AP Psychology

BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF PSYCHOLOGYChapter 3 (Bernstein), pages 59-103

& NEUROPSYCHOLOGY

Chapter 19 (Bernstein), pages 762-783

BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY

• This field of psychology is about the study of the cells and organs of the body and the physical and chemical changes involved in behavior and mental processes.

• BUT REMEMBER...environmental factors and biological factors work together in influencing behavior and mental processes.

Examples: heightintelligencepersonalitymental illnesses

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

• the billions of cells that make up your brain, spinal cord, and other nerve fibers

• allows an organism to gain info about what is going on inside and outside of the body and to respond appropriately

THREE FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

1. receive information (INPUT)

2. integrate that info with past experiences (PROCESS)

3. guide actions (OUTPUT)

THE NERVOUS SYSTEMTWO MAJOR TYPES OF CELLS...neurons and glial cells

like other body cells in that each have

1) an outer membrane,

2) a cell body, and

3) a nucleus containing mitochondria that produce energy

(click image)

THE NERVOUS SYSTEMTWO MAJOR TYPES OF CELLS

like other body cells in that each have: 1) an outer membrane, 2) a cell body, and 3) a nucleus containing mitochondria that produce energy

• NEURONS respond to environmental changes by means of three special features:

1. AXONS--fibers that carry signals away from the neuron to points where communication occurs with other neurons. Neurons generally have just one axon.

2. DENDRITES--fibers that receive signals from the axons of other neurons and carry those signals to the cell body. A neuron can have many dendrites.

3. “EXCITABLE” SURFACE MEMBRANE--Neurons have these on some of its fibers.

4. SYNAPSES (or SYNAPTIC GAPS)--tiny spaces between neurons

• GLIAL CELLS hold neurons in place, direct their growth and repair, keep their chemical environment stable, and provide energy. In addition, glial cells can perform the same functions as neurons, including releasing chemicals that influence neurons, responding to chemicals from other neurons, and changing in response to experience

PLAY

NEUROTRANSMISSION BIG WORDS TO REMEMBER...

axonaxon terminals

dendritesmyelin

cell body (soma)nucleussynapse

action potential

neurotransmittersreceptors

refractory periodpostsynaptic potential

excitatory postsynaptic potential

inhibitory postsynaptic potential

see handouts for more information

IN REVIEW:The Parts of the Neuron

ORGANIZATION & FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEMNEURAL NETWORKS

• how neurons in the brain and spinal column are organized into groups

• networks send signals to each other• these networks firing in various combinations underlie

the various patterns of thought and behavior

SENSORY SYSTEMS • provide input about the environment via the five senses

MOTOR SYSTEMS • direct the response to the environment by influencing

the muscles/other organs

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM• not housed in bone and is made up of the sensory and

motor systems

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM• processes information; encased in bone; the CNS

includes the brain and spinal cord

IMPORTANT LINK HERE!

THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

1) THE SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

carries info from senses to the CNS and sends movement instructions back to muscles that move the skeleton

sensory neurons bring info INTO the brain

motor neurons carry info FROM the brain to direct motion

two components, each of which performs both sensory and motor functions

ANOTHER IMPORTANT LINK HERE!

THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

2) THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

carries messages back and forth between CNS and the body’s organs and glands

two divisions:

SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM mobilizes the body for action through the “fight or flight syndrome”

PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM slows organ and gland activity to conserve the body’s energy

two components, each of which performs both sensory and motor functions

AND ONE MORE IMPORTANT LINK!

THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

The CNS is made up of groups of neuronal cell bodies called nuclei and the fiber tracts or pathways of axons that connect them.

THE SPINAL CORD

• carries messages to and from the brain

• REFLEXES are quick, involuntary muscular responses initiated on the basis of incoming sensory information that occur in the spinal cord without instruction from the brain. (The brain is informed of each reflex after it occurs.)

• The spinal cord is an example of a feedback system, a process in which information about an action’s results are conveyed back to the source of the action so that further adjustments to the activity can be made. (ex. touching a hot stove)

• In the spinal cord, sensory neurons are afferent neurons and carry information to the brain. (afferent... “approach”)

• Motor neurons are efferent neurons and carry information away from the brain. (efferent... “exit”)

THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

THE BRAIN

IMAGING TECHNIQUES FOR STUDYING THE BRAIN

1. electroencephalograph (EEG)

2. computed tomography (CT or CAT scan)

3. positron emission tomography (PET scan)

4. single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT scan)

5. magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

6. functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

7. transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

8. cranial ultrasound

EEG CT/CAT scan

PET scanSPECT scan

MRI fMRI

TMS ULTRASOUND

Brain Structure and Function• HINDBRAIN: medulla oblongata, reticular formation, locus

coeruleus, cerebellum

• MIDBRAIN: substantia nigra (connected to the striatum)

• FOREBRAIN: striatum, thalamus, limbic system (hypothalamus, suprachiasmatic nuclei, septum, amygdala, hippocampus)

Draw a diagram of the brain and label each of the structures listed above. Be sure to write a brief description of the function of EACH structure.

