ap exam review: key terms, people, concepts

history & approaches 2-4%people:

mary whiton calkins – 1st apa female pres.charles darwin – nat. sel., evolution, origin of speciesdorothea dix – mental hospitals revolution in ussigmund freud – pag. stanley hall – 1st to describe adolescence “storm &

stress` william james – father of psych in us

ivan pavlov – discovered ccjean piaget – cognitive research/schemas, stagescarl rogers – humanistic/ uprbf skinner – oc/ behavioristmargaret floy washburn –1st female phd/ 2nd female apajohn b watson – cc & emotions (little albert)/

parenting & advertisingwilhelm wundt -- introspection– father of scientific

psych – 1st psych lab – structuralism – also titchener

philosophy shaped early psych:aristotle/platodescarteslocke – tabula rasa

early years:structuralismfunctionalismbehaviorism – pavlov discovery

later:gestaltpa/psychodynamicbehaviorism – oc & skinnerhumanism

contemporary:evolutionarybiologicalcognitive

psych domains:biologicalclinicalcognitivecounselingdevelopmentaleducationalexperimentalhuman factorsindustrial-organizationalpersonalitypsychometric

social

william james: principles of psychology – 1st text – functionalism

gestalt psych – (max wertheimer) – examine person’s total experience & context – perception more than just parts of whole

approaches/perspectives – you are who you are because …behaviorism – 1920-1960s dominates (conditioning)

ivan pavlov & classical cond. (stimuli & response)john watson & little albert – adds to pavlovoperant conditioning (reinforcement & punishment) – bf skinner (operant chamber/ skinner’s box)

humanistic – 60s & 70s – hippiesmaslow (hierarchy of needs) rogers (grow oak trees)free will and indiv choiceshumans are good

psychoanalysis/psychodynamicssigmund freud & neofreudians unconscious mind – (id, ego, superego) conflict and motivationsdream analysisrepression, anxiety, and defense mechanisms

biological/biopsychology/neurosciencecognition and human reactions may be caused by genes inherited, hormones, neurotransmitters, brain -- brain imaging

evolutionarycharles darwin – origin of species – natural selection – we’ve evolved

cognitivethinking and feelingself talk and slef attributionschange thoughts – change moodlook at how interpret, process, and remember

socio-cultural/multiculturallook at how thoughts and behaviors vary across cultures

research methods – 8-10%types of research: (purpose, strengths, weaknesses)

experimentscorrelational studiessurvey researchnaturalistic observationscase studies

research design determines conclusions that can be made – experiments use for c&e – use experimental controls to reduce alternative explanations (intervening variables)

experimental design:rely upon operational definitions & measurement in

behavioral researchindependent variable vs dependent variableconfounding variables – limit confidence & validitycontrol variables

random selection/sample (surveys & correlations) vs random assignment

descriptive statisticsinterpret graphscentral tendency =mean, median, modestandard deviation

inferential statistics

ethical issues – inform & constrain research

ethical guidelines: -- protect participants & promote sound ethical practiceapafederal regulationslocal/university institutional review boards

terms: hindsight bias, applied vs basic research, experiments – (cause & effect) independent vs dependent variable, experimental vs control group (hawthorne effect – affect performance just by selecting exper. group), placebo, placebo effect, experimenter bias, subject bias, confounding variables, random sampling, random assignment (controls for participant-relevant confounding variables/response or participant bias like demand characteristics or social desirability answers), single & double blinds, group matching, stratified sampling, sample, generalization of results (use random & representative samples) , hypothesis (can’t be proven), theory, operational definition, validity, reliability, replication, participants/subjects, confederates, population, representative, random selection (pick from hat), situation-relevant confounding variables, laboratory vs field experiments

correlational studies – does not imply causation, positive or negative correlation, ex post facto study, if no relationship b/w 2 variables, then no correlation, strong or weak (correlation coefficient -- -1 to +1 / 0 means no cor.) correlation graphed w/ scatter plot & line of best fit or regression line

surveys – low response rate, not always truthful

naturalistic observation – in natural habitat, vs field experiment

case study – small group but more detail

descriptive statistics –(simply describe set of data) stats include frequency distribution like frequency polygons (line graphs) or histograms (bar graphs), y-axis – vertical, x-axis – horizontal, measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode), extreme scores or outliers skew distributions, positively skewed – contains more low scores than high ones, negatively skewed – contains more high scores than low, range, variance, standard deviation (square root of the variance) – the higher the more spread out the distribution is

