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    To prepare lay out on a metal sheet by marking and preparerectangular tray, shaped

    To prepare lay out on a metal sheet by marking and prepare rectangular tray,

    shaped components e.g. funnel.

    Material Required: - G.I. (galvanized iron) sheet 26 SWG.

    Tool Required:- Scale, scriber, snip, bench shearing machine, mallet, surface plate, rail

    line, pipe stake, combination plier, bench vice, funnel stake, setting hammer, Ball peen

    hammer.

    Procedure for Tray making:-

    (1) Sheet of required size is cut and smoothened by using mallet.

    (2) Layout of the tray is drawn on the sheet as per pattern using the scriber.

    (3) Four corners are cut as per marking using straight snip.

    (4) Edges are folded to make the beading on all four sides.

    (5) Bending of all four sides are done at right angles opposite the beading and bend

    corners using mallet.

    (6) Then the tray is finished.

    Procedure for Pipe making:-

    (1) The sheet of required size is cut and market for lock grooved joint.

    (2) Edges are folded for joint.

    (3) Bending of the piece is done using pipe stake and mallet.

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    (4) The job is finished using mallet, combination plier and setting hammer.

    Precautions:-

    Be careful and attentive while working on metal sheet.

    Wear, apron, shoes, gloves and tight fitted clothes.

    Use proper tools for each operation.

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    Civil Engg. Subjects

    Engineering Materials

    Concrete Technology

    Professional Ethics

    Soil Mechanics I

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    Surveying & Leveling II

    Differential Equations

    Strength of materials

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    Hydraulics

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    Reinforced Concrete

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    Civil Engineering Engineering Materials Metals used in Engineering

    Engineering Materials Metals

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    Metals used in Civil Engineering

    All metals used for engineering works are classified into

    A. Ferrous metals

    B. Non-Ferrous metals: Wherein iron is not the main constituent (

    Aluminum, Zinc and lead etc)

    A) Ferrous metals:

    Wherein iron is the main constituent (Cast iron, wrought iron and di

    of steels)

    Ferrous metals not directly obtained from iron ores

    A-1) PIG IRON:

    From iron ore impure form of metal Pig iron

    It is the pig iron which further yields Ferrous metals

    Pig iron is not suitable for any mechanical use unless it is converted

    iron, wrought iron or steel

    A-2) CAST IRON:

    Pig iron re melted with limestone and coke and poured into moulds of desired shapes and sizes to get pur

    known as cast iron

    Carbon content in cast iron varies from 2 to 5%

    During re melting of pig iron scrap iron may also be added for economy

    Properties of Cast Iron

    1. It is brittle, non ductile, non malleable and cracks when subjected to shocks2. It cannot be magnetized

    3. It does not rust4. It is strong in compression but weak in tension and shear

    5. Its melting point is 12000C

    6. Its specific gravity is 7.5

    USES

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    Weak in tension therefore cannot be used in construction

    Can be used for parts of pumps, motors, engines etc

    Because of corrosion resistance can be used for pipes to some extent

    A-3) WROUGHT IRON

    When pig iron is melted in such a way as to remove all of the carbon and other impurities, the result is wrou

    Good quality wrought iron contains 99.5 % iron, less than 0.1 % of Silicon, 0.01 % of Sulfur, 0.07 % of phos

    0.03 % of manganese

    Properties of Wrought Iron

    1. Wrought iron is very malleable and ductile

    2. Its tensile strength is 20-26 tons /in2

    3. It is strong in compression but not so strong as steel

    4. It can be easily worked, welded and is tough5. Its melting point is 28000F

    6. Wrought iron became pasty and very plastic at red heat and could be easily forged at about 16500F

    USES:

    Since mild steel has replaced the wrought iron, therefore it is no longer produced in large extent. Still in use

    sheets, wires and metal ornaments etc

    A-4) STEEL

    Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. Pure irons strength remarkably increases when alloyed with carbon. Th

    strength increases with increasing carbon content but the ductility reduces. Steel having its properties becaus

    presence of carbon alone is called Plain carbon steel

    PLAIN CARBON STEEL can further be classified as

    1. Low carbon steel or mild steel:

    The carbon content does not increases 0.25%

    Soft and ductile mostly used for construction purpose

    Uses Sheets, rods, wires, pipes, hammers, chains, shafts etc

    2. Medium-carbon steel :

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    The carbon content is 0.25 to 0.5 %

    Stronger than the mild steel slightly less ductile

    Uses Shafts, connecting rods and rails etc

    3. High- carbon steel :

    Carbon content is above 0.5%

    Harder and stronger than mild steel and medium carbon steel

    Uses Keys, knifes, drills etc

    Properties of Mild Steel

    1. Ductile and malleable

    2. It corrodes quickly

    3. It can be permanently magnetized

    4. It is tough and more elastic than cast iron and wrought iron and withstands shocks and impacts well5. It is equally strong in tension, compression and shear