Brain Structure and FunctionHINDBRAIN: • medulla controls vital functions (e.g.,

blood pressure, heart rate, breathing)• reticular formation alters activities of

other brain functions; involved in arousal and attention

• locus coeruleus thought to be involved in directing attention; directed by reticular formation

• cerebellum controls finely coordinated movements; may also play role in higher cognitive processes (including speech)

actually part of the LIMBIC

SYSTEM in the forebrain

Brain Structure and FunctionMIDBRAIN: • substantia nigra and striatum

(in forebrain) involved in smoothly initiating movement

Brain Structure and FunctionFOREBRAIN:• thalamus relays sensory signals; important

role in processing and making “sense” out of sensory information

• limbic system• hypothalamus regulates hunger,

thirst, and sex drives• suprachiasmatic nuclei keeps an

approx. 24-hour clock that determines biological rhythms

• septum associated with pleasant sensations, mainly those related to sexual experiences

• amygdala involved in fear and other emotions; may influence sensitivity to other people

• hippocampus important in formation of memories

THE CEREBRAL CORTEX• The cerebral cortex is the outer surface of the cerebral hemispheres (or

cerebrum).

• The cerebral cortex is associated with the analysis of information from all the senses, control of voluntary movements, higher order thought, and other complex aspects of behavior and mental processes.

• 4 Lobes:

• FRONTAL LOBE (controls inhibitions, short-term memory, reasoning, and planning for the future)

• PARIETAL LOBE (receives and combines tactile stimuli from all over the body to allow the formation of a single concept)

• OCCIPITAL LOBE (processes visual stimuli, maintains balance)

• TEMPORAL LOBE (processes auditory stimuli)

THE CEREBRAL CORTEX

TEMPORAL LOBE

OCCIPITALLOBE

PARIETAL LOBEFRONTAL LOBE

Frontal Lobe:

• Thinking• Planning• Personality• Emotions

Temporal Lobe:

• Understanding• Speech• Memory• Hearing

Parietal Lobe:

• Face• Movements• Drawing• Feeling and Touch

Occipital Lobe:

• Vision

FUNCTIONAL AREAS OF THE CORTEX

• SENSORY CORTEX: receives information from senses

• visual cortex...seeing (occipital lobe)

• auditory cortex...hearing (temporal lobe)

• somatosensory cortex...touch, pain, and temperature (parietal lobe)

• MOTOR CORTEX: creates voluntary movements in specific parts of the body (back of frontal lobe)

• ASSOCIATION CORTEX: perform complex cognitive tasks, receiving info from multiple senses or combining sensory and motor info

• Broca’s area (transfers thoughts into audible spoken words)

• Wernicke’s area (transfers spoken words into thoughts)

Regions of the Cerebral Cortex

1. frontal lobe

2. parietal lobe

3. temporal lobe

4. occipital lobe

5. motor cortex

6. somatosensory cortex

7. association cortex (roughly 2 areas)

8. auditory cortex

9. visual cortex

10. Broca’s Area

11. Wernicke’s Area

Regions of the Cerebral Cortex

1. frontal lobe

2. parietal lobe

3. temporal lobe

4. occipital lobe

5. motor cortex

6. somatosensory cortex

7. association cortex

8. auditory cortex

9. visual cortex

10. Broca’s Area

11. Wernicke’s Area

Draw a 2nd diagram of the brain and label each of the regions of the cerebral cortex listed below.

THE DIVIDED BRAIN IN A UNIFIED SELF

LEFT HEMISPHERE: receives info from/controls movement of the right side of the body

RIGHT HEMISPHERE: receives info from/controls movement of the left side of the body

Each hemisphere appears to be specialized to perform some particular functions ALMOST independently of the other hemisphere.

obviously a British graphic...

THE DIVIDED BRAIN IN A UNIFIED SELF

SPLIT-BRAIN STUDIES

To control epilepsy, split-brain patients have surgery to sever the corpus collosum (massive bundle of fibers connecting the brain’s hemispheres).

Research on these patients have found:

LEFT HEMISPHERE controls spoken language

RIGHT HEMISPHERE controls recognition of faces and spatial tasks such as drawing 3D shapes

THE DIVIDED BRAIN IN A UNIFIED SELF

LATERALIZATION OF NORMAL BRAINS

A lateralized task is one that is performed more efficiently by one hemisphere than by the other (although the cerebral hemispheres work closely together).

LEFT superior in logical thinking and language

RIGHT better with spatial, artistic, and musical abilities

There is VARIANCE in the NATURE and DEGREE of lateralization among individuals.