(from the mean), z scores (distance from mean in standard deviation units) – negative z score vs positive z scores, normal curve – bell shape (68% of scores fall withi 1 standard dev. of mean, 95% w/in 2 s.d., 99% w/in 3 s.d.), percentiles – distance of score from 0 – 90 percentile above 90% of people

inferential statistics – purpose: to determine whether findings can be applied to the larger population from which the sample was selected, sampling error (sample differs from population – can’t generalize), use t tests, anovas, manovas to test (look at magnitude in difference b/w exper & control group and size of sample) – all yield p value (smaller values = more significant resluts – p value of .05 means that a 5% chance exist that the results occurred by chance – never get p value of zero)

apa ethical guidelines – academic research must be 1st propose to ethics/ institutional review board (irb), animals – a) clear scientific purpose, b) care for and house in humane way, c) acquire subjects legally (usually from accredited company), d) least amount of suffering feasible humans – a) voluntary participation (no coercion), b) informed consent, c) anonymity/confidentiality, d) no significant menatl or physical risk (esp. long term), e) debriefing

longitudinal studies – developmental psychcross-sectional studies – across culture & society

biological bases of behavior 8 – 10 %people:

paul broca – broca’s areacharles darwin – evolutionmichael gazzaniga – split brain researchroger sperry – split-brain research & functioncarl wernicke – wernicke’s area

research strategies:case studiessplit brain researchimaging – cat(computerized axial tomography = brain x-ray), pet (positron emission tomography – glucose = functioning areas), mri (magnetic resonance imaging = only structure), f-mri (function = blood flow), eeg (brain waves = consciousness & sleep)surgical – lesioning, psychosurgery, accidents (phineas gage)

neuroanatomy (neuron parts)dendrites, soma (cell body) axons, terminal branches/buttons, myelin sheath, synapse (synaptic gap/cleft)

types of neurons – sensory/afferent, interneurons, motor/efferent

working of neuron – electrochemical process, action potential, resting potential, sodium potassium pump, all-or-none law, refractory period

neurotransmitters – acetylcholine (motor movement function – lack = alzheimer’s), dopamine (motor movement & alertness -lack = parkinson, too much = schizophrenia), endorphins (pain control

– addictions), serotonin ( mood control – lack = clinical depression), epinephrine &norepinephrine)

nervous system – peripheral vs central (spinal cord & brain = reflexes), autonomic (autopilot – fight or flight) vs somatic (voluntary muscle movement), sympathetic (alert/aroused) vs parasympathetic (calming)

brain parts: hindbrain (top part of spinal cord – life support)

medulla (blood pressure, hr, breathing)pons (connects hind w/mid & forebrain – facial

expressions)reticular formation/reticular activating system – (arousal, focus attention, w/o deep coma)

midbrain – simple movements, sensory info w/ muscle movement

thalamus – processing centerhypothalamus – temp, libido, hunger, thirst, biological rhythms, endocrine systemamygdala – emotion & angerhippocampus – memory processinglimbic system (thalamus, hypothal, amyg, hippo -emotion & memory)

forebain – (thought & reasoning)cerebral cortex – gray, wrinkled (fissures), layers

of neuronshemispheres (cross wired= contralateral

control),brain lateralizationhemispheric specialization, split-brain patients – corpus callosum (cut for epilepsy) – can’t orally report info only presented to rightleft – logical & sequential tasks,spoken lang. right – spatial & creative taskscerebral cortex – 8 diff lobes (4 in each hemisphere = f, p, t, o)association areas – judgement, humor

frontal lobes (behind eyes)—anterior lobe (prefrontal cortex) deals w/planning, maintaining emotional contral, pursuing goals, phineas gage), broca’s area – muscle movement to produce speech, motor cortex – signals to muscles – top part controls feet & toes and upward

parietal lobes – sensory cortex/somato-senory cortex = receives incoming touch sensations, top gets messages from bottom of body and so on

occipital lobes – interpret meessages from eyes in our visual cortex, images from right half of each retina processed in visual cortex in right occip. lobetemporal lobes – auditory cortex = not lateralized = use both hemispheres, wernicke’s area = interpret, written & spoken speech/meaning

brain plasticity – brain adapts to other functions, dendrites (esp. children) make new connections in diff part to take over for damaged part of brain

endocrine system – hypothalamus controls,

hormomes (slower but longer), pituitary gland (master & growth, adrenal gland = epinephrine & norepinephrine (hr & blood pres)gonads (ovaries & testes) sex hormones = estrogen & testoterone

genetics – punnet square (rr, rr, rr, rr) – mendel & peas, nature, 23 pairs of chromosomes (46), dna = genetic material making up choromsomes (control some traits), segments = genes (dominant vs recessive)

twins – identical (monozygotic), thomas bouchard – separated identical twins study – genes matter, criticism = have same effective psychological environment b/c look same so treated similar in lifechromosomes – xy (boy), xx (girl), father gives, abnormalities = turner’s syndrome (only single x where 23rd pair should be – shortness & diff phys sexual development), klinefelter’s syndrome (xxy= minimal sexual dev. & introversion, down syndrome = extra choromsome on 21st pair = mental retardation & physical appearance, pku – enzyme abnormality

