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APES SUMMER ASSIGNMENT
Dear AP Environmental Science Classes of 2015-2016,
Welcome to AP Environmental Science!!! Students who enroll in APES should be ready and willing to devote sufficient time, focus & energy to class assignments, including daily text readings, taking notes in and outside of class, preparing for frequent exams and quizzes, participating in laboratory and field experiments, writing reports, giving oral presentations, participating in class discussions and doing other various class assignments.
Some work over the summer is required in order to be better prepared in the fall. The purpose of these
tasks is to help prepare you for your studies for the upcoming school year. Please complete the following assignments this summer. There will be a test on the material covered in the summer assignment on the first day of school.
Part I. Chemistry Review Chemistry is a prerequisite for this class. Please write out the name of each molecule below. Write out the chemical formula and full name of each of these chemical abbreviations on a separate sheet of paper: CO2 P CO PO4 3 C6H12O6 S CH4 SO2
SO3 N2 H2SO4 Pb K As NO2 NaCl
NO3 NH3 NH4 + Rn Rn O2 Hg O3
Cl U H2 Fe C H2CO3 CaCO3 NO
H+ H2O HNO3 N2O SO4 2 H2S
Part. II. APES Math Review – You CANNOT use a calculator on any math in APES. This is a rule set by College Board. On your test you will be expected to show all work. APES Dimensional Analysis – SHOW ALL WORK 1 km = 1000 m 1 hour = 60 min 1 min = 60 s 1 m = 100 cm
1 km = 0.62 mi 1 in = 2.54 cm 1 mL = 1 cm3 1 gal = 3.8 L
1 yr = 365 days 1 wk = 7 days 1 day = 24 h 1 dozen = 12 “things”
1. Convert 2200 m to km
2. It took 1800 seconds to get to school today. How many hours is that?
3. If a car is driving 98 km/h in France, what is the speed in miles per hour?
4. Convert 3.04 m to inches.
5. How many minutes are in 4 weeks?
6. If, gasoline costs $0.293 per liter, how much would it cost to fill an 18 gallon tank?
Dimensional Analysis Word Problems – SHOW ALL WORK
7. Every three times I clean my bedroom, my mother makes me an apple pie. I cleaned my bedroom 9 times. How many apple pies does she owe me? (What? Your mother doesn't reward you for cleaning your bedroom? Aren't there child labor laws? To make up for that injustice, you may have this very easy extra credit problem.)
8. A chemistry teacher working at a golf camp during the summer found a liquid, which caused him to slice ball after ball into the water without disturbing him at all. He thought that this was an important liquid to identify so he set out to determine its density. He found that a sample of the liquid had a mass equal to 455 golf balls and occupied a volume of 620 water cups that he obtained at the 7th hole. Each golf ball massed 50 g and the water cups at the 7th hole of the golf course held 45 mL each. What is the density of the unknown liquid?
9. How much force, in g cm / s2 , is exerted by a golf ball described in problem 2 striking a tree while accelerating at 20 cm / s2 ? Show how you can solve this problem without knowing that F = m a. Explain your solution.
10. Because you never learned dimensional analysis, you have been working at a fast food restaurant for the past 35 years wrapping hamburgers. Each hour you wrap 184 hamburgers. you work 8 hours per day. you work 5 days a week. you get paid every 2 weeks with a salary of $840.34. How many hamburgers will you have to wrap to make your first one million dollars? [You are in a closed loop again. If you can solve the problem, you will have learned dimensional analysis and you can get a better job. But, since you won't be working there any longer, your solution will be wrong. If you can't solve the problem, you can continue working which means the problem is solvable, but you can't solve it. We have decided to overlook this impasse and allow you to solve the problem as if you had continued to wrap hamburgers.]
METRIC REVIEW – SHOW ALL WORK
11. 0.0450 m = _________ km
12. 5.38 x 10-15 cm = ___________ nm
13. 2.00 x 1024 L = ___________ kL
14. 7.22 kg = ____________ g
15. 8.827 mmol = ___________ mol
16. What is the average speed in miles per hour of a sprinter who runs the 100.00 meter dash in 9.92 seconds?
17. A 1.000 m strip of magnesium ribbon has a mass of 1.200 g. How many feet of ribbon are in an 8.00 oz roll?
18. A tank at Sea World is cleaned twice daily (entire volume is filtered every ½ day). The filter can clean 0.5000 L of water per second of operation. What is the volume of the tank in kL?
19. A pool of water is 20.0 ft long, 12.0 ft wide, and 250.0 cm deep. If it is completely filled with pure water, what is the mass in kg? the volume in cm3?
