relevant evidence must be considered Opposite: Selective presentation of evidence Opposite: Selective presentation of evidence

that supports the claimthat supports the claim Example: politicians, courtroom tacticsExample: politicians, courtroom tactics

HonestyHonesty

Evidence must be evaluated without either self-Evidence must be evaluated without either self-deception or intent to deceivedeception or intent to deceive

Examples of temptations toward dishonestyExamples of temptations toward dishonesty Strong incentives such as funding to support pet Strong incentives such as funding to support pet

theoriestheories Basic fault of advocacy groups, politicians, and Basic fault of advocacy groups, politicians, and

lawyerslawyers Honesty could only lead to better hypotheses--Honesty could only lead to better hypotheses--

i.e. to better explain factsi.e. to better explain facts

ReplicabilityReplicability

To verify positive resultsTo verify positive results the experiment or field research must the experiment or field research must be repeated be repeated under identical conditions. under identical conditions. Controlled experiments can be replicatedControlled experiments can be replicated Anthropology: Restudies are less controlledAnthropology: Restudies are less controlled Restudies haven’t done wellRestudies haven’t done well Lewis v. Redfiield in TepoztlLewis v. Redfiield in Tepoztláán, Mexicon, Mexico Freeman v. Mead in SamoaFreeman v. Mead in Samoa

SufficiencySufficiency

Evidence must be adequate to support any Evidence must be adequate to support any claimclaim

Burden of proof is on claimantBurden of proof is on claimant Expert testimony is never adequate (Would Expert testimony is never adequate (Would

you buy Nike because Michael Jordan says to? you buy Nike because Michael Jordan says to? Or Hanes?)Or Hanes?)

Extraordinary claims require extraordinary Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence.evidence.

Welcome Back to the Real WorldWelcome Back to the Real World

The tests demand a perfect worldThe tests demand a perfect world Real world: the field is not a labReal world: the field is not a lab Homo sapiens have the same hardwareHomo sapiens have the same hardware But individuals and cultures varyBut individuals and cultures vary The compromiseThe compromise Careful preparationCareful preparation Flexibility in the fieldFlexibility in the field

ConclusionConclusion

First aim: to develop generalizations that apply First aim: to develop generalizations that apply to all societiesto all societies

Second aim: to explain the diversity of Second aim: to explain the diversity of culturescultures

Research must therefore meet rigorous Research must therefore meet rigorous standards, such as Lett’s Six-Way Teststandards, such as Lett’s Six-Way Test