heredity,environment,and evolution work together

sensation & perception 6-8%people:

gustav fechner – fechner’s lawdavid hubel & torsten wiesel – vision nobel prize, feature detectors ernst weber – weber’s lawtorsten wiesel – sensory deprivation (seeing) long term effects

sensory transduction (stimuli signals transformed into neural impulses),sensory adaptation (decreased responsiveness), sensory habituation (how fouced we are about them), cocktail-party phenomenon (involuntarily pay attention), sensation (activation of senses like eyes & ears), perception (understanding sensations)

vision (dominant sense) – light intensity = how bright appearslight wavelength = hue we see (longer than we can see are infrared, microwaves, radio waves; shorter are ultraviolet & x-rays) – longest to shortest – roy g. biv; objects color appearance b/c reflect that wavelength

eye – cornea (protects & helps focus the light), pupil (muscles are iris – dilate to let more light in), accomodation (process of focusing light), lens (curved & flexible to focus), image is flipped upside down and inverted & then projected on retina (screen on back of eye)

transduction – (translate incoming stimuli into neural signals – other senses as well) happens when light activates neurons in retina including cones (activated by color, more in center of retina) & rods (black & white, more 20 to 1, peripheral, night vision), fovea centralis (lots of cones, focus spot), next bipolar cells activated, then ganglion cells fire, axons of ganglion cells = optic nerve – send impulses to thalamus part called the lateral geniculate nucleus (lgn) – then sent to visual cortex in occipital lobe, blind spot (optic nerve leaves retina – no rods or cones) optic nerve – 2 parts to diff hemispheres, optic chiasm (where nerves cross each other)

inside brain – impulses activate feature detectors (groups of neurons in visual cortex that respond to diff types of visual images) ex: vertical lines/curves/motion, visual impairment

theories of colortrichromatic -(cones detect blue, red, green), opponent-process theory – red/green, blue/yellow, black/white sensory receptors inpairs – if one is stimulated, its pair is inhibited from firing – explains dichromatic color blindness, monochromatic color blindness (only gray), afterimages

hearing – sound waves & transductionamplitude – height of wave (loudness – decibels)frequency – length of wave (pitch –

megahertz), high-pitched = high freq = waves densely packed together

ear parts – pinna (outer ear), ear canal/auditory canal, eardrum/tympanic membrane, ossicles bones (hammer/malleus, anvil/incus, stirrup/stapes), oval window, cochlea (snail shell w/fluid), basilar membrane (floor of cochlea), lined w/hair cells (connected to organ of corti – neurons activated by hair cells movement), fluid moves = hair cells move = transduction, impulses to brain via auditory nerve

pitch theoriesplace theory – hair cells respond to diff freq of sound based on where located in cochlea (upper tones)frequency theory – lower tones – rate at which cells fire – hair cells fire at diff rate (freq) in the cochlea

deafness conduction deafness (problem conduction sound to cochlea)nerve/sensorineural deafness – hair cells damaged (by loud noise) – don’t regenerate

touch – some nerve endings respond to pressure, others temp, nerve ending concentrated in certain areas, if touch or temp receptors stimulated sharply then pain receptors will also firegate-control theory – pain messages high priority so nerve “gates” swing wide open and shut for low priority messages – allow you to focus on message, endorphins (brain pain killers) & opiates (morphine) also swing gate shut

chemical senses (taste & smell)

taste/gustation – chemicals in food absorbed by taste buds on tongue (located on papillae – bumps on tongue), types – sweet, salty, sour, bitter, & maybe umami, some taste buds respond more intensely to specific taste and more weakly to others, more densly packed taste buds = more chemicals absorbed = more intense tasting food, food flavor = combination of taste & smell

smell/olfaction – chemicals emitted by substancesnose, nostril, mucous membrane, absorbed by olfactory receptor cells, olfactory

bulb straight to limbic system of brain (amygdala and hippocampus – emotion and memory = powerful trigger for memories), anosmia (burnt out receptors), pheromones (natural chemicals), context driven

body position sensesvestibular senses – how body is oriented in space by 3 semicircular canals filled

w/fluid in inner ear (provide feedback on body orientation), if fluid moves so much brain receives confusing signals = dizziness & nausea

kinesthetic sense – feedback on position and orientation of specific body parts (arm, leg), receptors in muscles and joints send info to brain

perception – psychophysics (study interaction b/w sensations receive and experience of them)absolute threshold – smallest amount of stimulus we can detectsubliminal stimuli (below absolute threshold) – most messaging not scientifically supporteddifference threshold/just noticeable difference (smallestamount of change needed in a stimulus before we detect a change)weber’s law (computes jnd) – change needed is proportional to the original intensity of stimulus)weber’s constants differ for senses – hearing 5%, vision 8%