Scientific Notation:
Convert each number from scientific notation to standard notation:
20. 1.3136 X 100 25. 1.2363 X 101
21. 8.9512 X 10-5 26. 6.865 X 109
22. 6.773 X 10-3 27. 3.293 X 101
23. 8.4573 X 10 -6 28. 5.141 X 10-9
24. 1.1998 X 108 29. 9.4322 X 1012
Convert each number from standard notation to scientific notation:
30. 794,940 32. 0.038942
31. 0.14381 33. 00000000000006153
Calculate – SHOW ALL WORK
34. (2.53 X 103)(0.24 X 104) 35. (2.53 X 103) / (0.24 X 104) 36. (2.53 X 103) + (0.24 X 104) 37. (2.53 X 103) – (0.24 X 104)
Part III. Chapter 1 and 2 Review
You are two read chapters 1 and 2 from Withgott and Brennan: Environmental Science the Science behind the Stories. These two chapters are found at the end of this document. Answer the following questions after reading each chapter.
● Chapter 1 Questions:
1. What do renewable and nonrenewable resources have in common? How are they different? Identify two renewable and two nonrenewable resources.
2. How and why did the agricultural revolution affect human population size? How and why did the industrial revolution affect human population size? Explain what environmental impacts have resulted.
3. What is the tragedy of the commons? Explain how the concept might apply to an unregulated industry that is a source of water pollution.
4. What is environmental science? Name several disciplines involved in environmental science.
5. Describe the scientific method. What is its typical sequence of steps? Explain the difference between the independent variable and dependent variable.
6. Give examples of three major environmental problems in the world today along with their causes. How are these problems interrelated? Can you name a potential solution for each?
7. How can sustainable development be defined? What is meant by the triple bottom line? Why is it important to pursue sustainable development?
● Chapter 2 Questions:
1. What are the basic building blocks of matter? Provide several examples using chemicals common in Earth’s physical or biological systems.
2. Describe two major forms of energy and give examples of each.
3. State the first law of thermodynamics. Now compare it to the second law of thermodynamics.
4. Describe three major sources of energy that power Earth’s environmental systems.
5. What substances are produced by photosynthesis? By cellular respiration? By chemosynthesis?
6. Name the primary layers that make up our planet. Which portions does the lithosphere include?
7. Describe what occurs at a divergent plate boundary. What happens at a transform plate boundary. Compare and contrast the types of processes that can occur at a convergent plate boundary.
8. Name the three main types of rocks, and describe how each type may be converted to the others via the rock cycle.
9. What causes earthquakes? What is a tsunami, and what causes them? How does a Hawaiian volcano such as Kilauea differ from a volcano in the Cascades of North America such as Mount Saint Helens?
Part IV. APES: Biome Cards Assignment
Devise a way to study the information on each of the biomes listed below. This information should include biome locations, climate conditions, and unique environmental conditions specific to a given biome (ie permafrost in the tundra), types of flora and fauna present and adaptations required by the flora and fauna to survive in the given biome.
Biomes: Tundra Temperate Grasslands Taiga/Boreal Forest Tropical Grasslands/ Savannah Temperate Deciduous Forest Chaparral Temperate Rain Forest Deserts Tropical Rainforest Swamps & Marshes/Mangroves
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Lecture Outlines
Chapter 1
Environment:
The Science behind the
Stories
4th Edition
Withgott/Brennan
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
This lecture will help you understand:
• The meaning of the term environment
• The field and interdisciplinary nature of environmental science
• The importance of natural resources and ecosystem services
• The scientific method and the process of science
• Some pressures on the global environment
• Concepts of sustainability and sustainable development
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Our island: Earth
• Earth may seem enormous
- But it and its systems are finite and limited
- We can change the Earth and damage its systems
• Environment: all the living and non-living things
around us
- Animals, plants, forests, farms, etc.
– Continents, oceans, clouds, ice caps
– Structures, urban centers, living spaces
– Social relationships and institutions
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Humans are part of nature
• Humans depend on a healthy, functioning planet
• The fundamental insight of environmental science:
- We are part of the natural world, but we can also change it
- Our interactions with its other parts matter a great deal
• We depend completely on the environment for survival
- Increased health, longer lives, wealth, mobility, leisure
- But natural systems have been degraded by pollution, soil erosion, species extinction, etc.
- Environmental changes threaten long-term health and survival
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Environmental science
• Environmental science is the study of:
- How the natural world works
- How the environment affects humans and vice versa
• We need to understand our interactions with the environment
- To creatively solve environmental problems
• Global conditions are rapidly changing
- We are also rapidly gaining knowledge
- The opportunity to solve problems is still available
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
We rely on natural resources
• Natural resources = substances and energy sources needed
for survival
• Renewable natural resources: can be replenished
- Perpetually renewed: sunlight, wind, wave energy
- Renew themselves over short periods: timber, water, soil
- These can be destroyed
• Nonrenewable natural resources: unavailable after depletion
- Oil, coal, minerals
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
We rely on ecosystem services
• Natural resources are “goods” produced by nature
- Earth’s natural resources provide “services” to us
• Ecosystem services: arise from the normal functioning of natural services
- Purify air and water, cycle nutrients, regulate climate
- Pollinate plants, receive and recycle wastes
• We degrade ecosystem services
- By depleting resources, destroying habitat, generating pollution
- Increased human affluence has intensified degradation
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Human population growth amplifies impacts
• There are over 6.9 billion
humans
• Agricultural revolution
- Crops, livestock
- Stable food supplies
• Industrial revolution
- Urbanized society powered
by fossil fuels (oil, gas, coal)
- Sanitation and medicines
- Pesticides and fertilizers
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Resource consumption exerts pressures
• Exploitation and consumption of resources is also a problem
• Garret Hardin’s tragedy of the commons: unregulated
exploitation of public resources leads to depletion and damage
– Soil, air, water
• Resource users are motivated by self interest
– They increase use until the resource is gone
• Solutions to the tragedy of the commons?