RIGHT BRAIN HEMISPHERE:Internal

Creative, Subjective

Musical composition +playing+reading+memoryBodily expressions Reverse Speech (truth)Singing, Poetry, Emotions3D Immersion = FeelingEstimating, ComparingIntuition, Artistry, DanceNon-linear Curved DesignSpiritual, Subliminal Imagination, SymbolsVisual / Spatial Tasks Multi-tasking, PsychicInsights, Instant clarity

Parallel processing of Energy + Information

LEFT BRAIN HEMISPHERE:External

Rational(ize), Objective

WritingOral languageReading textsDiction memory Speech normal2D Goal orientedGrammar, NumbersVocabulary, Citing Facts Planning, Manipulating Arithmetics, Mathematics Linear Design ConstructionJudgments, Opinions

Serial / Sequential processing of Energy + Information

PLASTICITY IN THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

PLASTICITY

• the brain’s ability to strengthen neural connections and establish new connections

• occurs throughout the central nervous system and provides the basis for learning and memory processes

LIMITATIONS OF PLASTICITY IN THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

• new neurons are seldom generated in the brain and spinal cord

• exact replication of synaptic connections prior to brain damage is nearly impossible

• (Note: undamaged neurons can produce new axons and dendrites which DO make new connections)

PLASTICITY IN THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

METHODS FOR NERVE CELL GROWTH AND REPRODUCTION (many underway, some controversial)

• tissue transplants into the damaged area from other brains or other areas of the individual’s own body

• addition of proteins called growth factors to promote neuron survival and stimulate/guide axon growth

• special mental and physical exercise programs to try to “rewire” the brains of patients to reverse injuries and improve sensory and cognitive abilities

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND THE CHANGING BRAIN

• in infants during development, the brain overproduces neural connections and establishes which connections are needed (based on experience) and then eliminates the extras

• in adulthood, the number of connections is also affected by experience... stimulating environments produce greater number of connections

NEUROTRANSMITTERS

• substances in the sacs or vesicles inside the buttons or knobs at the end of the axon terminals

• natural chemicals produced by the body that transfer signals from one neuron to another

• involved in everything from bodily movements to emotions

• can either be inhibitory or excitatory

THE CHEMISTRY OF PSYCHOLOGY

THE CHEMISTRY OF PSYCHOLOGY

NEUROTRANSMITTER FUNCTION EXCESS DEFICIENCY

ACETYLCHOLINEmemory, mood,

voluntary muscle movement

convulsions or excess shaking

Alzheimer’s disease, paralysis

DOPAMINE feelings of euphoria (reward), movement

schizophrenia Parkinson’s disease

SEROTONIN mood, appetite, impulsiveness

tremors, headachesdepression, eating

disorders, alcoholism, aggression

GABA (GAMMA-AMINO BUTYRIC ACID)

mood, sleep, movement

lethargy anxiety-disorders, Huntington’s disease

NOREPINEPHRINE alertness, sleep, learning

fear, anxiety depression

GLUTAMATE memory brain damage due to overstimulation

neurological disorders

THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Coordinating the Internal World

• The endocrine system (like the nervous system) influences a wide variety of behavior.

• Endocrine organs (or GLANDS) secrete chemicals called HORMONES which travel the bloodstream and affect coordinated systems of target organs that have receptors for them.

• Hormones are partly responsible for sex differences (which also depend on biological and social forces).

• The brain controls the secretion of hormones.

• The hypothalamus controls the pituitary gland which controls endocrine organs all over the body!

see your handout and this awesome link for more

Check out the Pancreas song, too!

THE IMMUNE SYSTEM Linking the Brain & the Body’s Defense System

The Immune System

1. considered the “sixth sense”

2. very similar to nervous and endocrine systems

3. FUNCTION: to monitor the internal body for the presence of foreign or harmful material and to eliminate it

4. Autoimmune Disorders occur when the immune system attacks normal body cells

more info here

THE IMMUNE SYSTEM Linking the Brain & the Body’s Defense System

Interaction of Immune, Nervous, and Endocrine Systems

1. stress has negative impact on immune system functioning (That’s why you get sick when you get stressed out.)

2. immune responses can be learned (learning involves the nervous system)

3. stimulating or damaging certain parts of the nervous system (e.g., the hypothalamus and portions of the cortex and brainstem) causes changes in immune system functioning

4. immune system activity causes changes in neurotransmitter activity, hormonal secretion, and behavior (including symptoms of illness)

5. some of the same chemical messengers are found in the brain and in the immune system system (interleukins--immune messengers secreted by glial cells to repair damaged neurons)

One last look at the nervous system,endocrine system,

and immune system...

The Brain

The Limbic System

Motor and Somatosensory Cortex

Somatic Nervous System

Autonomic Nervous System

The Immune System