perceutual theoriessignal detection theory – takes into account how

motivated we are to detect certain stimuli & what expect to perceive (factors caled response criteria/receiver operating characteristics), false positive – think perceive stimulus that is not therefalse negative – no perceiving stimulus that is present

top-down processing – perceive by filling in gaps in what we sense (use background knowledge to help)schemata (mental representations of how expect the world to be) create perceptual set (predispostion of perceiving something in certain way) – backmasking (70s b/c expected bad messages); makes you vulnerable to illusions

bottom-up processing/feature analysis – use only features of the object itself to build a complete perception – put characteristics together to get perception of object – automatic process – feature detectors in visual cortex – longer but more accurate

culture & experience influence perception – perceptual set, context effects

role of attention

rules of visual perception & optical illusionsfigure-ground relationship – figure vs backgroundgestalt rules – perceive images as groups not isolated elements

proximity – close = groupsimilarity – similar = groupcontinuity – continuous form = groupclosure – fill in gaps = group

constancysize (closer = bigger but know same object)shape (diff angles/diff view but know same object)brightness – see as being constant color even as light reflects off object diff

perceived motionstroboscopic effect – flip books – series of pics

phi phenomenon – lights turning on/off see motionautokinetic effect – spot on light on wall in dark room – stare at – appears to move

depth cues & depth perceptioneleanor gibson & visual cliff experimentmonocular cues – linear perspective, relative size cue, interposition cue (blocks other object = must be closer), texture gradient, shadowingbinocular cues – binocular disparity/retinal disparity (closer object more disparity b/w images from each eye), convergence (closer to face – eyes move towards each other to keep focus)muller-lyer illusion – lines w/arrows

esp (6th sense) – no scientific proof – telepathy, clairvoyance, precognition, psychokinesis

states of consciousness 2-4%people:

william james –sigmumd freud ernest hilgard

dualism vs monism (mind & body)consciousness – awareness about

ourselves and environment – diff states not on/off , states (daydreaming, dreaming, awake, hypnosis, hallucination, meditation

freud & levels – conscious, pre, unevidence that there are levels -- mere exposure effect, priming, blind sightlevels--conscious level, nonconscious level (heart, digestion, breathing), preconscious level (not thinking about but could be/preconscious memory), subconscious level (priming & mere exposure effect), unconscious level (psychoanalytics believe in this)

sleep – one of the states of consciousness (not unconscious), circadian rhythm (24hr metobolic &thought pattern) & sleep cycle (use eeg to examine)sleep stages

sleep onset – falling asleepdrowsy but awake – alpha waves (mild hallucinations)stage 1 – fall asleep1 & 2 – theta waves (high freq, low amplitude)stage 2 – sleep spindles (short burst of rapid brain waves)3 & 4 – delta sleep (slow wave) – deeper & less aware of environment, important for replenishing body’s chemicals, growth, & immunego backwards thru 3 , 2, 1rem –intense brain activity like when awake, paradoxcal sleep, dreams (but any stage), memory, rem rebound90 minute stages 4 to 7 times /night, close to morning less time in 3 & 4, babies more rem

sleep disordersinsomnia (10%), caffeine problemnarcolepsy (suddenly fall into rem sleep)sleep apnea – stop breathing wake up slightly and don’t know it, overweight mennight terrors – children, stage 4 sleepsleep walking – somnambulism – kids

dreamsfreud – manifest vs latent content

activation-synthesis theory – brain intepreting what is happening physiologically during reminformation-processing theory – dealing w/daily stress and info during rem

hypnosisposthypnotic amnesia—forget hypnotized eventsposthypnotic suggestions hypnotic suggestibility -- role theory – act out rolestate theory – altered state of consciousness (pain control)dissociation theory – ernest hilgard – voluntarily divided consciousness & hidden observer level monitors what is happening – hand in ice (no pain) but lift finger if any part of them felt painpsychotherapy

drugs – psycchoactive drugs – chemicals change chemistry of brainagonists – mimic neurotransmittersantagonists – block neurotransmittersreuptake inhibitorsdrug dependencetolerance – drug takes place of natural neurotransmitteraddictionwithdrawal & symptoms

stimulants (caffeine, cocaine, amphetamines, nicotine) – speed up processes include. ans (hr, breathing), leads to euphoria (concaine), side effects – disturbed sleep, reduce appetite, anxiety, heart problems)

depressants – slow down (alcohol, barbiturates, anxiolytics/tranquilizers/antianxiety drugs) valium, alcohol – inhibits judgement, cerebellum (motor coordination)