– Private ownership?
– Voluntary organization to enforce responsible use?
– Governmental regulations?
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Our “ecological footprint”
• Affluence increases consumption
• Ecological footprint: the
environmental impact of a person
or population
- The area of biologically
productive land + water
- To supply raw resources and
dispose/recycle waste
• People in rich nations have much
larger ecological footprints
If everyone consumed the amount of resources the U.S.
does, we would need 4.5 Earths!
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Overshoot
We are using renewable resources 30% faster than they are being replenished
Overshoot: humans have surpassed the Earth’s capacity
to support us
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Environmental science
• How will resource consumption and population growth
impact today’s global society?
• Civilizations have fallen after degrading the environment
- Easter Island, Greek and Roman empires
- Once lush regions (i.e. Iraq) are now barren deserts
• Civilizations succeed or fail according to how they
interact with the environment
- Along with how they respond to problems
• Environmental science can help build a better world
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
The nature of environmental science
Environment impacts Humans
• Its applied goal: solving environmental
problems
• Solutions are applications of science
• An interdisciplinary field
- Natural sciences: examines the
natural world
- Environmental science programs
- Social sciences: examines values and
human behavior
- Environmental studies programs
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
What is an “environmental problem”?
• Whether an environmental condition is seen as a problem
- Depends on the individual and situation
• Ex.: the pesticide DDT
- In malaria-infested Africa: welcome because it kills malaria-carrying mosquitoes
- In America: not welcome, due to health risks
People also differ in their awareness of problems,
depending on who they are, where they live, what they do
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Environmental science is not environmentalism
• Environmental science
– Pursues knowledge about
the environment and our
interactions with it
– Scientists try to remain
objective and free from bias
• Environmentalism
– A social movement
– Tries to protect the natural world
from human-caused changes
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
The nature of science
• Science: a systematic process for learning about the
world and testing our understanding of it
- The accumulated body of knowledge arising from the
dynamic process of observation, testing, and discovery
• Civilization depends on science and technology
- Science tries to understand the world and steer a safe course
• Science is essential to sort fact from fiction
- Develop solutions to the problems we face
- It must be accessible and understandable to the public
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Applications of science
Restoration of forest ecosystems altered
by human suppression of fire
Policy decisions and
management practices
Energy-efficient electric car
Developing technology
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Science asks and answers questions
• It is an incremental approach to the truth
• Scientists do not simply accept conventional wisdom
- They judge ideas by the strength of their evidence
• Observational (descriptive) science: information is gathered about organisms, systems, processes, etc.
- Cannot be manipulated by experiments
- Phenomena are observed and measured
- Used in astronomy, paleontology, taxonomy, genomics
• Hypothesis-driven science: targeted research
- Experiments test hypotheses using the scientific method
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
The scientific method: a traditional approach
• It tests ideas
- Scientists in different fields
approach problems
differently
• Assumptions:
- The universe works according
to unchanging natural laws
- Events arise from causes, and
cause other events
- We use senses and reason to
understand natural processes
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
The scientific method
• A scientist makes an
observation and asks
questions of some phenomenon
• Hypothesis: a statement that
tries to explain the question
• The hypothesis generates
predictions: specific statements
that can be directly tested
• The test results either support
or reject the hypothesis
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Experiments test the validity of a hypothesis
• Variable: a condition that can change
• Independent variable: can be manipulated
• Dependent variable: depends on the independent variable
• Controlled experiment: the effects of all variables are controlled
- Except the independent variable whose effect is being tested
• Control: an unmanipulated point of comparison
• Quantitative data: uses numbers
• Qualitative data: does not use numbers
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Hypotheses are tested in different ways
Manipulative experiments yield
the strongest evidence
• Reveals causal relationships
• Lots of things can’t be
manipulated
Natural tests show real-world
complexity
• Results are not neat and clean
• Answers aren’t black and
white
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
The scientific process is part of a larger process
• It guards against faulty
research
– Includes peer review,
publication,
competition for
funding
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Theories and paradigm shifts
• Theory: a well-tested and widely accepted explanation
– Consolidates widely-supported, related hypotheses
• Paradigm shift – a dramatic upheaval in thought
– It changes the dominant viewpoint
• Wicked problems: are complex, with no simple solution
– I.e. environmental problems
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Sustainability and the future of our world
• Sustainability: we must live within our planet’s means
- So the Earth and its resources can sustain us and all life for the future
• Sustainability involves conserving resources
- Developing long-term solutions
- Keeping fully functioning ecosystems