    6. Its specific gravity is 7.87. It is not much affected by Saline water

    Properties of High-carbon Steel

    1. Its structure is granular2. It is more tough and elastic than mild steel

    3. It is easier to harden and then to weld

    4. It is more difficult to forge and then to weld

    5. It can be permanently magnetized

    6. Comparatively it is stronger in compression than in tension or in shear7. It withstands vibration and shocks better

    MANUFACTURE OF STEEL

    Three basic raw materials are needed in large quantities for the production of steel

    1. Iron Ore2. Coal

    3. Lime stone

    The first step in the steel manufacture begins at the blast furnace. To separate iron from iron ore coke (substance when gas is ta

    limestone and dolomite are charged into the blast furnace

    Temperature raised to 1600oF. This high temp causes the coke to burn and melt the iron. This red hot iron drained at an opening at

    furnace. Natural gas is often injected to reduce the amount of coke consumed. The dolomite and limestone combine with the non-fof the ore to form a slag, which floats on the top of the molten iron and is removed separately. The product of the blast furnace is k

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    Iron the basic ingredient of steel

    It takes 2 tons of iron ore, 2/3 ton of coke, ton of limestone, 4 tons of air to make 1 ton of Pig iron. Some of the pig iron goes to

    make iron castings, but the vast majority is re melted and used in the production of steel in steel furnace. Several types of furnaces

    production of steel including

    Open Hearth Furnace Bessemer Furnace Electric Furnace New Oxygen Furnace

    Related Pages Related Pages

    Manufacture of Lime Properties Hydraulic Lime

    Properties Fat Lime Uses of Hydraulic Lime

    Uses of Fat Lime Lime as an Engineering Material

    AutoCAD MegaStructures

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    Composite types

    There are a relatively small number of thermoset polymer types that can be utilised in the fabrication of a composite. However, it must

    be remembered that within each class many grade variations exist.

    The starting components for these polymers are two or more low molecular weight telechelic reactive oligomers combined with

    appropriate catalysts and hardener. Solidification and formation of the polymer begins when these components are mixed at either

    ambient or elevated temperatures. The subsequent polymerisation reaction (curing) produces a rigid, highly cross-linked network.

    During curing, there are various intermediate stages from liquid to gel and finally vitrified state which can be characterised by time-

    temperature-transformation (TTT) isothermal cure diagrams. From these rheological, or dynamic mechanical data, curing characteristics

    of thermosetting polymers can be optimised.

    The common resins available include:

    Polyester

    Polyester usually dissolved in styrene to reduce its viscosity for ease of fabrication. A catalyst such as organic peroxide is added to

    produce polymerization (solidification) with the application of heat around 100C to 160C. The material exhibit significant mould

    shrinkage, which can be reduced by the addition of a thermoplastic additive.

    Polyester is a widely used matrix material, generally in conjunction with glass fibre reinforcement. It is used primarily for low

    performance applications and has limited high temperature performance. Strong bonding between the matrix and glass fibre can be

    achieved provided a silane coupling agent is used. Other types of reinforcement fibre are generally not used because of inadequate

    bonding to the resin.

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    Vinyl Ester

    Vinyl esters are dissolved in styrene in order to reduce viscosity and facilitate fabrication into a composite structure. Catalysts are

    required to cure the material. No additional agents are required in order to produce high adhesion to glass fibres. The product has more

    flexibil ity and greater fracture toughness than a polyester resin. Heat deflection temperatures up to 200C can be obtained.

    Epoxy

    A liquid resin which is cured by the addition of a curing agent at room or higher temperature conditions. Epoxy resins have a wide range

    of properties. They can be rigid or flexible with different temperature resistance, with some able to withstand continuous use up to

    250C. Advantages of epoxy resins over polyester and vinyl ester resins include lower mould shrinkage, low volati lity during curing,

    good environmental and solvent resistance, and very good adhesion to most reinforcement materials. They are widely used in structural

    aerospace applications.

    Bismaleimide

    Bismaleimide can exist in solution or hot-melt resin form. These materials have high temperature resistance and withstand temperatures

    of 300C. When used with carbon fibre reinforcement they are considered to be advanced composites because they have superior

    performance to epoxies in hot/wet conditions, but there are limitations. They are normally very brittle and prone to micro-cracking,

    although, as with epoxies, this tendency can be reduced by the incorporation of a thermoplastic component.

    Polyimide

    Polyimide exhibits better performance than bismaleimide in high temperature, wet conditions, and appear to be the most widely used

    resins for high temperature applications. It should be noted that service temperature will depend strongly on the nature of the application

    with some grades capable of sustained periods at temperatures over 300C. The limitation of polyimide is that it is very brittle.

    The curing mechanism is a condensation reaction. This tends to produce voids in the cured component. Additional reactions can be

    used instead to reduce or eliminate this problem.

    The graph below gives an appreciation of the costs for some of the polymers reviewed. Clearly, there a many variants within each

    generic polymeric family, some of which may exceed in price beyond the upper bound shown. Generally the mechanical properties and

    environmental resistance, particularly temperature resistance, increase with increasing cost.