hallucinogens (psychodelics) – sensory hallucinations, identity loss, vivid fantasies (lsd, peyote, mushrooms, marijuana), remain in body for weeks – add a little – more profound effect – reverse tolerance

opiates – morphine, heroin, methadone, codeine, opium (poppy plant), agonists for endorphins – painkillers & mood elevators, drowsiness & euphoria, very addictive b/c rapid brain chemistry change

learning 7-9%people:

albert bandurajohn garcia – bio predisposed for certain

learningivan pavlovrobert rescorla – contingency model of cc/cognition & expectancybf skinneredward thorndike

edward tolmanjohn b watson

cc versus oc vs observational learing -- diff

long lasting change in behavior resulting from experience

classical condidtioning – pavlov – learn to assoc. stimuli w/responses-unconditioned stimulus (us/ucs), unconditioned response (ur/ucr), neutral stimulus & pairing, conditioned stimulus (cs), conditioned response (cr)acquistion learningdelayed conditioning (ns before/during us) most effectivetrace conditioning (ns short break us)backward conditioning ( us then ns – ineffective)simultaneous conditioning (ns & us – same time)extinction – cs no longer elicits crspontaneous recovery, generalization, discrimination, john watson/rosalie rayner & little albert (cc for humans as well)aversive conditioning – nail bitinglearned helplessness – martin seligman (dog and

shock floor)second-order/higher order conditioning – using cs as a us to condition a response to new stimulus (shaping & chaining)biology & cc – learned taste aversions – strong & unusual tastesgarcia & koelling’s experiment illustrating biological preparedness in classical conditioning

operant conditioning – assoc. consequences w/behavior, edward thorndike – cat & puzzle box, law of effect (if consequences of behavior are pleasant, the stimulus-response (s-r) connection will be strengthened and likelihood of the behavior will increase & the opposite for unpleasant – thorndike – instrumental learning

bf skinner – coined oc, skinner box & animal learning, positive vs negative reinforcement (escape learning vs avoidance learning), positive punishment vs negative punishment/omission trainingshaping for desired behavior, chaining for linking separate behaviors to complex activityextinction, acquistion, spont recovery, generalization, discriminationprimary reinforcers vs secondary reinforcers (including generalized reinforcers like money – token economy)premack principle – reinforcing propertie s of something depends on the situation and individual

reinforcement schedulescontinuous reinf vs partial reinf. schedulepartial – more resistant to extinctionratio schedules= number of responses madeinterval schedules = passage of timefixed schedules = constantvariable schedules = changing

fixed ratio (fr) – reinf. after set # of responsesvariable-ratio (vr) – reinf. after varying # of times – never know when – slot machinesfixed interval (fi)– set amount of time – paycheckvariable interval (vi) – varying amount of time

variable usually use an average number for lab

biology & oc – instinctive drift – pig w/coing

observational learning – albert bandura (social learning theory), bobo doll experiment, modeling - - observation & imitation, tv

latent learning – edward tolman, sometimes learning occurs but is not immediately evidenced, cognitive map – just waiting to be asked and rewarded

abstract learning – cognition not just reward or punish

insight learning – wolfgang kohler (chimpanzees) – light bulb goes off – sticks and treat

superstitious behaviors are learned

quality of learning influenced by motivation, practice, schedule of reinforcement

addressing behavior problems:behavior modificationbiofeedback – in touch w/ own bodycoping strategies – deal w/behav & situationself control

cognition 8-10%people:

noam chomskyherman ebbinghaus – retention curve & rehearsalwolfgang kohlerelizabeth loftus – memory constructiongeorge a. miller –7 in stm (magic # 7)

memory three-box/information-processing model

sensory – short term/working – long termsensory – split-second holding tank – less than second, iconic memory (split-second photograph), echoic memory (3-4 seconds – sound)

short term memory – visually, acoustically, semantically encoded to stm, temporary, fade w/in 10 to 30 seconds, 7 items limit, chunking, mnemonic devices (aconyms, method of loci, pegword), rehearsal

long term memory – permanent storage, episodic memory (sequence of events), semantic memory (general knowledge), procedural memory (perform skills), explicit memories/declarative memories – think of 1st, implicit memories/nondeclarative – unintentional memorieseidetic/photographic memory

memories are deeply/elaborately processed vs shallowly/maintenance processed

retrieval – recognition vs recall, primacy effect, recency effect, serial position effect, tip-of-the tongue phenomenon (explanation: semantic network theory), flashbulb memories, mood-congruent memory (mood & memories), state-dependent memory(recall event encoded while in particular states of consciousness)constructed memory – false details – elizabeth loftus

forgetting decay and relearning effect – less time 2nd timeretroactive interference (learning new interferes w/recalling old info) vs proactive interference (older info learned previously interferes w/recall of info learned more recently)

hippocampus & encoding memoriesanterograde amnesia – no encoding of new memories retrograde amnesia – memory loss of info before trauma