• Natural capital: Earth’s total wealth of resources
- We are withdrawing it faster that it’s being replenished
- We must live off Earth’s natural interest (replenishable resources), not its natural capital
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Population & consumption
• Population growth amplifies all human impacts
- The growth rate has slowed, but we still add more than 200,000 people to the planet each day
• Resource consumption has risen faster than population
- Life has become more pleasant
- Rising consumption also amplifies our demands on the environment
• The 20 wealthiest nations have 55 times the income of the 20 poorest nations
- Three times the gap that existed 40 years ago
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Ecological footprints are not all equal
• Not everyone benefits equally from rising affluence
• The ecological footprints of countries vary greatly
- The U.S. footprint is much greater than the world’s average
• In the U.S. the richest 1%
- Have 25% of all income
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
We face challenges in agriculture
• Technology expanded food production
– Leading to increased population and consumption
• It’s one of humanity’s greatest achievements, but it
comes at an enormous environmental cost
– Nearly half of the land surface is used for agriculture
– Chemical fertilizers and pesticides poison and change
natural systems
– Erosion, climate change and poor management
destroy millions of acres each year
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Humans have changed the Earth’s landscape
Agriculture, urban sprawl, and other land uses have substantially affected most of the landscape of all nations
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
We face challenges in pollution
• Waste products and artificial chemicals
– Are used in farms, industries, and households
– Contaminate land, water and air
– Kill millions of people
• Humans are affecting the Earth’s climate
– Melting glaciers
– Rising sea levels
– Impacted wildlife, forests, health and crops
– Changed rainfall and increased storms
Since the Industrial Revolution, atmospheric carbon
dioxide concentrations have risen by 39%, to the
highest level in 800,000 years
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
We face challenges in biodiversity
• Biodiversity: the cumulative
number and diversity of
living things
• Human actions have driven
many species extinct
– Biodiversity is declining
dramatically
– We are setting in motion a
mass extinction event
Biodiversity loss may be our biggest problem; once
a species is extinct, it is gone forever
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
• The most comprehensive scientific assessment of the
condition of the world’s ecological systems
• In 2005, 2000 of the world’s leading scientists from
100 nations reported :
– Humans have drastically altered ecosystems
– These changes have contributed to human well-
being and economic development, but at a cost
– Environmental degradation could get much worse
– Degradation can be reversed, but it requires work
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Our energy choices will affect our future
• The lives we live today are due to fossil fuels
– Machines
– Chemicals
– Transportation
– Products
• Fossil fuels are a one-time bonanza
– Supplies will certainly decline
We have used up ½ of the world’s oil supplies; how
will we handle this imminent fossil fuel shortage?
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Sustainable solutions abound
• Renewable energy and efficiency
• Organic agriculture
• Legislation and technology to reduce pollution
• Protect species and their habitat
• Recycling, decreasing waste
• Decrease greenhouse gas emissions
We must develop solutions that
protect both our quality of life
and the environment
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Are things getting better or worse?
• Many people think environmental conditions are better
– Cornucopians: human ingenuity will solve any
problem
• Some think things are much worse
– Cassandras: predict doom and disaster
• How can you decide who is correct?
– Are the impacts limited to humans, or are other
organisms or systems involved?
– Are the proponents thinking in the long or short term?
– Are they considering all costs and benefits?
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Sustainable development
• Involves environmental protection, economic well-being
and social equity
• It does not threaten economic and social needs
- Humans cannot exist without an intact, functioning
ecosystem
• Sustainable development: the use of resources to satisfy
current needs
- Without compromising future availability of resources
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Sustainable development
• The poor suffer the most from environmental degradation
• Development: purposeful changes to improve the quality
of life
• Sustainable development: resources satisfy current
needs
- Without compromising future availability of resources
- It is not ever increasing economic gain
- It values and prioritizes environmental protection
- Human-made capital cannot substitute for natural
capital
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Will we develop in a sustainable way?
• The triple bottom line:
sustainable solutions that meet
- Environmental protection
- Economic goals
- Social equity
• Humans must apply knowledge
from the sciences to
- Limit environmental impacts
- Maintain functioning
environmental systems
We must make an ethical commitment to current and
future generations
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Conclusion
• Environmental science helps us understand our
relationship with the environment
- It informs our attempts to solve and prevent problems
• Identifying a problem is the first step in solving it
• Solving environmental problems can move us towards
health, longevity, peace and prosperity
- Environmental science can help us find balanced
solutions to environmental challenges
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
QUESTION: Review
The term “environment” does NOT include:
a) Animals and plants
b) Oceans and rivers
c) Structures and urban centers
d) All of the above are included in this term.