both: clive wearingcerebellum – implicit/ procedural memory

languagephonemes (smallest unit – eng 44)morphemes (smallest unit of meaningful sound – a, but, pre, ly)words

syntax – ordering – sentence structurelanguage acquisition stages – babbling, holophrastic stage (1 word), telegraphic speech (simple commands – toddlers), overgeneralization/overregularization of grammar rules – use ed too often overextension of vocab – 1 word = more than should

noam chomsky & language acquisition device – born with – nativist theory of language acquistion, critical periods for language learning (lennenberg)– lost kids, primates– opposite of skinner’s behavioral theory

linguistic relativity hypothesis (benjamin whorf) –lang could be used to control our thinking – ex: labeling effect

thinking & creativitythoughts – schema (assimilate & accommodate)/schemata, concepts and prototypes, images (mental pics)

problem-solving – algorithms vs heuristicsavailability vs representative heuristicsoverconfidence – belief bias & belief perseveranceimpediment to problem-solving – mental set/rigidity, ex: functional fixedness,confirmation bias, framing

creativity – convergent thinking (int) vs divergent thinking (multiple possible answers – creative)

motivation & emotion 6-8%people:

william jamesalfred kinseyabraham maslowstanley schachter – 2 factor theoryhans selye – response to stress – general adaptation syndrome

motivation theories (push & pull)drive reduction theory – body seeks homeostasis –

need-drive-need reduction – satisfaction = homestasis (primary vs secondary drives)

biological determinism – genetics influencing motivations; instincts & species

cognitive dissonance/cognitive consistency– motivated to make attitude & action agree

yerkes-dodson arousal theory – want to maintain optimum level ofarousal/excitement – social facilitation (easy task – lots of arousal)(opponent-process theory of motivation) back to baseline/neutral state – drugsincentive theory – pulled by a desire (extrinsic vs intrinsic motivation)maslow’s hierarchy of needs – meet basic needs 1st then move up to higher levels, self-actualization (unique potential as person);; – physiological – safety – belongingness and love – esteem needs – self actualization

hunger motivationbiological reasons: stomach empty = contracts, brain – hypothalamus (body chemistry – glucose & insulin) – lateral hypothalamus (stimulate = eat); ventromedial hypothalamus (satiety center; stimulate – stop eatingset-point theory (optimum body weight), metabolic ratepsych factors:

externals vs internals, garcia effect (some foods bring back unpleasant memories), culture

eating disorders: bulimia, anorexia nervosa (15% below normal), obesity

sexual motivation:sexual response cycle: initial excitement, plateau phase, orgasm, resolution phase (refractory period)bio factors: brain – hypothalamus and gonads, hormonessocial factors: procreation, love & intimacy, peer encouragement

sexual orientation – haven’t found environment factor yet, bio factor – brain structure size, genes, hormones in womb

social motivation – achievement motivation, extrinsic vs intrinsic motivation – relates to management theories (work place)

types of conflict – approach-approach conflict – 2 desireable outcomes conflictavoidance-avoidance conflict—must choose b/w 2 unattractive outcomesapproach-avoidance conflict – one event has both attractive & unattractive featuresmultiple approach-avoidance conflicts –2 or more w/attractive & unattractive features

emotion theoriesjames-lange – feel emotion b/c of bodily

changes caused by stresscannon-bard – thalamus sends out signals to muscles & emotional centers simultaneouslyschachter’s two-factor theory – cognitive label, spillover effect

facial expressions & duchenne smile (real smile)

double-speak (body says one thing – but say another)

stressmeasuring – social readjustment rating scale (srrs) & life-change units (lcus)

general adaptation syndrome (gas) - selye – stages – alarm reaction then resistance then exhaustion

developmental psych 7-9%people:

mary ainsworthalbert banduradiana baumrinderik eriksonsigmund freudcarol gilligan – challenged kohlberg & girls

dev. differently not as individualisticharry harlowlawrence kohlbergkonrad lorenzjean piagetlev vygotsky – ed psych, constructivist

nature vs nurture, cross-sectional vs longitudinal studies, zygote, viability (legislationprenatal influences (genes, teratogens, fas)motor development – newborn reflexes (rooting, sucking, grasping, moro (fling arms and then retract), babinski (spread toes when foot stroked)), fat in milk & myelin sheath, motor dev – roll over 5.5 months, stand 8-9 months, walk by 15 mnths, gross motor vs fine motor skills, puberty – height and weight gains, menarche, spermarcheadulthood

parentingattachment, harlow’s monkey experiment (wire vs terry clothe), deprivation of attachment w/real mother = long term effects on behavior

mary ainsworth – strange situation experimentsecure attachment, avoidant attachment, anxious/ambivalent attachment

parenting styles – authoritarian, permissive, authoritative

stage theories (continuity vs discontinuity in dev)freud (psychosexual stages)– oral,

anal, phallic (oedipus & electra complexes. penis envy & castration anxiety), latency (6 – puberty), genital (oral fixation, anal retentive, anal expulsive, psychic energy/libido –stuck in stages)

erik erikson – neo-freudian (psychosocial stage theory – trust vs mistrust, autonomy vs shame/doubt, initiative vs guilt, industry vs inferiority, identity vs role confusion, intimacy vs isolation, generativity vs stagnation, integrity vs despair

cognitive development – smell, taste, touch first, then hearing and vision; habituation techniquejean piaget’s cognitive-dev theory

sensorimotor (object permanence), preoperational (2-7 – language, egocentric), concrete operation (8-12 concepts of conservation), formal operations (abstract reasoning) – criticism: stages

kohlberg’s moral development stage theory3 levels – preconventional (aviod punishment), conventional (society’s standards), postconventional (moral reasoning & self-defined ethical principles) – criticism by carol gilligan: biased against girls

gender roles and social cognitive theory – gender-schema theory

personality theories 5-7%people:

alfred adler – inferiority complexalbert bandurapaul costa and robert mccrae – big 5 traitssigmund freudcarl jung – collective unconscious &

archetypesabraham maslowcarl rogers

psychoanalytic theory & freud (stages/discontinuity) unconscious -- id (eros/life instincts/sex, thanatos/death instincts/aggression)(pleasure principle), ego (reality principle), superego (ideal principle),defense mechanisms (repression, denial, displacement, projection, reaction formation, regression, rationalization, intellectualization, sublimation (channeling towards diff goal –healthy) ;; criticisms – evidence? not predictive, sexist

psychodynamic theories –neo-freudianscarl jung – personal unconscious and collective unconscious (passed down through species)alfred adler – ego psychologist; inferiority vs superiority, inferiority complex, birth order & shaping personality

trait theories-hans eyesenck (introvert/extrovert & stable/unstable scales)raymond cattell – 16 personality factorsbig five (conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, opennes, extraversion)factor analysisgordon allport – central traits vs secondary traits – cardinal dispostion/central vs secondary

biological – heritability, temperamentshippocrates (4 humors/fluids – blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm)william sheldon’s somatotype theory (endomorphs/fat, mesomorphs/muscular, ectomorphs/thin)

behaviorists – personality is determined by environment – skinner (childhood – change environment, change personality)- contingency of reinforcement

social-cognitive theory – albert bandura – interaction bw traits, environment, and behavior (triadic reciprocality/ reciprocal determinism), sensce of self-efficacy – optimistic vs pessimisticjulian rotter’s expectancy theory – internal locus of control vs external locus of controlkelly’s personal-construct theory – how construct world – pairs of opposites

humanistic – free will not determinism, focus on self-concept and self-esteem, self-actualize, maslow’s hierarchy or needs, rogers – unconditional positive regard

assessment techniques for personalityprojective test – rorschach inkblot test, thematic apperception test,

self-report inventories like minnesota multiphasic personality inventory (mmpi-2)validity and reliabilitybarnum effect – sucker born every minute – how see our personality

testing & individual differences 5-7%people:

alfred binet – 1st iq test – french schoolsfrancis galton – inherited intellectual strengths – first to look at testing for intelligence (nature vs nurture)howard gardner – multiple intelligencescharles spearman – general intelligencerobert sternberg – triarchic theory of intelligence (3)louis terman – expanded binet’s test to stanford-binet iq testdavid wechsler – created wechsler adult intelligence scale (wais) & wechsler intelligence scale for children (wisc) – most widely used int. test today (overall scores, subtests, cognitive strengths and weaknesses)

measurements of intelligence: abstract vs verbal measures; speed of processing

intelligence influenced/defined by culture you are within (us = book smarts)

theories of intelligence:charles spearman – general intelligence (g factor)howard gardner – 8 or 9 multiple intelligences (what are they?)robert sternberg – triarchic theory – 3 types of intelligence (analytical, creative, practical)

test designstandardization – compared to pretest groupreliability – consistent (test-retest, split half, equivalent form)validity – accurate test -- such as content validity, criterion validity, and construct validityaptitude (future) vs achievement (already know) testsatminnesota multiphasic personality inventory (mmpi – 2)projective test (psychoanalysis) – rorschach inkblot test, thematic apperception

test (tat)meaning of scores & normal curve – most near mean score

68% - between 85 & 11595% -- between 70 (cognitively disabled) & 130 (gifted)

mental retardation spectrum, autism spectrum (asperger syndrome)gifted spectrum

iq = (mental age divided by chronological age) x 100

emotional quotient – eq (daniel goleman – emot intel)