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
QUESTION: Review
Which of the following is correct about the term “environmental science”?
a) It is a social movement to protect the environment.
b) It studies how the natural world works.
c) It usually does not include human activities.
d) It is a declining science.
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
QUESTION: Review
If you add various amounts of fertilizer to plants in a laboratory, the fertilizer would be a ______ variable.
a) Correlative
b) Natural
c) Independent
d) Rare
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
QUESTION: Review
What is the definition of “sustainable development”?
a) Using resources to benefit future generations, even
if it means lower availability now.
b) Letting future generations figure out their own
problems.
c) Using resources to satisfy current needs without
compromising future availability.
d) Letting each country decide what is its best interest.
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
QUESTION: Weighing the Issues
What do you think of the Millennium Ecosystem
Assessment?
a) It is a well-supported report on the Earth’s ecological
systems.
b) It abuses science to draw special conclusions.
c) It suggests much more study is needed on
environmental problems.
d) It concludes that humans really aren’t causing many
environmental problems.
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
QUESTION: Weighing the Issues
Do you think it is ethical for the United States to have
the largest ecological footprint in the world?
a) Yes, because we find the most new technologies
and resources.
b) Yes, because the footprint of the United States is
not really that large.
c) Definitely not; people in the United States need to
reduce their footprint.
d) It does not matter; it’s not that important.
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
QUESTION: Interpreting Graphs and Data
According to this graph, what was responsible for
population growth over the last 500 years?
a) Fossil fuels
b) Increased food
c) The Black plague
d) Education
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
QUESTION: Interpreting Graphs and Data
What happens if test
results can not reject a
hypothesis?
a) The scientist
formulates a new
hypothesis.
b) It shows the test failed.
c) The hypothesis was
supported
d) The predictions may
not have been correct.
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Lecture Outlines
Chapter 2
Environment:The Science behind the Stories
4th Edition
Withgott/Brennan
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
This lecture will help you understand:
• The fundamentals of matter and chemistry
• Energy and energy flow• Photosynthesis, respiration,
and chemosynthesis• Plate tectonics and the rock
cycle• Geologic hazards and ways
to mitigate them
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Central Case Study: Clean green energy beneath our feet
• Hot rocks deep underground turn water into steam
• The Geysers: geothermal power plants in North California produce electricity for millions
• Wastewater pumped into the ground replenished depleted steam
• Extracting steam may cause earthquakes
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chemistry
• Chemistry: studies types of matter - Along with how they interact
• Chemistry is crucial for understanding:- How gases contribute to global climate change- How pollutants cause acid rain- The effects on health of wildlife and people- Water pollution- Wastewater treatment- Atmospheric ozone depletion - Energy issues
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Matter is conserved
• Matter = all material in the universe that has mass and occupies space- The law of conservation of matter: matter can be
transformed from one type of substance into others- But it cannot be destroyed or created
• Because the amount of matter stays constant- It is recycled in nutrient cycles and ecosystems- We cannot simply wish pollution and waste away
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Atoms and elements
• Element = a fundamental type of matter - A chemical substance with a given set of properties
• Atoms = the smallest components that maintain an element’s chemical properties
• The atom’s nucleus (center) has protons (positively charged particles) and neutrons (particles lacking electric charge)- Atomic number = the number of protons
• Electrons = negatively charged particles surrounding the nucleus
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chemical building blocks
• Isotopes = atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons
• Isotopes of an element behave differently
• Mass number = the combined number of protons and neutrons
• Atoms that gain or lose electrons become electrically charged ions
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Radioactive decay of isotopes
• Rocks and water are heated within the Earth• Radioactive isotopes decay until they become non-
radioactive stable isotopes- Emit high-energy radiation
• Half-life = the amount of time it takes for one-half of the atoms to give off radiation and decay- Different radioscopes have different half-lives ranging
from fractions of a second to billions of years- Uranium-235, used in commercial nuclear power, has
a half-life of 700 million years
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Molecules and compounds
• Molecules = combinations of two or more atoms- Oxygen gas = O2
• Compound = a molecule composed of atoms of two or more different elements- Water = two hydrogen atoms bonded to one oxygen
atom: H2O- Carbon dioxide = one carbon atom with two oxygen
atoms: CO2
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Atoms are held together with bonds
• Atoms bond because of an attraction for each other’s electrons
• In some bonds, atoms share electrons equally (e.g. H2)• Atoms may share electrons unequally
- The oxygen in water attracts hydrogen’s electrons • Ionic compounds (salts) = an electron is transferred
- Table salt (NaCl): the Na+ ion donated an electron to the Cl– ion