abnormal behavior 7-9%dsm iv tr– diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders – published by american psychiatric assoc. – primary reference for diagnosing disorders

historical vs contemporary reasons for disorders – evil spirits to mentally ill to biopsychosocial approach

major categories of disorders & symptomsanxiety – general anxiety disorder, phobias, panic attack, ocd, ptsd

somatoform disorders – hypochondriasis, conversion, bodily dysmorphic, pain disorder, somatization disorder

mood disorders – depression, dysthymia, bipolar (cyclothymia – less extreme), seasonal affective disorder

schizophrenia – (paranoid, disorganized, catotonic, undifferentiated) hallucinations, disorganized thinking, delusions

organic disturbance – (involves or affects organs or bodily functions) – examples: alcohol, drugs, dementia

personality disorders (character disorders) –cluster a (odd or eccentric disorders) (paranoid personality disorder, schizoid personality disorder, schizotypal personality disorder) --cluster b (dramatic, emotional or erratic disorders) (antisocial personality disorder, borderline personality disorder, histrionic personality disorder, narcissistic personality disorder) -- cluster c (anxious or fearful disorders) (avoidant personality disorder, dependent personality disorder, obsessive-compulsive personality disorder).

dissociative disorders – depersonalization disorder, dissociative amnesia, dissociative fugue, dissociative identity disorder (multiple personalities)

approaches to explaining disorders (strengths & weaknesses)medical modelpsychoanalytichumanisticcognitivebiologicalsociocultural

consequences of diagnostic labels: positive – can treat and help; negative – label impacts how treated, david rosenhan & rosenhan study (pseudopatients & schizophrenia – forced to take antipsychotics even though said felt fine in facility)

mental disorders & legal system:patient confidentiality

insanity defense – legally insane go to psychiatric hospital

treatment 5-7%people:

aaron beck – cognitive therapy (question irrational thinking)albert ellis – cognitive behavior therapy (rebt)sigmund freud – psychoanalytical therapymary cover jones – little peter and counterconditioning fear/phobiascarl rogers – humanistic / client-centered therapybf skinner – behavioral therapy / behavior modification (oper. cond)joseph wolpe – exposure therapy & systematic desentization (countercond), reciprocal inhibition techniques for anxiety

psychotherapeutic intervention – talking to therapistbehavioral – change behaviors & countercondition, exposure therapy, behavior modificationcognitive – change thinking (irrational to rational, questioning strategy, positive talk, stress inoculation training)humanistic – unconditional positive regard, client-centered, active listening, close gap between ideal self and real self, self actualization

individual vs group therapy: pros and cons

effectiveness of various treatments: phobias = behavior, depression = cognitive/cognitive behavioral

choice and success of treatment also influenced by culture and ethnic context (premature termination)

prevention strategies: build resilience & promote competence, exercise & diet, life stress

biological therapyelectroconvulsive therapy (ect)psychosurgery – lesioning (amygdala)chemotherapy (chemical therapy)

drugsantipsychotic drugs & schizo – block dopamine receptors, thorazine (chlorpromazine) – side effects & tardive dyskensia

antianxiety drugs – minor tranquilizers (barbiturates), xanax, valium,

antidepressants – prozac, ssris

lithium (carbonate) & bipolar

social psych 8-10%people:

solomon asch – conformity study (line test)leon festinger – cognitive dissonance theory – move attitude toward action when tensionstanley milgram – obedience study (shock experiment)philip zimbardo – stanford prison experiment – power of situation, role playing/action changes attitudes, lucifer effect

attribution theory (fritz heider) – explain behavior and motives – disposition or situation, fundamental attribution error, self-serving bias

group behavior & dynamics – normsrolesdeindividuationgroup polarizationgroupthinkconformityobedience to authoritysocial facilitationsocial loafingbystander effect (kitty genovese story) diffusion of responsibilitypluralistic ignorance (if others aren’t _______, then i won’t)

changing attitudes – central route to persuasion (foot in the door phenomenon)cognitive dissonance

treatment of groupsprejudicestereotypesdiscriminationethnocentrismreasons: social inequalities, ingroup vs outgroup (ingroup bias), emotional scapegoats, just world belief, hindsight bias, cognitive schemata, availability heuristics

social and cultural categories – gender, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation (impact self-concept and relations with others)

group dynamics, behaviors, and self-fulfilling prophesy

altruism – unselfish regard for welfare of others, equity, social exchange theory, reciprocity norm & social responsibility norm, peacemaking & subordinate goals & communication

aggression – biological (testosterone, genetics, amygdala), aversive events and environment, frustration-aggression principle, learned aggression, social scripts, conflict (social traps & enemy perceptions & self-fulfilling prophesy)

attraction – proximity/mere exposure effect, physical attractiveness, similarity of views