• Solutions = a mixture of substances with no chemical bonding (e.g. air, ocean water, petroleum, ozone)
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Water’s chemistry facilitates life
• Hydrogen bond = oxygen from one water molecule attracts hydrogen atoms of another
• Water’s strong cohesion allows transport of nutrients and waste
• Water absorbs heat with only small changes in its temperature- Which stabilizes water,
organisms, and climate
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Additional properties of water
• Less dense ice floats on liquid water- Insulating lakes and ponds in winter
• Water dissolves other molecules that are vital for life
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Hydrogen ions determine acidity
• The pH scale quantifies the acidity of solutions- Ranges from 0 to 14
• Acidic solutions: pH < 7 • Basic solutions: pH > 7 • Neutral solutions: pH = 7 • A substance with pH of 6
contains 10 times as many hydrogen ions as a substance with pH of 7
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Matter is composed of compounds
• Organic compounds = carbon (and hydrogen) atoms joined by bonds and may include other elements - Such as nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and phosphorus
• Inorganic compounds = lack the carbon–carbon bond• Polymers = long chains of carbon molecules
- The building blocks of life
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Hydrocarbons
• Hydrocarbons = contain only carbon and hydrogen- The simplest hydrocarbon is methane (natural gas)- Hydrocarbons can be a gas, liquid, or solid
• Fossil fuels consist of hydrocarbons- Some can be harmful to wildlife
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Macromolecules: building blocks of life
• Macromolecules = large-sized molecules• Three types of polymers are essential to life
- Proteins- Nucleic acids- Carbohydrates
• Lipids are not polymers, but are also essential- Fats, oil, waxes
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Proteins: long chains of amino acids
• Produce tissues, provide structural support, store energy, transport material
• Animals use proteins to generate skin, hair, muscles, and tendons
• Some are components of the immune system or hormones
• They can serve as enzymes = molecules that promote chemical reactions
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Nucleic acids direct protein production
• Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) carry hereditary information of organisms
• Nucleic acids = long chains of nucleotides that contain sugar, phosphate,and a nitrogen base
• Genes = regions of DNA that code for proteins that perform certain functions
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Carbohydrates and lipids
• Carbohydrates = atoms of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
• Sugars = simple carbohydrates of 3–7 carbons- Glucose = provides energy for cells
• Complex carbohydrates build structures and store energy- Starch = stores energy in plants- Animals eat plants to get starch- Chitin = forms shells of insects and crustaceans- Cellulose = in cell walls of plants
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
We create synthetic polymers
• Plastics = synthetic (human-made) polymers- Best known by their brand names (Nylon, Teflon,
Kevlar)• Many are derived from petroleum hydrocarbons• Valuable because they resist chemical breakdown• But they cause long-lasting waste and pollution
- Wildlife and health problems, water quality issues, harmful to marine animals, waste issues
• We must design less-polluting substances and increase recycling
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Energy fundamentals
• Energy = the capacity to change the position, physical composition, or temperature of matter- Involved in physical, chemical, biological processes
• Potential energy = energy of position- Nuclear, mechanical energy
• Kinetic energy = energy of motion- Thermal, light, sound, electrical, subatomic
particles• Chemical energy = potential energy held in the bonds
between atoms
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Potential vs. kinetic energy
Changing potential energy into kinetic energy produces motion, action, and heat
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Energy is conserved but changes in quality
• First law of thermodynamics = energy can change forms, but cannot be created or destroyed
• Second law of thermodynamics = energy changes from a more-ordered to a less-ordered state- Entropy = an increasing state of disorder
• Inputting energy from outside the system increases order
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People harness energy
• An energy source’s nature determines how easily energy can be harnessed- Fossil fuels provide lots of efficient energy - Sunlight is spread out and difficult to harness
• Energy conversion efficiency = the ratio of useful energy output to the amount needing to be input- Only 16% of the energy released is used to power
the automobile – the rest is lost as heat- 5% of a lightbulb’s energy is converted to light- Geothermal’s 7–15% efficiency is not bad
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The sun’s energy powers life
• The sun releases radiation from the electromagnetic spectrum- Some is visible light
• Solar energy drives weather and climate, and powers plant growth
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Using solar radiation to produce food
• Autotrophs (primary producers) = organisms that produce their own food- Green plants, algae,
cyanobacteria• Photosynthesis = the process of
turning the sun’s diffuse light energy into concentrated chemical energy- Sunlight converts carbon
dioxide and water into sugars
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Photosynthesis produces food
• Chloroplasts = organelles where photosynthesis occurs- Contain chlorophyll = a light-
absorbing pigment- Light reaction = splits water
by using solar energy- Calvin cycle = links carbon
atoms from carbon dioxide into sugar (glucose)
6CO2 + 6H2O + the sun’s energy C6H12O6 (sugar) + 6O2
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Cellular respiration releases chemical energy
• It occurs in all living things• Organisms use chemical energy from photosynthesis• Heterotrophs = organisms that gain energy by
feeding on others- Animals, fungi, microbes- The energy is used for cellular tasks
C6H12O6 (sugar) + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy
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Geothermal energy powers Earth’s systems
• Other sources of energy include:- The moon’s gravitational pull- Geothermal heat powered by
radioactivity• Radioisotopes deep in the planet
heat inner Earth• Heated magma erupts from
volcanoes- Drives plate tectonics- Warm water can create geysers
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Geothermal energy powers biological communities• Hydrothermal vents = host
communities that thrive in high temperature and pressure- Lack of sun prevents
photosynthesis • Chemosynthesis = uses
energy in hydrogen sulfideto produce sugar
6CO2 + 6H2O + 3H2S C6H12O6 (sugar) + 3H2SO4
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Geology
• Physical processes at and below the Earth:- Shape the landscape- Lay the foundation for environmental systems and
life- Provide energy from fossil fuels and geothermal
sources• Geology = the study of Earth’s physical features,
processes, and history- A human lifetime is just the blink of an eye in
geologic time
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Our plant consists of layers
• Core = solid iron in the center- Molten iron in the outer core
• Mantle = less dense, elastic rock- Aesthenosphere: very soft or
melted rock- Area of geothermal energy
• Crust = the thin, brittle, low-density layer of rock
• Lithosphere = the uppermost mantle and the crust
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Plate tectonics
• Plate tectonics = movement of lithospheric plates- Heat from Earth’s inner layers drives convection
currents- Pushing the mantle’s soft rock up (as it warms) and
down (as it cools) like a conveyor belt- The lithosphere is dragged along with the mantle- Continents have combined, separated, and
recombined over millions of years• Pangaea = all landmasses were joined into 1
supercontinent 225 million years ago
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The Earth has 15 major tectonic plates
Movement of these plates influences climate and evolution
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Earth’s crust is created and destroyed• Divergent plate boundaries
- Magma rises to the surface - Pushing plates apart- Creating new crust- Has volcanoes and
hydrothermal vents• Transform plate boundaries
- Two plates meet, slipping and grinding
- Friction spawns earthquakes along strike-slip faults
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Tectonic plates can collide
• Convergent plate boundaries = where plates collide• Subduction = the oceanic plate slides beneath
continental crust (e.g. the Cascades, Andes Mountains)- Magma erupts through the surface in volcanoes
• Continental collision = two plates of continental crust collide- Built the Himalaya and Appalachian Mountains
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Plate tectonics produces Earth’s landforms
• Tectonics builds mountains- Shapes the geography of oceans, islands, and
continents- Gives rise to earthquakes and volcanoes- Determines locations of geothermal energy sources
• Topography created by tectonics shapes climate- Altering patterns of rain, wind, currents, heating,
cooling- Thereby affecting the locations of biomes- Influencing where animals and plants live
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The rock cycle
• Rock cycle = the heating, melting, cooling, breaking, and reassembling of rocks and minerals
• Rock = any solid aggregation of minerals• Mineral = any element or inorganic compound
- Has a crystal structure, specific chemical composition, and distinct physical properties
• Rocks help determine soil characteristics- Which influences the region’s plants community
• Helps us appreciate the formation and conservation of soils, minerals, fossil fuels, and other natural resources
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Igneous rock
• Magma = molten, liquid rock • Lava = magma released from the
lithosphere • Igneous rock = forms when
magma cools• Intrusive igneous rock = magma
that cools slowly below Earth’s surface (e.g. granite)
• Extrusive igneous rock = magma ejected from a volcano (e.g. basalt)
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Sedimentary rock
• Sediments = rock particles blown by wind or washed away by water
• Sedimentary rock = sediments are compacted or cemented (dissolved minerals crystallize and bind together)- Sandstone, limestone, shale
• Lithification = formation of rock (and fossils) through compaction and crystallization
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Metamorphic rock
• Metamorphic rock = great heat or pressure on a rock changes its form
• High temperature reshapes crystals - Changing rock’s appearance
and physical properties• Marble = heated and
pressurized limestone • Slate = heated and pressurized
shale
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Geologic and natural hazards
• Some consequences of plate tectonics are hazardous• Plate boundaries closely match the circum-Pacific belt
- An arc of subduction zones and fault systems- Has 90% of earthquakes and 50% of volcanoes
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Earthquakes result from movement
• Earthquake = a release of energy (pressure) along plate boundaries and faults
• Can be caused by enhanced geothermal systems- Drill deep into rock, fracture it- Pump water in to heat, then
extract it• Can do tremendous damage to life
and propertyBuildings can bebuilt or retrofittedto decrease damage
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Volcanoes• Volcano= molten rock, hot gas, or
ash erupts through Earth’s surface- Cooling and creating a
mountain• In rift valleys, ocean ridges,
subduction zones, or hotspots (holes in the crust)
• Lava can flow slowly or erupt suddenly
• Pyroclastic flow: fast-moving cloud of gas, ash, and rock - Buried Pompeii in A.D. 79
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Volcanoes have environmental effects
• Ash blocks sunlight• Sulfur emissions lead to sulfuric acid
- Blocking radiation and cooling the atmosphere• Large eruptions can decrease temperatures worldwide
- Mount Tambora’s eruption caused the 1816 “year without a summer”
• Yellowstone National Park is an ancient supervolcano- Past eruptions were so massive they covered much
of North America in ash- The region is still geologically active
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Landslides are a form of mass wasting• Landslide = a severe, sudden mass wasting
- Large amounts of rock or soil collapse and flow downhill
• Mass wasting = the downslope movement of soil and rock due to gravity- Rains saturate soils and trigger mudslides- Erodes unstable hillsides and damages property- Caused by humans when soil is loosened or exposed
• Lahars = extremely dangerous mudslides - Caused when volcanic eruptions melt snow- Huge volumes of mud race downhill
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Tsunamis
• Tsunami = huge volumes of water are displaced by:- Earthquakes, volcanoes, landslides
• Can travel thousands of miles across oceans• Coral reefs, coastal forests, and wetlands are damaged
- Saltwater contamination makes it hard to restore them
• Agencies and nations have increased efforts to give residents advance warning of approaching tsunamis- Preserving coral reefs and mangrove forests
decreases the wave energy of tsunamis
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One dangerous tsunami
• On December 26, 2004 an earthquake off Sumatra triggered a massive tsunami that hit Indonesia, Thailand, Sri Lanka, India, and African countries- Killed 228,000 and displaced 1–2 million more
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We can worsen impacts of natural hazards
• We face and affect other natural hazards: floods, coastal erosion, wildfire, tornadoes, and hurricanes
• Overpopulation: people must live in susceptible areas• We choose to live in attractive but vulnerable areas
(beaches, mountains)• Engineered landscapes increase frequency or severity of
hazards (damming rivers, suppressing fire, mining)• Changing climate through greenhouse gases changes
rainfall patterns, increases drought, fire, flooding, storms
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We can mitigate impacts of natural hazards
• We can decrease impacts of hazards through technology, engineering, and policy- Informed by geology and ecology
• Building earthquake-resistant structures• Designing early warning systems (tsunamis, volcanoes)• Preserving reefs and shorelines (tsunamis, erosion)• Better forestry, agriculture, mining (mass wasting)• Regulations, building codes, insurance incentives
discourage developing in vulnerable areas• Mitigating climate change may reduce natural hazards
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Conclusion
• Solving environmental problems depends on understanding matter, chemistry, and energy
• Physical processes of geology (e.g. plate tectonics, the rock cycle) are centrally important- They shape terrain and form the foundation of
living system• Geologic processes can threaten us• Matter, energy, and geology are tied to every
significant process in environmental science
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QUESTION: Review
Which of the following parts of an atom has a positive charge?
a) Protonb) Neutronc) Electrond) Hydrogen
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QUESTION: Review
Isotopes are:a) Atoms that share electronsb) The result of an atom transferring an electron to
another atomc) Atoms of the same element but with a different
number of neutrons d) Where an atom has lost a neutron
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QUESTION: Review
Which of the following is NOT a reason water is essential for life?
a) Water can absorb large amounts of heat without changing temperature.
b) Waste and nutrients can be transported in water.c) Ice floats on liquid water, so fish survive cold
winters.d) Water usually cannot dissolve other molecules, so
it stays pure.
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QUESTION: Review
Which of the following is NOT a carbohydrate?a) Chitinb) Starchesc) Glucosed) They are all carbohydrates
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QUESTION: Review
According to the first law of thermodynamics:a) Energy cannot be created or destroyed b) Things tend to move toward a more disorderly statec) Matter can be created, but not energyd) Kinetic energy is the most efficient source of energy
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QUESTION: Review
Which of the following organisms is a heterotroph?a) Roseb) Pine treec) Deep-sea tubewormd) None of these
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QUESTION: Review
Which action created the Himalaya Mountains?a) Divergent plate boundariesb) Continental collisionc) Transform plate boundariesd) A strike-slip fault
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QUESTION: Review
Which type of rock is formed through compaction or cementation?
a) Igneous rockb) Metamorphic rockc) Sedimentary rockd) Minerals
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QUESTION: Review
Which natural disaster is defined by ‘a severe, sudden mass wasting’?
a) An earthquakeb) A volcanoc) A landslided) A tsunami
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QUESTION: Weighing the Issues
Should people be allowed to live in areas that have a high chance of a natural disaster (e.g. earthquake, tsunami)?
a) Yes, people should be allowed to live anywhere they want.
b) Yes, but they should be forced to carry heavy insurance.
c) No, some areas should not be lived in.
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QUESTION: Interpreting Graphs and Data
A molecule of the hydrocarbon naphthalene contains:
a) 10 carbon atoms and 8 hydrogen atoms
b) 8 carbon molecules and 10 hydrogen enzymes
c) Carbon and hydrogen DNA
d) Two different ions